Introduction: “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi
“After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi first appeared in 2008 in the South Atlantic Quarterly journal. This essay holds great importance in literature and literary theory due to its exploration of the often-overlooked antimaterialist currents within early 20th-century socialist thought. Gandhi’s analysis challenges the dominant narratives that associate socialism exclusively with materialism, offering a nuanced understanding of the ethical and spiritual dimensions of these ideologies. Her work has contributed to a broader reevaluation of socialist thought and its potential for addressing contemporary social and political issues.
Summary of “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi
- Cultural Shifts in Socialist Antimaterialism: Leela Gandhi’s article examines the rise of antimaterialism in early 20th-century socialist thought as a reaction to capitalist imperialism. This antimaterialism opposed economicism, profit, and material wealth, promoting instead abstract thinking and metaphysical speculation.
- Division in Antimaterialist Discourse: Socialist antimaterialism was internally divided into two camps: “phusikaphobia” (fear of materialism and possessions) and “philophusikia” (love for the alienated objects of possession). The former supported renunciation of material wealth, while the latter advocated for a relationship with material things, which was critical of non-possessive virtue.
- Impact of Belle Époque Socialist Movements: Gandhi traces the antimaterialist movements of French syndicalism and British guild socialism, with figures like Georges Sorel and the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) challenging capitalist affluence and pushing for radical worker-driven change.
- Critique of Possession and Non-Possession: The article explores how antimaterialist movements framed the debate on possession, particularly how some socialist factions saw virtue in renouncing not just material goods but also the self-righteousness associated with non-possession.
- Metaphysical and Ethical Conflicts: Gandhi contrasts the metaphysical underpinnings of phusikaphobia (neo-idealism) and philophusikia (neo-empiricism). The former sought to separate the human subject from material reality, while the latter emphasized a democratic and inclusive relationship with the material world.
- Sociopolitical Ramifications: Gandhi argues that the discourse on antimaterialism influenced political ideologies and movements, particularly the tendency towards totalitarianism or collectivism within socialist circles. Philophusikia, in its critique of the virtue of non-possession, is seen as a potential foundation for an anti-totalitarian democratic politics.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi
| Literary Term/Concept | Description |
| Antimaterialism | A critique of materialism, profit, and economic wealth, emphasizing abstract thought and metaphysical reflection, particularly in the context of early 20th-century socialism. |
| Phusikaphobia | Fear or rejection of the material world and physical possessions, seen as a contaminating influence on human virtue and morality. |
| Philophusikia | Love or appreciation for material objects, particularly alienated possessions, coupled with a critique of self-righteous non-possession. |
| Neo-Idealism | A philosophical position that focuses on the primacy of ideas over material reality, often linked to metaphysical or idealist traditions. |
| Neo-Empiricism | A philosophical position that emphasizes experience and empirical observation, with a focus on material existence, but often seeking a deeper, metaphysical meaning in it. |
| Syndicalism | A radical labor movement advocating direct action by workers, particularly strikes, as a means to dismantle capitalist structures. |
| Guild Socialism | A British socialist movement focused on the rights of workers to control production through guilds, emphasizing creativity and moral well-being over material gain. |
| Non-Possession | The idea of renouncing material possessions, often as a moral or ethical stance within antimaterialist socialist ideologies. |
| Virtue Ethics | An ethical framework that emphasizes moral character and virtues over rules or consequences, central to debates on possession and non-possession in socialist antimaterialism. |
| Metaphysical Empiricism | An approach to metaphysics that combines empirical observation with philosophical inquiry, particularly in the context of understanding material existence. |
Contribution of “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories
- Contribution: Gandhi explores the intersections of antimaterialism with imperialism, focusing on how early 20th-century socialist thought opposed imperial capitalist materialism. By examining both Western and non-Western responses to capitalism, the article contributes to understanding the dynamics between empire and resistance.
- Reference: Gandhi’s claim that antimaterialism “emerged as the governing idiolect of insurgency, whether radical or conservative, Western or non-Western” shows her interest in how colonized and imperial subjects articulated resistance to capitalist modernity.
- Contribution: The article contributes to Marxist criticism by highlighting how early socialist thinkers critiqued materialism, particularly economicism, as the primary basis for class struggle. It examines the transition in socialist thought from a focus on material wealth to antimaterialist ethics, which contrasts with traditional Marxist materialism.
- Reference: The discussion of syndicalism and guild socialism, particularly Sorel’s critique of “economicism as the only basis for class unity,” offers a nuanced critique of traditional Marxist materialism, advancing Marxist criticism by focusing on ethics over economics.
3. Ethical Criticism
- Contribution: Gandhi’s discussion of virtue ethics within socialist antimaterialism offers a significant contribution to ethical criticism, particularly through her exploration of how early 20th-century socialist thinkers constructed moral frameworks around non-possession and antimaterialism. She contrasts this with capitalist ethics based on consumption.
- Reference: The examination of “virtue ethics” and the moral superiority associated with renunciation in socialist thought contributes to ethical criticism by exploring how values like humility and selflessness were embedded in socialist ethics.
- Contribution: The article’s analysis of the cultural manifestations of antimaterialism, such as how materialism was rejected in favor of abstract thought and metaphysical speculation, contributes to cultural studies by exploring how socialist movements shaped cultural expressions in the early 20th century. The interplay between culture, economics, and politics is central to the article.
- Reference: The article’s examination of figures like Henri Bergson and George Sorel, along with movements like French syndicalism and British guild socialism, illustrates how antimaterialism influenced not only political but also cultural practices during the Belle Époque.
5. Metaphysical Philosophy in Literary Theory
- Contribution: Gandhi’s exploration of metaphysical empiricism versus neo-idealism in socialist thought contributes to the metaphysical aspects of literary theory by interrogating the relationship between material reality and abstract philosophy. She engages with the metaphysical concerns of socialist antimaterialism, focusing on abstract thinking and the critique of material possession.
- Reference: The contrast between “phusikaphobia” (rejection of material) and “philophusikia” (love for material things) reflects metaphysical conflicts within socialist thought, emphasizing a broader philosophical discourse on the role of materialism in human existence.
6. Political Philosophy in Literary Theory
- Contribution: Gandhi contributes to political philosophy in literary theory by addressing the ethical and political dimensions of socialist antimaterialism. She explores the political implications of antimaterialist thought, particularly its contributions to democratic and anti-totalitarian politics, which resonates with contemporary debates in political philosophy.
- Reference: Gandhi discusses whether the “phusikaphilic critique of non-possessive virtue” could supply the “rudiments of a recuperable anti-totalitarian politics,” linking antimaterialist ethics to broader political questions about democracy and collectivism.
- Contribution: Though the article does not focus exclusively on gender, Gandhi’s analysis of socialist antimaterialism indirectly contributes to feminist literary theory by critiquing the patriarchal dimensions of capitalism and materialism. The emphasis on egalitarianism and non-possession resonates with feminist concerns about equity and the critique of commodification.
- Reference: The article’s examination of “the man without properties” versus “the man of exemplary properties” implicitly critiques traditional masculine norms of accumulation and possession, opening a space for feminist reinterpretation.
- Contribution: Gandhi’s deconstruction of socialist antimaterialism, especially the dualism between phusikaphobia and philophusikia, contributes to post-structuralist literary theory by emphasizing the instability of materialist and antimaterialist categories. Her critique shows how these discourses resist fixed meanings and suggests a play of contradictions within socialist thought.
- Reference: The division between the metaphysical and material in socialist antimaterialism, particularly in Gandhi’s analysis of how the discourse of non-possession is “internally divided,” engages with post-structuralist concerns about the instability of meaning and binary oppositions.
- Contribution: Gandhi’s historical approach to the development of antimaterialism contributes to historical materialism by tracing how socialist movements emerged in response to material conditions shaped by imperial capitalism. She situates antimaterialist discourses within the historical context of the Belle Époque and World War I, showing how material forces influenced ideological shifts.
- Reference: The claim that antimaterialism arose “partly in reaction against the unseemly scramble for empire between competing national economies” reflects a historical materialist approach, linking ideological developments to material and economic conditions.
Examples of Critiques Through “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi
| Literary Work | Critique Using “After Virtue” | Reference from Gandhi’s Article |
| George Orwell’s 1984 | Orwell’s critique of totalitarianism can be deepened using Gandhi’s framework, particularly through the idea of “phusikaphobia” and the rejection of material goods. The Party’s suppression of personal desire mirrors the antimaterialist tendencies described by Gandhi, where renunciation of possessions is tied to the accumulation of moral and political authority. | Gandhi’s analysis of how phusikaphobia seeks to “quarantine the human subject from the threatening contagion of matter” (p. 414) parallels Orwell’s totalitarian control of individuals. |
| Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness | Conrad’s depiction of European imperialism’s material excess and moral decay is critiqued through the lens of antimaterialism. The exploitative nature of colonialism aligns with Gandhi’s description of imperial-capitalist materialism, and the ethical rejection of such practices can be seen as a form of antimaterialist critique. | Gandhi critiques capitalist imperialism as a “monstrous shop replete with decadent luxuries” (p. 422), a theme echoed in Heart of Darkness’s depiction of colonial exploitation. |
| F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby | Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and material excess is contrasted with Gandhi’s critique of materialism in capitalist societies. Gatsby’s tragic end reflects the antimaterialist notion that the accumulation of wealth leads to moral and existential decay, similar to Gandhi’s analysis of belle époque materialism. | Gandhi refers to the “grim symbiosis between material excess and ethical impoverishment” (p. 421), a theme central to Fitzgerald’s critique of the American Dream in The Great Gatsby. |
| Charles Dickens’ Hard Times | Dickens’ portrayal of industrial capitalism’s dehumanization of workers aligns with Gandhi’s critique of economicism. Gandhi’s framework helps critique the reduction of human life to economic utility, as seen in the character of Thomas Gradgrind, who embodies capitalist materialism. | Gandhi critiques the “rhetoric of wealth rather than civilization” (p. 413) that dominates capitalist culture, mirroring Dickens’ depiction of utilitarianism in Hard Times. |
Criticism Against “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi
- Complexity of Language and Ideas: The article’s use of dense theoretical jargon and abstract concepts, such as “phusikaphobia” and “philophusikia,” may alienate readers unfamiliar with the specific philosophical or historical context, making it inaccessible to a broader audience.
- Overemphasis on Metaphysics: Some critics might argue that Gandhi’s focus on metaphysical interpretations of antimaterialism overshadows more practical or materialist readings of socialist movements, potentially downplaying the role of tangible socio-economic factors in early socialist struggles.
- Neglect of Gender and Intersectionality: While the article engages with class and political thought, it largely ignores gender, race, and other intersectional dimensions of antimaterialism, which could have provided a more comprehensive understanding of early 20th-century socialist movements.
- Insufficient Engagement with Contemporary Movements: The focus on belle époque socialism and antimaterialism may be seen as historically limited, with critics arguing that the article does not sufficiently connect its analysis to contemporary socialist or anti-capitalist movements, which could benefit from the insights provided.
- Binary Framing of Antimaterialism: The sharp distinction between “phusikaphobia” (fear of materialism) and “philophusikia” (love for things) might oversimplify the complex and nuanced views of antimaterialism within early socialist movements, potentially neglecting hybrid or alternative interpretations.
- Lack of Practical Applications: Gandhi’s theoretical focus on antimaterialism may be critiqued for not offering clear practical applications or implications for current political and economic systems, leaving readers without concrete takeaways for activism or policy.
Suggested Readings: “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi
- Gandhi, Leela. After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism. ELH, vol. 77, no. 2, 2010, pp. 413-446. Johns Hopkins University Press. https://doi.org/10.1353/elh.0.0089
- Sorel, Georges. Reflections on Violence. Translated by T.E. Hulme, Cambridge University Press, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791110
- Sternhell, Zeev. The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691037713/the-birth-of-fascist-ideology
- Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions. Macmillan, 1899. https://archive.org/details/theoryofleisurec00vebliala
- Tawney, R. H. The Acquisitive Society. Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1920. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.274898
- Musil, Robert. The Man Without Qualities. Translated by Sophie Wilkins and Burton Pike, Vintage, 1996. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/117732/the-man-without-qualities-by-robert-musil/
- Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Empire: 1875-1914. Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1995. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780679721758
Representative Quotations from “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Antimaterialism emerged as the governing idiolect of insurgency, whether radical or conservative, Western or non-Western.” | Gandhi highlights how antimaterialism became a common theme across diverse political movements, both in Western and non-Western contexts, reacting against capitalist materialism. |
| “Economicism was no longer the only basis for class unity, but a denunciation of affluence in all its historical mutations.” | This quotation underscores the shift within socialist movements from economic concerns to moral and ethical critiques of wealth, reflecting the broader antimaterialist discourse. |
| “Phusikaphobia, a type of recoil from the physical world, fashioned a neo-idealist invective against consumption typical to the world of capitalist imperialism.” | Here, Gandhi describes how fear of the material world (“phusikaphobia”) drove socialist antimaterialists to reject consumerism and material wealth, critiquing capitalist excesses. |
| “Philophusikia, on the other hand, lays claim to an updated metaphysical empiricism that critiques both objects of possession and the virtuous subject of non-possession.” | Gandhi contrasts “philophusikia,” which embraces a more nuanced relationship with material possessions, critiquing both the objects and the self-righteous rejection of materialism. |
| “The belle époque socialist antimaterialism was an amalgam of English guild socialism and continental syndicalism.” | This highlights the fusion of different socialist traditions—British guild socialism and French syndicalism—during the belle époque, contributing to the antimaterialist movements. |
| “The threat of antimaterialism emerged not from the consuming rich, but rather from the consuming poor.” | Gandhi argues that critiques of materialism during this period often focused more on the perceived moral dangers of working-class consumption than on the excesses of the wealthy. |
| “Non-possession demands relinquishment not only of material goods but, more significantly, of associated moral goods.” | This quotation suggests that true antimaterialism involves not just rejecting material possessions but also the moral superiority often associated with such renunciations. |
| “Philophusikia manifests a resourceful will toward radical democracy and collectivity.” | Gandhi positions “philophusikia” as a democratic and inclusive form of antimaterialism, one that seeks to foster collective well-being rather than focusing on individual renunciation. |
| “Antimaterialism as a moral discourse directs its ire not just at bourgeois values but also at pecuniary emulation among the laboring classes.” | The article points out how antimaterialist critiques targeted not only the wealthy but also working-class people who aspired to similar levels of consumption and material success. |
| “In metaphysical terms, phusikaphobia asks the human subject to close itself off from the realm of onticity, while philophusikia invites cohabitation with ontic existences.” | Gandhi contrasts two metaphysical positions: “phusikaphobia,” which rejects material reality, and “philophusikia,” which encourages engagement with the material world. |