Introduction: “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
“Apology of Socrates” by Plato first appeared around 399 BC, shortly after Socrates’ trial and execution. As an account of Socrates’ defense speech during his trial, it wasn’t formally “published” in the modern sense. However, it was likely circulated in written form among Plato’s circle and the wider Athenian public. The first translations into other languages, such as Latin, likely occurred during the Hellenistic period (323-146 BC). In terms of literary qualities, the Apology stands as a masterpiece of philosophical dialogue. Plato’s eloquent prose captures Socrates’ distinct voice and thought process, making it a compelling read. The work masterfully blends rhetorical skill with deep philosophical inquiry, exploring themes of justice, virtue, and the nature of the good life. It is a seminal text in Western philosophy, celebrated for its intellectual rigor and enduring relevance.
Summary of “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
Introduction and Initial Defense:
- Socrates addresses the court, explaining his speaking style is plain and unadorned, unlike his accusers who speak eloquently but deceitfully (“nothing true”).
- He stresses the truth of his words, contrasting with his accusers’ lies (“you will hear the whole truth”).
Addressing Old Accusations:
- Socrates confronts long-standing rumors and accusations, identifying his accusers as more dangerous than those currently prosecuting him.
- He describes a misconception of him as a wise man who “investigated all things under the earth” and could argue deceitfully, attributing these traits to his accusers’ early influences on public opinion.
Response to Formal Charges:
- The specific charges against Socrates include corrupting the youth and impiety.
- He defends against the corruption charge by questioning Meletus about who truly benefits the youth, pointing out inconsistencies and lack of genuine concern in Meletus’s arguments.
Defense Against Impeity:
- Socrates argues against the accusation of impiety, asserting he does believe in divine beings, and refutes the idea that he teaches disbelief.
- He questions the logical consistency of Meletus’s claims, using the existence of daimonic and divine entities to counter the accusations of atheism.
Philosophical Arguments and the Role of Wisdom:
- Socrates discusses the oracle at Delphi, which proclaimed him the wisest man, interpreting this as a riddle to expose that true wisdom is knowing one’s ignorance.
- His philosophical mission, endorsed by the oracle, involves challenging supposed wisdom, which has led to his current legal predicament.
The Unexamined Life and Socratic Mission:
- Socrates emphasizes the importance of the examined life and insists on continuing his philosophical inquiries despite the threat of death.
- He rejects exile or ceasing his philosophizing as conditions for his release, valuing integrity over compliance.
Closing Arguments and Sentencing:
- Faced with conviction, Socrates suggests his death will harm Athens more than himself, positioning his life and mission as beneficial to public moral and intellectual improvement.
- He proposes an alternative punishment, maintaining his innocence and offering a pragmatic solution to his financial inability to pay a fine.
Reflections on Death and Philosophy:
- Socrates speculates on death as either a peaceful nonexistence or a chance to continue his inquiries in the afterlife, engaging with historical figures.
- He reassures the jury of the philosophical and moral correctness of his stance, irrespective of the trial’s outcome.
Legacy and Final Requests:
- Socrates asks the jury to treat his sons with the same critical scrutiny he advocated, encouraging them to value virtue over material wealth.
- He concludes with a reflection on the uncertainty of death’s value, leaving the judgment of their respective fates to the gods.
Literary Terms in “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
| Term | Definition | Explanation |
| Allegory | A narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. | Plato’s allegories, like the Allegory of the Cave, use fictional elements to illustrate complex philosophical ideas about reality and knowledge. |
| Analogy | A comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification. | Socrates uses analogies to make abstract philosophical concepts more relatable, such as comparing the philosopher to a gadfly. |
| Anecdote | A short and amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person. | Plato uses anecdotes from Socrates’ life to illustrate his ethical principles and defend his actions and beliefs. |
| Aporia | An expression of doubt about conclusions or the expression of a paradox. | Socrates often expresses aporia, or puzzlement, which serves to demonstrate the limits of knowledge and provoke deeper inquiry. |
| Dialectic | A method of argument involving contradiction or contrary reasoning, aiming at truth discovery. | In “Apology,” Plato uses dialectic as a method for truth-seeking through rational dialogue, contrasting with mere persuasion. |
| Elenchus (Socratic Method) | A technique of probing questions designed to expose contradictions in the interlocutor’s beliefs. | Plato uses this method extensively in “Apology” to allow Socrates to dissect the accusations and reveal the ignorance of his accusers. |
| Ethos | The characteristic spirit of a culture, era, or community as manifested in its beliefs and aspirations. | Socrates appeals to his ethos, highlighting his lifelong commitment to truth and philosophical inquiry to establish his credibility. |
| Irony | The expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect. | Socrates’ irony in claiming ignorance serves to challenge and expose the pretensions to knowledge held by others. |
| Logos | The principle of reason and judgment, associated with logical argumentation. | Socrates employs logos to construct rational arguments to defend himself against the charges of corrupting the youth and impiety. |
| Pathos | The quality in an experience or in art that arouses feelings of pity, sympathy, and sorrow. | Although Socrates avoids manipulating emotions directly, his philosophical stance and fate invoke a deep emotional response from the audience. |
Literary Theory and “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
- Focus on Language and Textual Contradictions: Deconstruction explores how language constructs meaning and reveals inherent contradictions and instabilities in texts. In the “Apology of Socrates,” Socrates’ arguments often reveal the contradictory beliefs held by his accusers, particularly through his use of irony and elenchus.
- Challenge to Traditional Interpretations: Deconstruction would examine how Socrates’ defense challenges traditional views of knowledge, ethics, and power structures in Athenian society, showing how his questioning destabilizes perceived wisdom and societal norms.
- Exposing Assumptions and Biases: The text can be deconstructed to show how Socrates exposes the biases and assumptions underlying Athenian legal and ethical perspectives, thus questioning the very foundations of truth and justice in the city-state.
- Class Struggle and Power Dynamics: Marxist criticism would analyze the “Apology” as a conflict between the ruling elite (represented by Meletus and the Athenian jury) and a philosopher who challenges the status quo. Socrates’ critique of Athenian society reflects class tensions and the control exerted by the elite.
- Ideology and Superstructure: The trial can be viewed as an instance where the superstructure (state and laws) serves to maintain the ideology of the ruling class, suppressing dissident voices like Socrates’ that threaten established order.
- Materialism versus Idealism: Socrates’ focus on virtue and the soul over material wealth contrasts with the materialistic values of his accusers, highlighting a philosophical and class-based divergence in values.
3. Feminist Theory:
- Patriarchal Society and Male Authority: Feminist theory would examine how the “Apology” reflects the deeply patriarchal nature of Athenian society, where male philosophers debated moral and societal issues while women were largely excluded.
- Gender Dynamics in Rhetoric: Analyzing Socrates’ rhetoric from a feminist perspective could reveal underlying assumptions about gender roles and authority, particularly how his defense might perpetuate or challenge contemporary views on masculinity and wisdom.
- Exclusion from Public Sphere: The text could be critiqued for its implicit acceptance of a gendered public sphere, reflecting on the absence of female voices in philosophical and civic debates.
- Socratic Personality and Motivations: Psychoanalytic criticism might explore Socrates’ motivations and subconscious factors driving his incessant questioning and apparent disregard for his own safety, suggesting a deeper psychological need to seek truth regardless of personal cost.
- Defense Mechanisms: Socrates’ use of irony and humor can be interpreted as defense mechanisms against the hostility he faces, protecting his psyche while he confronts societal accusations and threats.
- Authority and Oedipal Complex: The conflict between Socrates and the Athenian authorities could be viewed through the lens of the Oedipal complex, with Socrates positioned as the challenger to paternalistic authority, symbolically enacting a rebellion against societal “fathers.”
Examples of Critiques Through “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
| Literary Work | Socratic Element | Critique |
| To Kill a Mockingbird | Justice, Gadfly | Atticus Finch embodies the gadfly, provoking the community to confront their biases. His cross-examination mirrors Socrates’ elenchus, exposing the inconsistencies in arguments. |
| The Crucible | Courage, Integrity | John Proctor’s refusal to falsely confess reflects Socratic courage, prioritizing truth over self-preservation. His defiance of authority resonates with Socrates’ challenge to the status quo. |
| 1984 | Non-conformity, Truth-seeking | Winston Smith’s rebellion mirrors Socrates’ challenge to societal norms. His pursuit of truth and independent thought aligns with Socrates’ emphasis on critical thinking. |
Criticism Against “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
- Historical Accuracy: The “Apology” is Plato’s interpretation of Socrates’ defense, not a verbatim transcript. Using it as a historical document can be misleading.
- Socrates as a Character: Socrates in the “Apology” is a literary construct, not necessarily a reflection of the historical Socrates. Analyzing him as a fictional character may be more appropriate.
- Philosophical Bias: The “Apology” presents a specific philosophical viewpoint. Using it as a universal framework for literary analysis can be limiting and overlook other perspectives.
- Cultural Context: The “Apology” is rooted in ancient Athenian culture. Applying its concepts directly to modern literature may not always be relevant or accurate.
- Genre Limitations: The “Apology” is a philosophical dialogue, not a literary text. Using its rhetorical strategies as a model for literary analysis may not always be applicable.
- Oversimplification: Reducing complex literary works to Socratic themes can oversimplify their nuances and multilayered meanings.
Suggested Readings: “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
Books:
- Plato. Apology. Translated by Hugh Tredennick, Penguin Classics, 1954. Penguin Random House – Plato
- Brickhouse, Thomas C., and Nicholas D. Smith. Socrates on Trial. Princeton University Press, 1989. Princeton University Press
Articles
- PERKINSON, HENRY J. “The Apology of Socrates.” The Journal of Educational Thought (JET) / Revue de La Pensée Éducative, vol. 4, no. 1, 1970, pp. 5–13. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23768138. Accessed 29 July 2024.
- Tucker, James. “ENCOUNTERING SOCRATES IN THE ‘APOLOGY.’” The Journal of Education, vol. 178, no. 3, 1996, pp. 17–30. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42741823. Accessed 29 July 2024.
- Howland, Jacob. “Plato’s ‘Apology’ as Tragedy.” The Review of Politics, vol. 70, no. 4, 2008, pp. 519–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20453038. Accessed 29 July 2024.
- WELLMAN, ROBERT R. “The Apology of Socrates: A Response.” The Journal of Educational Thought (JET) / Revue de La Pensée Éducative, vol. 4, no. 1, 1970, pp. 13–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23768139. Accessed 29 July 2024.
- SCHALL, JAMES V. “On Rereading the Apology of Socrates.” Political Philosophy and Revelation, Catholic University of America Press, 2013, pp. 15–23. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5hgzfz.5. Accessed 29 July 2024.
- Zuckert, Michael. “Rationalism & Political Responsibility: Just Speech & Just Deed in the ‘Clouds’ & the ‘Apology’ of Socrates.” Polity, vol. 17, no. 2, 1984, pp. 271–97. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3234508. Accessed 29 July 2024.
Web Links:
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Plato’s Apology
Extracts with Explanation from “Apology of Socrates” by Plato
| Quotation | Explanation | Theoretical Importance |
| “The unexamined life is not worth living.” | Socrates argues that a life without philosophical inquiry and self-reflection is empty. This statement is made in the context of his defense of his own way of life, which involves constant questioning and examination of oneself and others. | Existentialism: This quote is foundational in existential philosophy, emphasizing personal responsibility and the necessity of self-awareness for a meaningful life. |
| “I know that I know nothing.” | This paradoxical statement encapsulates Socrates’ philosophical approach: recognizing his own ignorance motivates his constant quest for knowledge. | Epistemology: Highlights the Socratic method of acknowledging one’s ignorance as the first step in acquiring true knowledge. |
| “I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world.” | Socrates suggests that his obligations are not just to his city-state but to a broader moral and intellectual community. | Cosmopolitanism: Anticipates later philosophical developments that emphasize global rather than local citizenship and moral obligations. |
| “Are you not ashamed of heaping up the greatest amount of money and honor and reputation, and caring so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improvement of the soul?” | Socrates criticizes the priorities of his accusers and Athenian society, which values material success over moral and intellectual improvement. | Moral Philosophy: Challenges materialistic values, advocating for the primacy of ethical and intellectual development in human life. |
| “No evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after death.” | Socrates holds that true harm cannot come to a person who is morally good, regardless of their physical and worldly circumstances. | Stoicism: Foreshadows Stoic beliefs in the invulnerability of the virtuous soul to external misfortunes. |
| “Death is something I could not care less about, but that my whole concern is not to do anything unjust or impious.” | Socrates values moral integrity over his own life, showing his commitment to virtue above all else. | Ethical Integrity: Reinforces the idea that ethical considerations should override personal safety or comfort. |
| “Men of Athens, I honor and love you; but I shall obey God rather than you.” | Socrates explains his duty to follow divine moral law over the laws of the state when they conflict. | Divine Command Theory: Illustrates a commitment to a higher moral authority, suggesting that divine commands supersede human laws. |
| “For many are the accusers whom I fear, not Anytus and his sort, who are dangerous enough, but others who began when you were children and took possession of your minds with their falsehoods.” | Socrates points out that his more dangerous accusers are those who influence public opinion with their deceptive teachings from an early age. | Rhetorical Criticism: Critiques the manipulation of public opinion and emphasizes the importance of critical thinking. |
| “A man who really fights for justice must lead a private, not a public life if he is to survive even for a short time.” | Socrates suggests that a public life dedicated to justice is perilous and that survival may depend on staying out of public affairs. | Political Philosophy: Reflects on the dangers of political life for philosophers and those who challenge the status quo. |
| “It is the greatest good for a man to discuss virtue every day and those other things about which you hear me conversing and testing myself and others, for the unexamined life is not worth living.” | Reinforces his earlier statement about the unexamined life and the importance of daily engagement with philosophical topics. | Educational Philosophy: Advocates for continual education and dialogue as essential components of a life well-lived. |