Introduction: “Barbara Allen”
“Barbara Allen” is a traditional English ballad that first appeared in print in 1750 in Thomas Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, though it is believed to have originated much earlier, possibly in the 17th century. The poem tells the tragic tale of unrequited love and remorse, centering on Barbara Allen, a young woman who rejects the dying affections of Jemmy Grove, only to later regret her cruelty. The ballad explores themes of love, pride, rejection, and fatal consequences, making it a staple of folk tradition and oral storytelling. Its lyrical simplicity and emotional depth contributed to its popularity, leading to its frequent inclusion in literature textbooks as an example of early ballad poetry. The repeated refrain, such as “O mother, mother, make my bed, / O make it saft and narrow: / My love has died for me today, / I’ll die for him tomorrow,” highlights the poignant inevitability of fate and the weight of regret. The ballad’s haunting narrative and melancholic tone have ensured its place as one of the most enduring and widely studied folk poems in the English literary tradition.
Text: “Barbara Allen”
In Scarlet town, where I was born,
There was a fair maid dwellin’,
Made every youth cry Well-a-way!
Her name was Barbara Allen.
All in the merry month of May,
When green buds they were swellin’,
Young Jemmy Grove on his death-bed lay,
For love of Barbara Allen.
He sent his man in to her then,
To the town where she was dwellin’;
“O haste and come to my master dear,
If your name be Barbara Allen.”
So slowly, slowly rase she up,
And slowly she came nigh him,
And when she drew the curtain by—
“Young man, I think you’re dyin’.”
“O it’s I am sick and very very sick,
And it’s all for Barbara Allen.”—
O the better for me ye’se never be,
Tho’ your heart’s blood were a-spillin’!
“O dinna ye mind, young man,” says she,
“When the red wine ye were fillin’,
That ye made the healths go round and round,
And slighted Barbara Allen?”
He turned his face unto the wall,
And death was with him dealin’:
“Adieu, adieu, my dear friends all,
And be kind to Barbara Allen!”
As she was walking o’er the fields,
She heard the dead-bell knellin’;
And every jow the dead-bell gave
Cried “Woe to Barbara Allen.”
“O mother, mother, make my bed,
O make it saft and narrow:
My love has died for me today,
I’ll die for him tomorrow.”
“Farewell,” she said, “ye virgins all,
And shun the fault I fell in:
Henceforth take warning by the fall
Of cruel Barbara Allen.”
Annotations: “Barbara Allen”
| Original Line | Simple English Explanation | Literary/Poetic Device | Explanation |
| In Scarlet town, where I was born, | The speaker was born in a town called Scarlet. | Ballad Form | The poem follows a folk ballad structure. |
| There was a fair maid dwellin’, | A beautiful young woman lived there. | Imagery | Creates a picture of a fair maiden. |
| Made every youth cry Well-a-way! | She made young men admire her. | Repetition | “Well-a-way” emphasizes admiration. |
| Her name was Barbara Allen. | Her name was Barbara Allen. | Symbolism | Her name represents pride and regret. |
| All in the merry month of May, | The story happens in May. | Imagery | “Merry May” evokes warmth and life. |
| When green buds they were swellin’, | Flowers and plants were blooming. | Personification | “Buds swell” as if they are alive. |
| Young Jemmy Grove on his death-bed lay, | Jemmy Grove is dying. | Foreshadowing | Hints at his inevitable death. |
| For love of Barbara Allen. | He is dying because of his love for her. | Tragic Flaw | His love is unreturned, leading to tragedy. |
| He sent his man in to her then, | He sent his servant to call her. | Dialogue | The ballad includes direct speech. |
| To the town where she was dwellin’; | To where she was living. | Ballad Form | Continues the narrative rhythm. |
| “O haste and come to my master dear, | “Come quickly to my master.” | Irony | She comes, but she does not help him. |
| If your name be Barbara Allen.” | “If you are Barbara Allen.” | Symbolism | She represents cruel love and rejection. |
| So slowly, slowly rase she up, | She got up very slowly. | Repetition | “Slowly, slowly” adds dramatic effect. |
| And slowly she came nigh him, | She approached him slowly. | Irony | She is in no hurry, despite his condition. |
| And when she drew the curtain by— | She moved the curtain aside. | Imagery | Creates a visual of her revealing him. |
| “Young man, I think you’re dyin’.” | She coldly tells him he is dying. | Tragic Flaw | Her pride leads to his sorrow. |
| “O it’s I am sick and very very sick, | “I am very sick.” | Repetition | “Very, very sick” emphasizes his pain. |
| And it’s all for Barbara Allen.”— | “And it’s because of you, Barbara Allen.” | Personification | Love is presented as a cause of death. |
| O the better for me ye’se never be, | “That doesn’t matter to me.” | Irony | She dismisses his suffering. |
| Tho’ your heart’s blood were a-spillin’! | “Even if you were bleeding to death.” | Imagery | Graphic description of his suffering. |
| “O dinna ye mind, young man,” says she, | “Do you remember?” she asks. | Dialogue | She directly confronts him. |
| “When the red wine ye were fillin’, | “When you were drinking wine.” | Symbolism | Wine represents joy and carelessness. |
| That ye made the healths go round and round, | “You toasted others.” | Irony | He ignored her before, but now loves her. |
| And slighted Barbara Allen?” | “But you ignored me.” | Tragic Flaw | Her pride causes her cruelty. |
| He turned his face unto the wall, | He turned away from her. | Symbolism | Turning away represents giving up. |
| And death was with him dealin’: | He was dying. | Personification | Death is treated as an active force. |
| “Adieu, adieu, my dear friends all, | “Goodbye, my friends.” | Foreshadowing | His farewell shows his fate is sealed. |
| And be kind to Barbara Allen!” | “Be kind to Barbara Allen after I die.” | Irony | He still cares for her despite her cruelty. |
| As she was walking o’er the fields, | Barbara Allen walked outside. | Imagery | Creates a rural, sorrowful setting. |
| She heard the dead-bell knellin’; | She heard a funeral bell. | Symbolism | The bell represents guilt and fate. |
| And every jow the dead-bell gave | Each time the bell rang. | Repetition | The bell’s ringing is repeated. |
| Cried “Woe to Barbara Allen.” | The sound of the bell seems to blame her. | Personification | The bell “cries” like a voice of judgment. |
| “O mother, mother, make my bed, | “Mother, prepare my bed.” | Foreshadowing | Suggests she will die soon. |
| O make it saft and narrow: | “Make it soft and narrow (like a grave).” | Symbolism | The bed represents death. |
| My love has died for me today, | “He died because of me.” | Irony | She realizes her mistake too late. |
| I’ll die for him tomorrow.” | “I will die for him tomorrow.” | Tragic Flaw | Too late, she decides to love him. |
| “Farewell,” she said, “ye virgins all, | “Goodbye, young women.” | Address to Audience | She warns others about her mistake. |
| And shun the fault I fell in: | “Avoid making my mistake.” | Moral Lesson | The poem teaches about pride and regret. |
| Henceforth take warning by the fall | “Learn from my downfall.” | Symbolism | “Fall” represents the consequences of pride. |
| Of cruel Barbara Allen.” | “The downfall of cruel Barbara Allen.” | Irony | She finally admits her own cruelty. |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Barbara Allen”
| Device | Example from Barbara Allen | Explanation |
| 1. Alliteration | “Made every youth cry Well-a-way!” | The repetition of the initial “w” sound creates a musical effect and emphasizes the sorrow of young men. |
| 2. Allusion | “When the red wine ye were fillin'” | This may reference social customs of toasting, showing that Jemmy once disregarded Barbara, leading to her rejection of him. |
| 3. Apostrophe | “O mother, mother, make my bed” | Barbara directly speaks to her mother, though she may not be present. This expresses her distress and foreshadows her fate. |
| 4. Assonance | “O mother, mother, make my bed, O make it saft and narrow” | The repetition of vowel sounds in “O mother, mother, make” creates a melancholic, rhythmic tone. |
| 5. Ballad Form | The entire poem | A traditional folk ballad structured in quatrains (four-line stanzas), following a simple narrative style. |
| 6. Contrast | “My love has died for me today, I’ll die for him tomorrow.” | The contrast between today and tomorrow highlights Barbara’s regret and delayed realization. |
| 7. Dialogue | “O dinna ye mind, young man,” says she | The direct speech makes the story more engaging and adds realism to the characters’ emotions. |
| 8. Dramatic Irony | “And be kind to Barbara Allen!” | The audience knows Barbara will soon regret her cruelty, but she does not realize it at this moment. |
| 9. End-stopped Lines | “Her name was Barbara Allen.” | The use of a period at the end of the line reinforces finality and draws attention to Barbara’s identity. |
| 10. Enjambment | “And every jow the dead-bell gave / Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” | The line continues without a pause, mimicking the continuous tolling of the funeral bell. |
| 11. Foreshadowing | “O mother, mother, make my bed, O make it saft and narrow.” | Barbara’s request suggests she will die soon, preparing readers for the ending. |
| 12. Imagery | “When green buds they were swellin'” | The description of budding plants in spring symbolizes new life, contrasting with Jemmy’s approaching death. |
| 13. Irony | “My love has died for me today, I’ll die for him tomorrow.” | Barbara realizes her love too late, making her remorse tragic and ironic. |
| 14. Metaphor | “And death was with him dealin'” | Death is personified as an active force, as if it is a dealer distributing fate. |
| 15. Mood | “She heard the dead-bell knellin'” | The melancholic mood intensifies as the funeral bell symbolizes guilt and fate. |
| 16. Personification | “And every jow the dead-bell gave / Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” | The bell is personified as if it speaks, condemning Barbara for her actions. |
| 17. Refrain | “Barbara Allen” (repeated multiple times) | The repetition of her name reinforces her central role and emphasizes the moral lesson. |
| 18. Symbolism | “O make it saft and narrow.” | The bed symbolizes her grave, indicating that Barbara has accepted her impending death. |
| 19. Theme | Love, Pride, Regret, Fate, Death | The ballad explores unrequited love, rejection, and the consequences of pride leading to tragic death. |
| 20. Tone | Sorrowful, Regretful, Haunting | The shift from Jemmy’s suffering to Barbara’s regret creates a tone of tragedy and lamentation. |
Themes: “Barbara Allen”
1. Love and Rejection: The theme of love and rejection is central to “Barbara Allen”, portraying unrequited love and its devastating consequences. Jemmy Grove deeply loves Barbara Allen, but she refuses to return his affection, leading to his death. His suffering is evident when he confesses, “O it’s I am sick and very very sick, / And it’s all for Barbara Allen.” This line highlights his heartbreak and suggests that his illness is caused by emotional pain rather than physical weakness. However, Barbara’s indifference and rejection are equally striking, as she coldly responds, “O the better for me ye’se never be, / Tho’ your heart’s blood were a-spillin’!” Here, she dismisses his suffering, refusing to show him sympathy. The ballad presents love as both powerful and destructive, emphasizing how the pain of unreciprocated affection can lead to despair and tragedy.
2. Pride and Regret: Pride plays a pivotal role in “Barbara Allen”, shaping her initial rejection of Jemmy and leading to her later regret. She refuses to show him compassion because he once slighted her at a social gathering, recalling:
“O dinna ye mind, young man,” says she, / “When the red wine ye were fillin’, / That ye made the healths go round and round, / And slighted Barbara Allen?”
Her pride outweighs her love, as she holds onto past resentment rather than offering forgiveness. However, after Jemmy’s death, her perspective shifts. She is haunted by the sound of the funeral bell, which appears to condemn her: “And every jow the dead-bell gave / Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” The repetition of the bell’s tolling reinforces her growing guilt. In the end, Barbara’s pride turns into regret, and she acknowledges her mistake, warning other women: “Henceforth take warning by the fall / Of cruel Barbara Allen.” The contrast between her past arrogance and her final remorse serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of stubbornness and holding grudges.
3. Fate and Inevitability: The ballad “Barbara Allen” emphasizes the power of fate in shaping human lives. Both Jemmy and Barbara seem to be trapped by destiny, leading to an inevitable tragedy. Jemmy’s death is foreshadowed early in the poem when he is described as lying on his deathbed “for love of Barbara Allen.” His fate is sealed when she refuses to show him kindness, and death is personified as an active force, seen in the line: “And death was with him dealin’.” Barbara, too, becomes a victim of fate. After hearing of Jemmy’s passing, she realizes she cannot escape her own sorrow, stating: “O mother, mother, make my bed, / O make it saft and narrow: / My love has died for me today, / I’ll die for him tomorrow.” The certainty of her own death suggests that she sees no way to escape the consequences of her actions. The theme of fate and inevitability highlights how choices, once made, can have permanent and unavoidable results.
4. Mortality and Remorse: Death and the transient nature of life play a significant role in “Barbara Allen”. Jemmy’s love is so intense that it literally kills him, showing the connection between love and mortality. His last words, “Adieu, adieu, my dear friends all, / And be kind to Barbara Allen!” show his acceptance of death, even as he forgives Barbara. However, it is Barbara’s eventual acceptance of her own mortality that solidifies this theme. The moment she asks her mother to prepare her bed, which symbolizes her grave, she acknowledges that she cannot live with her remorse. The funeral bell, mentioned in “She heard the dead-bell knellin’,” serves as a reminder of the inevitability of death, signaling that her time is near. By the end of the ballad, Barbara fully understands the cost of her cruelty, and her fate mirrors Jemmy’s. This theme underscores the fleeting nature of life and the weight of regret that can follow us even in death.
Literary Theories and “Barbara Allen”
| Literary Theory | Application to “Barbara Allen” | References from the Poem |
| 1. Feminist Literary Theory | This theory examines gender roles, female agency, and patriarchal influence. In “Barbara Allen”, Barbara has power over Jemmy Grove, choosing to reject him despite societal expectations that women should be soft-hearted and forgiving. However, her ultimate regret suggests the limitations placed on female independence, as she succumbs to guilt and dies. The ballad also portrays women as cautionary figures, warning others to avoid Barbara’s mistake, reinforcing the traditional “virtuous woman” ideal. | “Farewell,” she said, “ye virgins all, / And shun the fault I fell in:” – Barbara’s final words serve as a moral lesson to women, reinforcing societal expectations of femininity. |
| 2. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freudian Analysis) | This theory explores unconscious desires, guilt, repression, and internal conflict. Barbara’s initial coldness towards Jemmy can be interpreted as a defensive mechanism—she withholds her emotions due to past wounds. However, after Jemmy’s death, her subconscious guilt manifests physically, leading to her own death. The funeral bell can be seen as a symbol of her repressed remorse surfacing. | “She heard the dead-bell knellin’; / And every jow the dead-bell gave / Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” – The bell acts as a psychological trigger, signaling the awakening of guilt and repressed emotions. |
| 3. Reader-Response Theory | This theory suggests that a poem’s meaning depends on individual readers’ interpretations. Some readers may see Barbara as a heartless figure, responsible for Jemmy’s death, while others may sympathize with her, viewing her as a victim of social pressure and regret. The poem’s lack of direct narration or moral commentary allows for multiple readings. | “O the better for me ye’se never be, / Tho’ your heart’s blood were a-spillin’!” – Some readers may see this as cruelty, while others interpret it as self-preservation due to a past slight. |
| 4. Structuralist Literary Theory | This theory examines patterns, symbols, and binary oppositions in literature. “Barbara Allen” follows a typical tragic ballad structure, with clear oppositions: love vs. rejection, life vs. death, pride vs. remorse. The repetitive structure and oral tradition reflect its cultural significance as a folk ballad that conveys universal truths. | “My love has died for me today, / I’ll die for him tomorrow.” – This binary opposition of life and death highlights the structural balance of the ballad. |
Critical Questions about “Barbara Allen”
1. Is Barbara Allen a villain or a tragic figure?
One of the central debates surrounding “Barbara Allen” is whether Barbara should be viewed as a villain for rejecting Jemmy Grove or as a tragic figure trapped by circumstances. On one hand, her cold and dismissive response to his suffering—“O the better for me ye’se never be, / Tho’ your heart’s blood were a-spillin’!”—suggests that she lacks empathy, making her seem cruel and unfeeling. However, a deeper reading of the ballad reveals that Barbara may have been acting out of wounded pride. She recalls an earlier slight, stating, “O dinna ye mind, young man,” says she, / “When the red wine ye were fillin’, / That ye made the healths go round and round, / And slighted Barbara Allen?” This suggests that Jemmy once humiliated her, and her rejection of him is an act of self-respect rather than malice. Furthermore, her eventual remorse and death show that she is not purely heartless, but rather a figure who realizes her mistakes too late. Thus, Barbara can be interpreted as either a cautionary villain or a deeply tragic character, depending on the reader’s perspective.
2. How does the ballad portray the consequences of pride?
Pride plays a central role in the downfall of both Jemmy Grove and Barbara Allen. Jemmy’s past slight towards Barbara during a social gathering leads to her emotional detachment when he is dying. She refuses to comfort him, reminding him of his actions: “That ye made the healths go round and round, / And slighted Barbara Allen?” This moment of pride and stubbornness sets the tragedy in motion. However, Barbara herself is also a victim of her own pride. While she initially feels justified in rejecting Jemmy, she later realizes the weight of her decision, as seen in her reaction to hearing the funeral bell: “And every jow the dead-bell gave / Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” The bell acts as a symbol of her conscience, making her confront the irreversible consequences of her actions. In the end, pride proves to be self-destructive, as Barbara, overcome with guilt, chooses to die as well, confessing: “My love has died for me today, / I’ll die for him tomorrow.” The ballad ultimately serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of pride and how it can lead to irreversible loss.
3. What role does fate play in “Barbara Allen”?
The theme of fate and inevitability runs throughout “Barbara Allen”, suggesting that the tragic outcome is preordained. From the very beginning, Jemmy Grove is presented as doomed, lying on his deathbed “for love of Barbara Allen.” The absence of any attempt to save him reinforces the idea that his death is unavoidable. Barbara, too, seems to be caught in the web of fate. Although she initially appears in control of her actions, she ultimately cannot escape the weight of her guilt. The moment she hears the funeral bell, it is as if fate itself condemns her, with the bell tolling: “Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” The repetitive sound of the bell symbolizes her inescapable destiny—she is meant to follow Jemmy in death. By the end of the ballad, she fully accepts this fate, instructing her mother: “O mother, mother, make my bed, / O make it saft and narrow.” The request for a “soft and narrow” bed foreshadows her grave, confirming that her path was sealed from the moment she rejected Jemmy. Thus, the ballad suggests that no matter our choices, fate has the final word.
4. What moral lesson does “Barbara Allen” teach?
As a traditional folk ballad, “Barbara Allen” conveys a moral lesson about love, pride, and regret. The final stanza explicitly serves as a warning to others, particularly women, when Barbara states: “Farewell,” she said, “ye virgins all, / And shun the fault I fell in.” Here, the ballad warns against excessive pride and emotional coldness, suggesting that holding onto past grievances can lead to irreparable loss. Barbara’s regret comes too late—she realizes her love for Jemmy only after his death, illustrating the tragedy of lost opportunities. Additionally, the ballad teaches that guilt can be an overwhelming force, as Barbara is so consumed by her remorse that she chooses to die. The funeral bell serves as a reminder that our actions have lasting consequences, reinforcing the idea that one must not let pride override compassion. Ultimately, the lesson of “Barbara Allen” is that love should be cherished while it lasts, and grudges should not be taken to the grave.
Literary Works Similar to “Barbara Allen”
- “Lord Randall” (Traditional Ballad) – This folk ballad, like “Barbara Allen,” tells a tragic story of love and betrayal. It features a dying protagonist who speaks in a dialogue-driven structure.
- “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional Ballad) – Similar to “Barbara Allen,” this ballad explores love beyond death, as a grieving lover speaks to the ghost of their deceased beloved, emphasizing themes of remorse and lost love.
- “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats – This poem, like “Barbara Allen,” presents a doomed romance where love is linked to death. It highlights the fatal power of unfulfilled desire.
- “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Ballad) – This ballad shares “Barbara Allen’s” storytelling style and tragic themes. It explores guilt, regret, and the consequences of irreversible actions.
- “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe – Like “Barbara Allen,” this poem focuses on love, loss, and death. The speaker mourns a beloved who has passed away, creating a sorrowful and haunting tone.
Representative Quotations of “Barbara Allen”
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “In Scarlet town, where I was born, / There was a fair maid dwellin'” | Introduces Barbara Allen as the central character and establishes the setting of the ballad. | Structuralist Theory – The ballad follows a traditional folk structure, introducing the protagonist and setting in the opening lines. |
| “Young Jemmy Grove on his death-bed lay, / For love of Barbara Allen.” | Jemmy is dying because of his unfulfilled love for Barbara, highlighting the theme of love and death. | Psychoanalytic Theory – His emotional suffering manifests as physical illness, illustrating Freud’s concept of repression and unresolved desire. |
| “O haste and come to my master dear, / If your name be Barbara Allen.” | Jemmy sends for Barbara, showing that even in his final moments, he longs for her presence. | Reader-Response Theory – Readers may interpret this either as true love or as Jemmy’s desperate attempt to seek closure. |
| “So slowly, slowly rase she up, / And slowly she came nigh him” | Barbara approaches Jemmy’s deathbed with deliberate hesitation, indicating emotional distance. | Feminist Theory – This could symbolize Barbara’s resistance to societal expectations of women as emotional caregivers. |
| “Young man, I think you’re dyin’.” | Barbara’s response to Jemmy is cold and detached, reflecting her pride and indifference. | Moral Criticism – The ballad functions as a moral lesson, warning against arrogance and lack of compassion. |
| “That ye made the healths go round and round, / And slighted Barbara Allen?” | Barbara recalls the moment when Jemmy slighted her at a gathering, justifying her rejection. | New Historicism – This reflects 17th-century social customs, where public slights had significant consequences in personal relationships. |
| “And every jow the dead-bell gave / Cried ‘Woe to Barbara Allen.'” | The tolling of the funeral bell serves as a symbol of guilt and fate. | Symbolism & Psychoanalytic Theory – The bell personifies her conscience, acting as an external reminder of her regret. |
| “O mother, mother, make my bed, / O make it saft and narrow” | Barbara, overwhelmed with guilt, prepares for her own death. | Fatalism & Structuralism – The bed is symbolic of a grave, reinforcing the recurring motif of love leading to death. |
| “My love has died for me today, / I’ll die for him tomorrow.” | Barbara realizes her love too late and decides to join Jemmy in death. | Romanticism – Emphasizes passion and emotion, portraying love as a force that transcends life and death. |
| “Farewell,” she said, “ye virgins all, / And shun the fault I fell in.” | Barbara warns others to avoid her mistake, turning her story into a cautionary tale. | Didacticism & Feminist Theory – Reinforces traditional gender roles, suggesting that women must be careful with their emotions and choices. |
Suggested Readings: “Barbara Allen”
- H. C. L. Stocks. “Barbara Allen.” The Musical Times, vol. 95, no. 1332, 1954, pp. 1–8. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/934201. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.
- Doyle, Charles Clay, and Charles Greg Kelley. “Moses Platt and the Regeneration of ‘Barbara Allen.'” Western Folklore, vol. 50, no. 2, 1991, pp. 151–69. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1500045. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.
- Mieczyslaw Kolinski. “‘Barbara Allen’: Tonal versus Melodic Structure, Part I.” Ethnomusicology, vol. 12, no. 2, 1968, pp. 208–18. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/849930. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.
- McCarthy, William Bernard. “‘Barbara Allen’ and ‘The Gypsy Laddie’: Single-Rhyme Ballads in the Child Corpus.” The Flowering Thorn: International Ballad Studies, edited by Thomas A. McKean, University Press of Colorado, 2003, pp. 143–54. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt46nrm0.14. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.