Introduction: “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
“Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier, first appeared in 1863 as part of his poetry collection Poems, celebrates the courage and patriotism of Barbara Frietchie, a real historical figure, during the American Civil War. In the poem, she defies the Confederate troops under General Stonewall Jackson by waving the Union flag in the face of their march through Frederick, Maryland. The main ideas focus on themes of loyalty, bravery, and the enduring spirit of freedom. Barbara, despite her old age, takes a stand for her country’s flag, an act that leads to a moment of reflection and respect from the Confederate leader. The poem’s popularity stems from its powerful depiction of individual heroism and its symbolism of loyalty to the Union cause. The striking moment where Barbara challenges the enemy with the words, “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag,” epitomizes her unwavering devotion to the Union, which resonates deeply with readers, especially during times of national conflict.
Text: “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
Up from the meadows rich with corn,
Clear in the cool September morn,
The clustered spires of Frederick stand
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland.
Round about them orchards sweep,
Apple- and peach-tree fruited deep,
Fair as a garden of the Lord
To the eyes of the famished rebel horde,
On that pleasant morn of the early fall
When Lee marched over the mountain wall,—
Over the mountains winding down,
Horse and foot, into Frederick town.
Forty flags with their silver stars,
Forty flags with their crimson bars,
Flapped in the morning wind: the sun
Of noon looked down, and saw not one.
Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then,
Bowed with her fourscore years and ten;
Bravest of all in Frederick town,
She took up the flag the men hauled down;
In her attic window the staff she set,
To show that one heart was loyal yet.
Up the street came the rebel tread,
Stonewall Jackson riding ahead.
Under his slouched hat left and right
He glanced: the old flag met his sight.
“Halt!”— the dust-brown ranks stood fast.
“Fire!”— out blazed the rifle-blast.
It shivered the window, pane and sash;
It rent the banner with seam and gash.
Quick, as it fell, from the broken staff
Dame Barbara snatched the silken scarf;
She leaned far out on the window-sill,
And shook it forth with a royal will.
“Shoot, if you must, this old gray head,
But spare your country’s flag,” she said.
A shade of sadness, a blush of shame,
Over the face of the leader came;
The nobler nature within him stirred
To life at that woman’s deed and word:
“Who touches a hair of yon gray head
Dies like a dog! March on!” he said.
All day long through Frederick street
Sounded the tread of marching feet:
All day long that free flag tost
Over the heads of the rebel host.
Ever its torn folds rose and fell
On the loyal winds that loved it well;
And through the hill-gaps sunset light
Shone over it with a warm good-night.
Barbara Frietchie’s work is o’er,
And the Rebel rides on his raids no more.
Honor to her! and let a tear
Fall, for her sake, on Stonewall’s bier.
Over Barbara Frietchie’s grave
Flag of Freedom and Union, wave!
Peace and order and beauty draw
Round thy symbol of light and law;
And ever the stars above look down
On thy stars below in Frederick town!
Annotations: “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
| Couplet | Annotation | Literary Devices |
| Up from the meadows rich with corn, Clear in the cool September morn, | This describes the lush and peaceful landscape of Frederick in early fall. The imagery creates a sense of calm and beauty in the setting. | Imagery, Alliteration |
| The clustered spires of Frederick stand Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. | The town of Frederick is pictured with its spires surrounded by green hills, creating a peaceful, picturesque image. | Imagery, Metaphor |
| Round about them orchards sweep, Apple- and peach-tree fruited deep, | The orchards surrounding Frederick are described as abundant, symbolizing prosperity and peace. | Imagery |
| Fair as a garden of the Lord To the eyes of the famished rebel horde, | The town is described as being beautiful, contrasting with the hunger and weariness of the Confederate soldiers. | Simile, Imagery |
| On that pleasant morn of the early fall When Lee marched over the mountain wall,— | The poem shifts to a pivotal moment when General Robert E. Lee’s army marches into Frederick. | Imagery |
| Over the mountains winding down, Horse and foot, into Frederick town. | This shows the Confederate army marching down into the town, creating tension with the peaceful setting. | Imagery, Alliteration |
| Forty flags with their silver stars, Forty flags with their crimson bars, | The flags of the Confederacy are described with rich colors, symbolizing the rebellious force. | Repetition, Imagery |
| Flapped in the morning wind: the sun Of noon looked down, and saw not one. | The flags are described waving in the wind, and by noon, no Union flag remains, symbolizing the threat to loyalty. | Personification, Imagery |
| Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, Bowed with her fourscore years and ten; | Barbara Frietchie, despite her old age, rises to take action, showing strength and determination. | Imagery, Hyperbole |
| Bravest of all in Frederick town, She took up the flag the men hauled down; | Barbara is portrayed as the bravest person in town for reclaiming the flag that the Confederate soldiers had taken down. | Hyperbole, Personification |
| In her attic window the staff she set, To show that one heart was loyal yet. | Barbara places the Union flag in her window, symbolizing her unwavering loyalty despite the odds. | Imagery, Symbolism |
| Up the street came the rebel tread, Stonewall Jackson riding ahead. | The Confederate soldiers approach, with Stonewall Jackson leading the way, increasing the tension. | Imagery, Alliteration |
| Under his slouched hat left and right He glanced: the old flag met his sight. | Jackson notices the Union flag, highlighting the confrontation between loyalty and rebellion. | Imagery |
| “Halt!”— the dust-brown ranks stood fast. “Fire!”— out blazed the rifle-blast. | The moment of conflict is described, where Jackson commands the troops to fire on the flag. | Imagery, Onomatopoeia |
| It shivered the window, pane and sash; It rent the banner with seam and gash. | The shot damages both the window and the flag, symbolizing the violence of the conflict. | Imagery, Alliteration |
| Quick, as it fell, from the broken staff Dame Barbara snatched the silken scarf; | Barbara swiftly retrieves the flag, showing her resolve and connection to the cause. | Imagery, Metaphor |
| She leaned far out on the window-sill, And shook it forth with a royal will. | Barbara holds the flag out with great courage and determination. | Imagery, Personification |
| “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, But spare your country’s flag,” she said. | Barbara bravely defies Jackson, risking her life to protect the Union flag. | Dialogue, Hyperbole |
| A shade of sadness, a blush of shame, Over the face of the leader came; | Jackson feels a moment of guilt and shame at Barbara’s courage. | Personification |
| The nobler nature within him stirred To life at that woman’s deed and word: | Jackson is moved by Barbara’s bravery, revealing his own nobler side. | Imagery, Personification |
| “Who touches a hair of yon gray head Dies like a dog! March on!” he said. | Jackson orders his troops to march, but with respect for Barbara’s defiance. | Imagery, Metaphor |
| All day long through Frederick street Sounded the tread of marching feet: | The army marches through the town, continuing the conflict. | Imagery |
| All day long that free flag tost Over the heads of the rebel host. | Despite the damage, the Union flag still flies over the Confederate army, symbolizing resistance. | Imagery, Symbolism |
| Ever its torn folds rose and fell On the loyal winds that loved it well; | The flag continues to wave, symbolizing loyalty to the Union cause. | Imagery, Personification |
| And through the hill-gaps sunset light Shone over it with a warm good-night. | The sunset creates a peaceful image, as if honoring the Union flag’s resilience. | Imagery, Personification |
| Barbara Frietchie’s work is o’er, And the Rebel rides on his raids no more. | Barbara’s act of defiance is completed, and the Confederate soldiers no longer raid the town. | Imagery |
| Honor to her! and let a tear Fall, for her sake, on Stonewall’s bier. | The poem ends with a call for honor and respect for Barbara’s bravery, even in the face of war. | Imagery, Irony |
| Over Barbara Frietchie’s grave Flag of Freedom and Union, wave! | Barbara’s grave is marked with the Union flag, symbolizing her lasting loyalty. | Symbolism |
| Peace and order and beauty draw Round thy symbol of light and law; | The Union flag represents peace, order, and the rule of law, symbolizing freedom. | Symbolism |
| And ever the stars above look down On thy stars below in Frederick town! | The stars in the sky represent the Union, watching over the stars of the flag below. | Symbolism |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
| Literary/Poetic Device | Example from the Poem | Explanation |
| Hyperbole | “Bowed with her fourscore years and ten” | This exaggerated phrase emphasizes Barbara’s old age (80 years), highlighting her bravery in defying the Confederate troops. |
| Imagery | “Up from the meadows rich with corn” | Vivid language that appeals to the senses, painting a picture of a peaceful, fertile landscape in the reader’s mind. |
| Irony | “Honor to her! and let a tear / Fall, for her sake, on Stonewall’s bier.” | The irony here is that Barbara Frietchie, a Union supporter, is honored even after the death of Stonewall Jackson, a Confederate leader. |
| Metaphor | “Fair as a garden of the Lord” | A comparison of the landscape to a divine garden symbolizes the beauty and peace of the land before the war’s violence. |
| Metonymy | “Forty flags with their silver stars” | “Flags” are used to represent the Union or Confederate forces in the poem, standing for the ideals and groups they symbolize. |
| Onomatopoeia | “Fire!”— out blazed the rifle-blast. | The use of “blazed” imitates the sound and impact of a gunshot, creating a more immersive and vivid experience. |
| Personification | “The sun / Of noon looked down, and saw not one.” | The sun is personified as if it is observing and noting the absence of the Union flag. |
| Repetition | “Forty flags with their silver stars, / Forty flags with their crimson bars,” | Repetition emphasizes the number of Confederate flags, reinforcing the scale of the threat and the presence of the enemy. |
| Rhetorical Question | “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag,” she said. | Barbara asks a rhetorical question that isn’t meant to be answered but emphasizes her defiance and commitment to the flag. |
| Simile | “Fair as a garden of the Lord” | The comparison of the land to a beautiful garden highlights its richness and peace, making the reader see it as a symbol of purity and goodness. |
| Symbolism | “Flag of Freedom and Union, wave!” | The flag represents the ideals of freedom, unity, and the Union cause, serving as a symbol of resistance and loyalty. |
| Synecdoche | “Stonewall Jackson riding ahead” | “Stonewall Jackson” is used as a representation of the entire Confederate army, making the general’s presence symbolize the whole force. |
| Allusion | “Barbara Frietchie’s work is o’er” | This allusion refers to the real-life figure Barbara Frietchie, connecting the poem to actual historical events during the Civil War. |
| Assonance | “Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then” | The repetition of the “o” sound in “rose,” “old,” and “Barbara” contributes to the rhythm of the line. |
| Anaphora | “Up from the meadows rich with corn, / Clear in the cool September morn,” | The repetition of the word “Up” at the beginning of consecutive lines creates a rhythmic pattern that emphasizes the rising action. |
| Euphemism | “Barbara Frietchie’s work is o’er” | The phrase “work is o’er” subtly refers to her death without directly saying it, making the tone more respectful and softer. |
| Chiasmus | “Who touches a hair of yon gray head / Dies like a dog!” | The reversal of the order of the words in these two clauses creates an interesting contrast between the threat and the noble sentiment. |
| Colloquialism | “Halt!” | The use of informal, command-like language gives the poem a direct, action-oriented tone, making it feel like an immediate, tense moment. |
| Paradox | “A shade of sadness, a blush of shame” | This phrase is paradoxical because sadness and shame are typically not associated with nobility, yet Jackson feels both emotions after Barbara’s act. |
Themes: “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
- Loyalty and Patriotism: The theme of loyalty and patriotism is central to “Barbara Frietchie,” as it highlights Barbara’s unwavering dedication to the Union cause during the Civil War. Despite being an elderly woman of eighty years, Barbara defies the Confederate army by displaying the Union flag after it has been taken down by the rebels. Her act of defiance symbolizes her loyalty to her country, and her courage reflects the patriotic spirit of the Union during a time of division. The moment when Barbara says, “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag,” demonstrates the depth of her patriotism, as she is willing to sacrifice her own life to protect the flag that represents the freedom and unity of the Union (Whittier, lines 41-42). The flag serves not only as a symbol of national identity but also of the spirit of resistance and loyalty that Barbara embodies in the face of overwhelming opposition.
- Courage and Heroism: Barbara Frietchie’s bravery in the face of danger is a key theme that stands out in Whittier’s poem. Her courage is emphasized through her actions as she rises to protect the Union flag despite her age and the threat of Confederate soldiers under Stonewall Jackson. Whittier depicts Barbara as “Bravest of all in Frederick town” (line 21), showing that, although others may have cowered in fear, she chose to stand for what she believed was right. Her act of taking the flag into her own hands, even after it was shot at and torn by rifle blasts, is a heroic gesture that symbolizes her resilience and strength. When she proclaims, “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag,” (lines 41-42), Barbara displays not just courage but also a fierce sense of honor, prioritizing the ideals of the Union over her own safety.
- Honor and Respect: The poem also explores the theme of honor, particularly in the interaction between Barbara Frietchie and General Stonewall Jackson. When Barbara displays the flag, Jackson, who represents the Confederate army, is initially poised to kill her, yet his actions are tempered by a sense of respect for her courage. Whittier writes, “A shade of sadness, a blush of shame, / Over the face of the leader came” (lines 31-32), capturing the internal conflict Jackson experiences as he realizes the nobility of Barbara’s act. Despite being the leader of the enemy, Jackson recognizes her honor and noble cause. This moment of introspection in the Confederate leader is significant, as it emphasizes the power of personal conviction and the respect it can inspire, even in the most unlikely of places. Jackson’s eventual command, “Who touches a hair of yon gray head / Dies like a dog! March on!” (lines 33-34), reflects his acknowledgment of Barbara’s bravery, showing that honor can transcend the boundaries of war and political ideology.
- The Endurance of the Union: The theme of the endurance of the Union is symbolized through the Union flag that Barbara defends. Throughout the poem, the flag stands as a representation of hope, resilience, and the enduring spirit of the Union cause. Despite being shot at and torn, the flag continues to wave above the heads of the Confederate soldiers, symbolizing the persistence of the Union in the face of adversity. Whittier writes, “All day long that free flag tost / Over the heads of the rebel host” (lines 51-52), indicating the flag’s steadfast presence even in the heart of enemy territory. The Union flag’s resilience throughout the day, as it “rose and fell / On the loyal winds that loved it well” (lines 53-54), represents the ongoing fight for freedom and unity. The final lines of the poem, “Over Barbara Frietchie’s grave / Flag of Freedom and Union, wave!” (lines 63-64), reinforce the idea that the ideals of the Union—freedom, unity, and justice—will endure long after the war is over, with Barbara’s grave serving as a lasting symbol of that endurance.
Literary Theories and “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
| Literary Theory | Explanation | References from the Poem |
| Historical Criticism | Historical criticism emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical context in which the poem was written. Whittier’s poem reflects the tension of the American Civil War, particularly the loyalty to the Union cause. It focuses on Barbara Frietchie’s act of defiance as a symbol of the Union’s moral resolve. | The poem is set during the Civil War when General Stonewall Jackson’s Confederate army marched through Frederick, Maryland. Barbara’s act of defending the Union flag represents the loyalty of Union sympathizers during the war: “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag” (lines 41-42). |
| Feminist Criticism | Feminist criticism analyzes how gender and power dynamics are portrayed. In this poem, Barbara Frietchie, an elderly woman, stands as a symbol of courage and resistance in a predominantly male context of war. Her bravery challenges typical gender roles, showcasing the strength of women during times of conflict. | Barbara’s act of defiance in the face of male soldiers and her bravery in displaying the Union flag despite her age highlight her strength and resistance to traditional gender expectations: “Bravest of all in Frederick town” (line 21). |
| New Historicism | New Historicism examines the text in the context of the time it was written, focusing on the cultural and political atmosphere. This theory would explore how Whittier’s depiction of Barbara’s heroism is tied to the nationalistic sentiment and Union propaganda during the Civil War. | The poem presents Barbara’s defiance as emblematic of the broader Union cause, emphasizing the cultural importance of the flag: “All day long that free flag tost / Over the heads of the rebel host” (lines 51-52). This reinforces the idea of the Union’s enduring moral victory. |
| Symbolism | Symbolism is a literary theory that focuses on symbols within the text. In “Barbara Frietchie,” the flag is a central symbol, representing the ideals of freedom, loyalty, and unity. Barbara’s act of holding up the Union flag despite danger signifies her steadfast commitment to those ideals. | The flag is repeatedly used as a symbol of the Union cause and its ideals: “Over Barbara Frietchie’s grave / Flag of Freedom and Union, wave!” (lines 63-64). The flag is not just an object but a symbol of the ongoing fight for freedom and unity, even in death. |
Critical Questions about “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
- What does Barbara Frietchie symbolize in “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier?
- Barbara Frietchie symbolizes loyalty, patriotism, and defiance in “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier. Her unwavering commitment to the Union cause during the Civil War is shown when she courageously displays the Union flag in the face of Confederate soldiers. Despite her old age and the danger to her life, she chooses to protect the flag over her own safety, representing the enduring spirit of the Union and the fight for freedom. This act of defiance is captured in her famous words, “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag” (Whittier, lines 41-42). Barbara becomes a symbol of individual bravery and the power of standing firm in one’s beliefs, even when faced with overwhelming opposition.
- How does Whittier depict the relationship between Barbara Frietchie and Stonewall Jackson in “Barbara Frietchie”?
- The relationship between Barbara Frietchie and Stonewall Jackson is complex and layered with respect and internal conflict in “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier. While Jackson initially commands his soldiers to fire on her, his response changes after witnessing her courage. The moment Barbara risks her life to protect the flag, Jackson is moved by her bravery and says, “Who touches a hair of yon gray head / Dies like a dog! March on!” (Whittier, lines 33-34). Jackson’s shift in attitude, from commanding her death to respecting her defiance, illustrates a moment of introspection and recognition of her noble cause, even though they are on opposite sides of the war. This interaction highlights the tension between duty and honor in the context of war.
- What role does the Union flag play in “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier?
- The Union flag in “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier acts as a powerful symbol of freedom, unity, and national identity. It represents the ideals of the Union cause, which Barbara is determined to defend. Even when the flag is shot at and torn, it continues to fly, symbolizing resilience and the enduring fight for justice. Whittier writes, “All day long that free flag tost / Over the heads of the rebel host” (lines 51-52), showing that, despite the Confederate presence, the flag remains a symbol of hope and resistance. The flag is ultimately associated with victory, as seen in the closing lines: “Over Barbara Frietchie’s grave / Flag of Freedom and Union, wave!” (lines 63-64), marking its eternal connection to the values it represents.
- How does “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier reflect the moral and emotional impact of war?
- Barbara Frietchie by John Greenleaf Whittier highlights both the moral and emotional consequences of war through the portrayal of Barbara’s defiance and Jackson’s emotional response. While the poem depicts the violent reality of war, it also reflects the transformative power of individual acts of bravery. Barbara’s courage challenges the enemy’s resolve, evoking a sense of respect and shame in Jackson, which is evident in the lines: “A shade of sadness, a blush of shame, / Over the face of the leader came” (Whittier, lines 31-32). This emotional response emphasizes the human cost of war and the possibility for compassion even in moments of conflict. Through Barbara’s act and Jackson’s subsequent reaction, the poem underscores how personal integrity and heroism can transcend the brutality of war, suggesting that moral victories are still possible in times of great violence.
Literary Works Similar to “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
- “The Battle Hymn of the Republic“ by Julia Ward Howe
This poem similarly reflects the themes of patriotism and national unity during the Civil War, celebrating the Union’s moral and spiritual cause. - “O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt Whitman
Whitman’s poem shares a sense of reverence for a figure of national significance, just as “Barbara Frietchie” venerates the spirit of the Union cause and individual sacrifice. - “The Raven“ by Edgar Allan Poe
While thematically different, both poems evoke intense emotions and explore human resilience in the face of overwhelming circumstances. - “The Charge of the Light Brigade“ by Alfred Lord Tennyson
This poem and “Barbara Frietchie” both depict heroic acts of bravery and loyalty in the context of war, symbolizing honor through self-sacrifice. - “I Hear America Singing“ by Walt Whitman
Similar to Whittier’s work, Whitman’s poem celebrates individual contributions to the collective identity, focusing on unity and patriotism.
Representative Quotations of “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, / But spare your country’s flag” (lines 41-42) | Barbara, despite her old age, defies the Confederate troops by protecting the Union flag, showing her deep loyalty to the Union. | Feminist Criticism: This quote underscores Barbara’s agency and defiance in a male-dominated context, where women were typically seen as passive or non-political figures during war. |
| “A shade of sadness, a blush of shame, / Over the face of the leader came” (lines 31-32) | After Barbara’s courageous act, General Stonewall Jackson feels conflicted, reflecting his respect for her loyalty. | New Historicism: This moment reflects the personal moral conflicts that could arise even within the framework of the Civil War, showing that even wartime leaders could feel compassion and guilt. |
| “Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, / Bowed with her fourscore years and ten” (lines 21-22) | Despite being eighty years old, Barbara rises to defend the flag, symbolizing the strength of personal conviction regardless of age. | Historical Criticism: This highlights Barbara’s role as a symbol of steadfast Union loyalty during the Civil War, a period marked by national division. |
| “Bravest of all in Frederick town, / She took up the flag the men hauled down” (lines 21-22) | Barbara is depicted as the bravest in town for rescuing the Union flag from the Confederate soldiers. | Heroic Literature: This quote elevates Barbara’s act to a heroic status, emphasizing individual bravery in the face of overwhelming odds. |
| “Forty flags with their silver stars, / Forty flags with their crimson bars” (lines 9-10) | The flags of the Confederate army are described, symbolizing the opposing force and its large presence in the town. | Symbolism: The flags symbolize the Confederate cause, in stark contrast to the Union flag, which Barbara defends. |
| “All day long that free flag tost / Over the heads of the rebel host” (lines 51-52) | Despite the Confederates’ presence, the Union flag remains proudly flying, symbolizing the victory of Union values. | Symbolism: The Union flag here becomes a symbol of resilience and victory in the fight for freedom, even in enemy territory. |
| “Who touches a hair of yon gray head / Dies like a dog! March on!” (lines 33-34) | Stonewall Jackson’s command reflects a moment of respect for Barbara, acknowledging her courage and loyalty to the Union. | Moral Philosophy: This moment shows how moral integrity can impact even the enemy, highlighting the power of honor and compassion in times of conflict. |
| “Over Barbara Frietchie’s grave / Flag of Freedom and Union, wave!” (lines 63-64) | The poem closes with a tribute to Barbara, suggesting that her act of bravery is immortalized by the flag of the Union. | Historical Criticism: The closing lines reflect the lasting legacy of individual sacrifice for national ideals, honoring Barbara’s patriotism in the context of the Civil War. |
| “The clustered spires of Frederick stand / Green-walled by the hills of Maryland” (lines 3-4) | Whittier paints a peaceful picture of Frederick, Maryland, before the arrival of the Confederate troops, setting the stage for the tension to come. | Imagery: The use of vivid imagery here helps create a stark contrast between the serene beauty of the town and the impending violence of the war. |
| “And through the hill-gaps sunset light / Shone over it with a warm good-night” (lines 55-56) | The poem’s closing reference to the sunset provides a peaceful end to the conflict, signaling the end of a hard-fought day. | Imagery: The sunset symbolizes the end of the day’s struggle and a hopeful resolution, adding a sense of tranquility and finality to the poem’s themes of loyalty and sacrifice. |
Suggested Readings: “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Whittier
- Taylor, C. Marshall. “John Greenleaf Whittier. Friend and Defender of Freedom. A Narrative Biography.” Bulletin of Friends’ Historical Association 38.1 (1949): 44-44.
- BLANCK, JACOB, and MICHAEL WINSHIP, editors. “JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER 1807–1892.” Bibliography of American Literature, Volume 9: Edward Noyes Westcott to Elinor Wylie, Yale University Press, 1991, pp. 104–280. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1xp3njk.14. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.
- Whittier, John Greenleaf, 1807-1892. National Lyrics by John Greenleaf Whittier. 1865. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.35434377. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.
- Wendell, Barrett. “John Greenleaf Whittier.” Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 28, 1892, pp. 357–88. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20020535. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.
- Sherbo, Arthur. “John Greenleaf Whittier in ‘The Critic’, 1881-1892.” Studies in Bibliography, vol. 43, 1990, pp. 222–38. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40371930. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.