Etymology of Bourgeois
The term “bourgeois” originates from the French word “bourgeoisie,” commonly used during the late Middle Ages to describe the urban middle class, particularly merchants, tradespeople, and city-dwelling professionals. The word is rooted in the Old French “burgeis,” which refers to an inhabitant of a town or a walled city.
With time, it evolved to signify the social class that emerged as a result of urbanization and capitalism, characterized by their ownership of property and engagement in commerce.
In the context of political and economic theories, “bourgeois” often denotes the middle or capitalist class, and it has been widely used to critique the values, aspirations, and social attitudes associated with this group.
Meanings of Bourgeois
| Meanings | Description |
| Socioeconomic Class | It refers to the middle class associated with property ownership, professional jobs, and financial stability. |
| Capitalist Class | In Marxist theory, it represents the capitalist class controlling production and exploiting the working class. |
| Cultural Attitudes and Values | Describes conventional, conformist, and materialistic behaviors often seen in literature and cultural discussions. |
| Literary Character Type | In literature, bourgeois characters embody middle-class values and serve as a critique of societal norms. |
| Societal Critique | It is used to criticize the conformity and conservatism of the middle class in literature and theoretical discourse. |
| Historical Context | Historically describes the rising urban middle class during the late Middle Ages and early capitalism. |
Definition of Bourgeois as a Theoretical Term
“Bourgeois,” as a theoretical term, refers to the social class typically associated with property ownership, professional occupations, and a focus on financial stability within capitalist societies. It is often used in Marxist theory to denote the capitalist class, characterized by its control over the means of production and its perceived exploitation of the working class.
This term is central to critiques of class structures, economic relations, and societal hierarchies, serving as a lens for understanding power dynamics and class struggle in various contexts.
Bourgeois: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists:
- Karl Marx: Marx extensively discussed the bourgeoisie in his works, particularly in The Communist Manifesto, emphasizing their role in capitalist society and their exploitation of the proletariat.
Works:
- The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: This seminal work provides a comprehensive analysis of the bourgeoisie as a class and their impact on society.
Arguments:
- The Bourgeoisie as the Capitalist Class: The theorists argue that the bourgeoisie represents the capitalist class, owning and controlling the means of production, and benefiting from the labor of the working class.
- Exploitation of the Proletariat: Marx and Engels contend that the bourgeoisie’s pursuit of profit leads to the exploitation of the working class, resulting in class struggle and alienation.
- Historical Materialism: Their analysis of the bourgeoisie is rooted in historical materialism, asserting that economic conditions shape society and class dynamics.
Bourgeois and Literary Theories
- Marxist Literary Theory:
- In Marxist literary theory, the bourgeoisie is seen as a central theme in literature. Works of literature are often analyzed to uncover how they portray and critique the bourgeoisie, their values, and their impact on society. The bourgeoisie is typically associated with themes of class struggle, exploitation, and the inequalities of capitalist systems.
- Realism and Naturalism:
- The literary movements of realism and naturalism often depict bourgeois life in a detailed and critical manner. These theories emphasize portraying everyday life, including the struggles, desires, and aspirations of the middle class, to provide a realistic representation of society. Authors like Émile Zola explored the bourgeois world in their works to shed light on societal issues.
- Feminist Literary Theory:
- Feminist literary theory frequently examines how the bourgeois family structure and gender roles are depicted in literature. It explores the ways in which bourgeois values and norms can reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations. Feminist critics analyze how literature challenges or reinforces these structures.
- Cultural Studies:
- Cultural studies explore the role of the bourgeoisie in shaping cultural production and consumption. This theory investigates how the middle class influences the creation and dissemination of culture, including literature. It examines the impact of bourgeois cultural values and tastes on the production of literature and the formation of canons.
- Postcolonial Theory:
- Postcolonial literary theory may examine how the bourgeois class, often of colonial or imperial origins, is depicted in literature. It delves into the tensions and contradictions within bourgeois identity in colonial and postcolonial contexts, as well as the ways in which literature reflects or challenges these dynamics.
Bourgeois in Literary Criticism
| Author and Work | Description |
| Émile Zola – Germinal (1885) | Set in 19th-century France, Germinal delves into the lives of coal miners, depicting their grueling work conditions and abject poverty. The novel serves as a powerful critique of the bourgeoisie, particularly mine owners, and their exploitation of the working class. It explores themes of class struggle and social injustice. |
| John Steinbeck – The Grapes of Wrath (1939) | The Grapes of Wrath is a powerful portrayal of the Joad family’s journey during the Great Depression. This novel critiques the capitalist system and the bourgeoisie’s impact on ordinary people as the family faces adversity and exploitation while seeking a better life. Steinbeck’s work is a vivid exploration of social and economic inequality. |
| Upton Sinclair – The Jungle (1906) | Set in Chicago’s meatpacking industry, The Jungle exposes the harsh working conditions and unsanitary practices faced by immigrant laborers. While primarily focusing on the working class, the novel also critiques the bourgeoisie, particularly those who profit from labor exploitation. Sinclair’s work is a scathing critique of capitalism and the industrial bourgeoisie. |
| Maxim Gorky – Mother (1907) | Mother follows the journey of Pelageya Nilovna, a working-class woman who becomes politically radicalized. The novel explores her transformation and her role in the labor movement. While centered on the working class, the novel also critiques the bourgeoisie, including factory owners and the oppressive government, as sources of suffering and injustice. Maxim Gorky’s work is a powerful portrayal of class struggle and revolutionary potential. |
Suggested Readings
- Berman, Marshall. All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Verso, 1983.
- Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
- Engels, Friedrich. The Condition of the Working Class in England. Translated by W. O. Henderson and W. H. Chaloner, Oxford University Press, 1993.
- Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Duke University Press, 1991.
- Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. Translated by Rodney Livingstone, MIT Press, 1971.
- Marx, Karl. The Communist Manifesto. Edited by Friedrich Engels, Penguin Classics, 2002.
- Moretti, Franco. Modern Epic: The World-System from Goethe to García Márquez. Verso, 1996.
- Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. Doubleday, 1906.
- Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. Penguin Classics, 2006.
- Zola, Émile. Germinal. Translated by Roger Pearson, Oxford University Press, 2004.