“About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

“About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism” by Natalja Zamkovaya first appeared in The Russian Academic Journal, Vol. 29, #3 (2014) and explores the complexities of colonial racism, its evolution into neo-racism, and its implications in modern society. The article situates racism as a central factor in language-cultural discrimination, emphasizing its transformation from overt colonial oppression to subtler, institutionalized forms of exclusion. Zamkovaya integrates the theoretical insights of Étienne Balibar and V. Malahov, highlighting how neo-racism operates through cultural differentiation rather than biological inferiority. The study critically examines racism’s structural mechanisms, such as the fixation of migrants as racialized subjects and the role of the state in perpetuating exclusion through legislation and social institutions. Malahov’s analysis, which distinguishes Russian racism from its Western counterparts by its emphasis on “civilization” rather than “blood,” aligns with Balibar’s concept of “differentiation racism,” wherein cultural distinctions serve as a basis for exclusion. Additionally, the work examines multiculturalism’s paradoxical role in sustaining racial hierarchies, echoing Slavoj Žižek’s assertion that multiculturalism functions as a veiled form of racism by reinforcing fixed cultural identities. The article’s significance in literary theory and social thought lies in its interrogation of the ideological and institutional foundations of racism, contributing to discussions on nationalism, migration, and the intersection of cultural and ethnic identity. By juxtaposing Western and post-Soviet perspectives, Zamkovaya offers a nuanced understanding of how colonial and postcolonial racism persist in contemporary society, making her work a valuable resource for scholars studying race, identity, and globalization.

Summary of “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

• Colonial Racism and Neo-Racism
  Zamkovaya explores the transformation of traditional “colonial racism” into modern “neo-racism” or “postcolonial racism,” which operates through more subtle discrimination strategies (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
• Key Theoretical Foundations
  • Étienne Balibar’s theory is central to understanding neo-racism, emphasizing “differentiation racism,” which focuses on cultural differences rather than biological inferiority (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30).
  • Russian scholar V. Malahov contributes to the discussion by analyzing racism in Russia, emphasizing that it is based on “civilization arguments” rather than “blood arguments” (Malahov, 2007, p. 86).
• Ethnicity and National Community Formation
  • The ethnic element plays a role in national identity, including the potential reduction of ethnos into a “quasi-natural community” (Malahov, 2007, p. 23).
  • Racism is fundamentally linked to the differentiation between groups, categorizing the “Stranger” as an object of discrimination (Malahov, 2007, p. 82).
• Racism as a Mechanism of Social Exclusion
  • Racism is a “strategy of removal” used to exclude certain groups from social integration (Malahov, 2007, p. 84).
  • This exclusion is supported by ideological and institutional mechanisms, such as legislation and state-sponsored social organizations (Malahov, 2007, p. 104).
• Migration and Neo-Racism
  • The discourse of race has shifted to the category of migration, with migrants replacing traditional racial categories in discrimination narratives (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30).
  • Malahov argues that migration issues are reframed as cultural conflicts, distancing them from socioeconomic concerns (Malahov, 2007, p. 93).
• Multiculturalism as a Modern Form of Racism
  • While multiculturalism is often viewed as an anti-racist ideology, it paradoxically reinforces racism by emphasizing cultural “Difference” (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110).
  • Malahov describes multiculturalism as a “variety of minor despotisms,” leading to the creation of new cultural hierarchies (Malahov, 2007, p. 153).
• Comparative Analysis: Russia vs. Germany
  • Malahov compares racism in Russia and Germany, highlighting that racism in Russia is more deeply embedded in national identity discourse (Malahov, 2007, p. 113).
  • In Germany, racism is mitigated by European integration, whereas in Russia, it is exacerbated by the dominance of ethnic nationalism (Malahov, 2007, p. 113).
• Protective Nationalism vs. Expansionist Nationalism
  • Some forms of nationalism, such as “protective nationalism,” do not necessarily lead to racism (Thomson, 2008, p. 32).
  • V. Zhabotinskyi’s nationalism exemplifies an identity-based movement that resists colonial oppression without engaging in racial segregation (Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66).
• Conclusion: Rethinking Racism and Nationalism
  • Zamkovaya concludes that racism is an autonomous phenomenon that does not always accompany nationalism, challenging conventional narratives (Arendt, 1951, p. 206).
  • The study underscores the importance of distinguishing between ethnic identity and racial discrimination in contemporary discourse on nationalism and migration (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference
Colonial Racism	Traditional form of racism based on overt discrimination, often tied to imperial rule and biological inferiority.	Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65
Neo-Racism / Postcolonial Racism	A modern form of racism that focuses on cultural differentiation rather than biological inferiority. It operates through implicit discrimination strategies.	Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30; Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65
Differentiation Racism	A type of racism where exclusion is based on cultural differences rather than biological or ethnic inferiority.	Malahov, 2007, p. 82
Ethnic Substrate	The foundational ethnic identity that underlies racial differentiation and determines social hierarchies.	Malahov, 2007, p. 23
Quasi-Natural Community	The idea that ethnic groups function as “natural” communities, despite being socially constructed.	Malahov, 2007, p. 23
Civilization Racism	A variant of racism that does not rely on race or biology but rather on the perceived superiority of one civilization over another. This is particularly relevant in the Russian context.	Malahov, 2007, p. 86
Meta-Racism	A form of racism that functions at a structural level, operating through institutions rather than direct discrimination.	Malahov, 2007, p. 32
Migration as a Substitute for Race	The concept that in modern racism, migrants have replaced traditional racial categories as the primary target of discrimination.	Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30
Cultural Racism	A form of racism that emphasizes cultural differences as a justification for exclusion, rather than biological characteristics.	Freud (as cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)
Multiculturalism as a Form of Racism	The paradox that multiculturalism, while ostensibly anti-racist, reinforces racial divisions by emphasizing cultural “Difference.”	Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110
Protective Nationalism	A form of nationalism that seeks to preserve a national identity without engaging in racial discrimination.	Thomson, 2008, p. 32
Expansionist Nationalism	A type of nationalism that seeks to expand national identity at the expense of other groups, often associated with colonialism.	Malahov, 2007, p. 113
Double Identity in Nationalism	The idea that individuals can hold multiple national identities simultaneously, challenging the assumption of exclusive national loyalty.	Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66
Cultural Equilibrium	A concept in neo-racism where societal boundaries function as “prevention measures” to maintain cultural stability.	Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30
Ethnos Reduction	The process of reducing ethnicity to a social construct that serves nationalistic or exclusionary purposes.	Malahov, 2007, p. 23
Stranger/Alien as an Object of Racism	The idea that racism is fundamentally about categorizing certain people as outsiders or threats.	Malahov, 2007, p. 82
Nationalism without Racism	The possibility of a nationalist ideology that does not rely on racial segregation or exclusion.	Arendt, 1951, p. 206

Contribution of “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

• The article builds on postcolonial theory by analyzing how racism evolved from colonial oppression to cultural differentiation in the modern world (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
• The concept of neo-racism, which replaces biological racism with cultural exclusion, is aligned with Edward Said’s Orientalism, where the “Other” is categorized as culturally inferior rather than racially subordinate (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30).
• Zamkovaya’s discussion of “Arabian phobia” and its connection to Islam as a cultural construct mirrors postcolonial critiques of racialization through religion (Malahov, 2007, p. 32).

2. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

• The article contributes to Critical Race Theory by emphasizing how legal and social institutions perpetuate racism through the category of migration (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67).
• Malahov’s argument that Russian racism is based on a “civilization argument” rather than race reflects CRT’s focus on structural and systemic racism rather than individual prejudice (Malahov, 2007, p. 86).
• The study’s examination of racialized legislation and social policies aligns with CRT’s assertion that racism is embedded in law and governance (Malahov, 2007, p. 104).

3. Multiculturalism and Literary Representation

• The paradox of multiculturalism as a disguised form of racism connects to literary studies on identity politics and representation (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110).
• The discussion of how multiculturalism maintains “fixed cultural identities” contributes to debates on essentialism vs. constructivism in identity politics (Malahov, 2007, p. 153).
• J. Serl’s critique of representation in education—that literature is reduced to identity-based selections rather than aesthetic or intellectual value—supports concerns in literary canon debates (Serl, 2002, p. 38).

4. Nationalism and Literature

• The analysis of protective nationalism vs. expansionist nationalism contributes to theories on national literature and identity formation (Thomson, 2008, p. 32).
• V. Zhabotinskyi’s nationalism, which respects cultural pluralism, supports cultural pluralism theory in literary discourse (Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66).
• The study’s claim that national consciousness does not always require racial exclusion challenges traditional nationalist narratives in literary theory (Arendt, 1951, p. 206).

5. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

• Zamkovaya references Freudian concepts such as “concentration” to explain how cultural racism reintegrates biological racism into discourse, paralleling psychoanalytic interpretations of racial and cultural identity (Freud as cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
• The fear of migrant invasion as a psychological mechanism aligns with Lacanian psychoanalysis, where the “Other” represents a threat to self-identity (Malahov, 2007, p. 93).

6. Discourse Analysis and Ideology in Literature

• The study of racism as a discourse of power and exclusion contributes to Michel Foucault’s discourse theory, demonstrating how racial hierarchies are maintained through language and institutional narratives (Malahov, 2007, p. 82).
• The discussion of “recoding the problem of social cooperation into cultural disposition” supports Foucault’s view that social problems are reframed ideologically to serve dominant power structures (Malahov, 2007, p. 93).

Examples of Critiques Through “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

Literary Work	Critique Based on Zamkovaya’s Theories	Key Concepts from Zamkovaya
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness	The novel’s portrayal of Africa and its inhabitants aligns with colonial racism, depicting Africans as “savages” and Europe as the superior civilization. Zamkovaya’s concept of civilization racism (Malahov, 2007, p. 86) can be applied to show how the West justifies colonial domination not through race, but through cultural superiority.	Colonial Racism, Civilization Racism, Ethnos Reduction (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65; Malahov, 2007, p. 23)
Chinua Achebe – Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s novel challenges neo-racism by depicting Igbo society’s complexity, contradicting colonial narratives. The European characters in the novel display differentiation racism (Malahov, 2007, p. 82), treating the Igbo people as culturally inferior rather than biologically lesser.	Neo-Racism, Differentiation Racism, Cultural Racism (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30; Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)
J.M. Coetzee – Disgrace	The post-apartheid tensions in Disgrace reflect migration as a substitute for race (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30), where white South Africans experience the shift in power dynamics and struggle with postcolonial racism. The novel illustrates the tension between protective nationalism and expansionist nationalism (Thomson, 2008, p. 32; Malahov, 2007, p. 113).	Postcolonial Racism, Migration as a Substitute for Race, Nationalism Without Racism (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65; Arendt, 1951, p. 206)
Toni Morrison – Beloved	The novel explores racial trauma and historical memory, aligning with Zamkovaya’s idea that racism is a mechanism of removal (Malahov, 2007, p. 84). The ghosts of slavery persist in the characters’ consciousness, reflecting the discourse of exclusion analyzed in Zamkovaya’s work.	Racism as a Mechanism of Removal, Discourse Analysis, Cultural Memory (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65; Malahov, 2007, p. 82)

Criticism Against “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

Representative Quotations from “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation & Theoretical Perspective
1. “Racism is one of the strategies of removal. The mechanism of removal is a fundamental social mechanism, and removal should underline the definite ideological background.” (Malahov, 2007, p. 84, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)	This statement aligns with Critical Race Theory (CRT), which examines how racial exclusion is embedded in social structures. It suggests that racism functions as a systematic exclusionary mechanism, ensuring marginalized groups remain outside dominant societal institutions.
2. “Using migration category, which substitutes the notion of race, but on the other hand — leads to the decomposition of class consciousness.” (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This reflects neo-racism or cultural racism, where discrimination shifts from biological justifications to cultural ones. It also connects with Marxist theory, suggesting that focusing on cultural differences among migrants disrupts class solidarity.
3. “The meaning of Russian racism is based not on the ‘blood argument’ but on the ‘civilization argument.'” (Malahov, 2007, p. 86, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)	This reinforces civilization racism, a concept where superiority is justified based on cultural development rather than race. It connects to Edward Said’s Orientalism, where the West justifies dominance over non-Western societies by portraying them as culturally inferior.
4. “Differentiation racism, meta racism, and second position racism are typical features of neo-racism and modified colonial principle.” (Malahov, 2007, p. 32, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This highlights the evolution of racism, where modern discrimination operates through differentiation rather than overt oppression. It relates to postcolonial theory, showing how racism adapts under new socio-political conditions.
5. “Multiculturalism is the disavowed, transformed self-referent form of racism, fixed distant racism, which respects the identity of the ‘Difference’ but only at a distance.” (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	Slavoj Žižek critiques multiculturalism as a subtle form of exclusion, where cultural differences are acknowledged but kept separate. This aligns with cultural relativism debates in postmodern theory.
6. “Arabian phobia is based upon a world outlook not compliant with the European one, forming a typical mixture of ‘Arabian ethnos’ with Islamic religion, which means — with cultural phenomenon.” (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)	This connects with Islamophobia as a form of cultural racism, where entire ethnic groups are defined by religious identity. It mirrors Balibar’s notion that modern racism operates through cultural markers rather than biological differences.
7. “The process of making migration ethnic results in its consideration in the field of ethnic-national discourse.” (Malahov, 2007, p. 104, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This relates to Benedict Anderson’s concept of imagined communities, showing how migrant identities are racialized within nationalist discourses. Migration becomes a racial category, reinforcing national boundaries.
8. “Protective nationalism characterizes such notions, created by common memory, which feel danger for themselves—either due to their small numbers or threats from expansive neighbors.” (Thomson, 2008, p. 32, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This introduces protective nationalism, which contrasts with expansionist nationalism. It links to Herder’s romantic nationalism, where national identity is preserved through cultural unity rather than conquest.
9. “For the one who is Ukrainian by nationality, all the other connections with the tribe, race, etc., may have only secondary meaning: the choice of culture is identified neither by ‘race’ nor by ‘tribe’ but by recognizing national affiliation.” (Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This challenges ethno-nationalist perspectives, suggesting that nationalism can exist independently of racial identity. It aligns with civic nationalism, where identity is defined by cultural and political factors rather than ethnicity.
10. “Racism from the very beginning has been contradicting national borders, no matter on what criteria it’s been distinguished—geographical, lingual, ethnographical or any other.” (Arendt, 1951, p. 206, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	Hannah Arendt’s perspective supports the argument that racism transcends nationalism, often operating as a global ideological system. This aligns with globalization studies, suggesting racism persists even as borders become fluid.

Suggested Readings: “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

1. Zamkovaya, Natalja. “About Some Aspects of” Colonial Racism”.” Российский академический журнал 29.3 (2014): 65-67.
2. Bassil, N. Noah. “The Legacy of Colonial Racism in Africa.” AQ: Australian Quarterly, vol. 77, no. 4, 2005, pp. 27–40. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20638352. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.
3. “From Colonialism to Racism.” Journal of Palestine Studies, vol. 10, no. 4, 1981, pp. 170–78. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2536403. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.
4. Paradies, Yin. “Colonisation, Racism and Indigenous Health.” Journal of Population Research, vol. 33, no. 1, 2016, pp. 83–96. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43919989. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.