Introduction: “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
“Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andrew C. Long first appeared in Orientalism and Literature, edited by Geoffrey P. Nash, as part of the Cambridge Critical Concepts series, published by Cambridge University Press in 2019 (pp. 235–252). In this chapter, Long engages in a critical dialogue with Edward Said’s literary criticism, particularly examining the tension between Said’s postcolonial critique of imperialism and his engagement with canonical modernist writers such as Joseph Conrad and Albert Camus. Central to Long’s argument is Aijaz Ahmad’s critique, articulated in In Theory (1992), which accuses Said of absolving cosmopolitan writers of their racial biases while being more stringent in his critiques of overtly colonialist figures. Ahmad argues that Said’s privileging of European comparative literature and his selective application of contrapuntal reading limits his engagement with Third World writers and reinforces the intellectual hierarchy of Western literary traditions.
Long explores how Said’s intellectual formation, deeply influenced by Cold War cultural critique, shaped his interpretation of literary texts. He contrasts Said’s analysis of Heart of Darkness, where Said acknowledges Conrad’s critique of imperialism but hesitates to fully address its racialized representation of Africa, with Said’s reading of Camus’ The Stranger, which Said interprets as a text of liberal settler consciousness rather than outright racism. Chinua Achebe’s landmark critique of Conrad in An Image of Africa (1975) serves as a pivotal counterpoint in the debate, arguing that Heart of Darkness dehumanizes Africans and should not be upheld as a literary classic. Long further situates this discourse in contemporary postcolonial literary responses, such as Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation, which reimagines Camus’ novel from the perspective of the unnamed murdered “Arab” and interrogates the legacy of French colonialism.
The chapter highlights the broader implications of this debate for postcolonial literary studies, addressing whether texts that employ racist tropes can still be read as critiques of empire and how they should be approached in educational and critical contexts. Long ultimately argues for a nuanced contrapuntal reading that acknowledges the limitations of these canonical texts while resisting both their outright rejection and an uncritical valorization. His work contributes to ongoing discussions in literary theory regarding the ethics of reading, the role of race in modernist literature, and the politics of canon formation in postcolonial and decolonial studies.
Summary of “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
Main Ideas
- Ahmad’s Critique of Said’s Literary Analysis
- Aijaz Ahmad critiques Edward Said’s literary criticism in Orientalism and After (1992), arguing that Said absolves cosmopolitan modernist writers like Joseph Conrad and E.M. Forster of racism while critiquing others (Long, p. 235).
- Ahmad claims Said’s work is shaped by Cold War intellectual traditions, particularly the influence of Lionel Trilling and Clement Greenberg (Long, p. 236).
- Said’s Engagement with Conrad and Camus
- Said’s work, especially in Culture and Imperialism, focuses extensively on Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, yet he does not fully respond to Chinua Achebe’s condemnation of Conrad as a “thoroughgoing racist” (Long, p. 235).
- Long compares Said’s treatment of Heart of Darkness with The Stranger by Albert Camus, arguing that while Conrad’s racism is overt, Camus’ novel represents “liberal settler consciousness” (Long, p. 235-236).
- Achebe’s Rejection of Conrad and the Defense of Heart of Darkness
- Achebe denounces Heart of Darkness for its racist language and portrayal of Africans, calling it a work that questions “the very humanity of black people” (Long, p. 237).
- Conrad scholars like Cedric Watts and Hunt Hawkins defend Heart of Darkness, arguing it critiques rather than perpetuates imperialism (Long, p. 238).
- Some scholars argue Achebe misreads Conrad, while others acknowledge the novella’s racial biases but insist on its literary complexity (Long, p. 238).
- The Role of Contrapuntal Reading and Standpoint Theory
- Long discusses Said’s contrapuntal reading strategy, which examines what is both “there and not there” in texts (Long, p. 241).
- Said applies this method to Camus’ The Stranger, recognizing how the novel omits Algerian perspectives while framing French colonial subjects as universal figures (Long, p. 243).
- Standpoint theory emerges as an essential lens in Said’s post-Orientalism work, where he examines literature from the perspective of historically marginalized groups (Long, p. 246).
- The Cold War Cultural Critique and Literary Canon Formation
- Said’s preference for canonical texts aligns with Cold War cultural critique, which emphasized detachment, irony, and aesthetic independence from political ideology (Long, p. 245).
- Literary critics like Trilling and Greenberg argue for an elite, high-art literary tradition, which influences Said’s approach to literature (Long, p. 245).
- This tradition values writers like Conrad and Camus while marginalizing Third World writers, a criticism Ahmad levels against Said (Long, p. 236).
- Contemporary Postcolonial Reinterpretations
- Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation (2015) offers a counter-narrative to Camus’ The Stranger, giving voice to the murdered “Arab” by telling the story from his brother’s perspective (Long, p. 247).
- The novel critiques the colonial legacy of French Algeria and highlights the silencing of native voices in European literature (Long, p. 248).
- Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved?
- Long concludes that cosmopolitan writers cannot be entirely absolved of racism; rather, their works should be critically examined through contrapuntal reading and postcolonial critique (Long, p. 248).
- While Said does not explicitly condemn writers like Conrad and Camus, his analysis reveals how their works are implicated in colonialist and racist ideologies (Long, p. 249).
- The debate extends into pedagogy: should works like Heart of Darkness still be taught, and if so, in what context? (Long, p. 249).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
| Term/Concept | Definition & Explanation | Reference in the Chapter |
| Cosmopolitan Writer | A worldly intellectual who operates beyond national ideologies and engages with multiple cultural traditions, often associated with figures like Joseph Conrad and Albert Camus. | “The cosmopolitan writer is not the critic Edward Said but rather the cosmopolitan intellectual, a worldly figure who thinks and writes from the borders of national ideology, a detached critic.” (Long, p. 235) |
| Cold War Cultural Critique | A form of literary and cultural analysis shaped by Cold War ideological values, emphasizing aesthetic detachment, irony, and universalism while often marginalizing anti-colonial and Marxist perspectives. | “Said’s valuation of Joseph Conrad and many other cosmopolitan writers is rooted in what I call a Cold War cultural critique.” (Long, p. 245) |
| Contrapuntal Reading | A method of reading that examines both what is present and absent in a text, recognizing the ideological structures that shape its meaning. | “A contrapuntal reading recognizes the oppositions – the implicit/explicit and the absent/present – that underpin a text.” (Long, p. 241) |
| Standpoint Theory | A theoretical approach that emphasizes reading and interpreting literature from the perspective of marginalized or colonized subjects. | “His reading practice here is linked to standpoint, a term or hermeneutic with which we might reassess and press his idea of the contrapuntal reading.” (Long, p. 246) |
| Orientalism | A concept developed by Edward Said describing the Western construction of the “Orient” as an exotic, inferior, and monolithic Other. | “Orientalism is a book that is in spirit, if not word, supportive of Achebe’s criticism of the legacy of colonialism and racism in American and European literary criticism.” (Long, p. 237) |
| Postcolonial Criticism | A theoretical framework that analyzes literature through the lens of colonial histories, racial hierarchies, and imperial legacies. | “Said increasingly asserts the importance of political critique, coalescing in his ideas of the contrapuntal and, especially, standpoint.” (Long, p. 246) |
| Eurocentrism | A worldview that privileges European culture, history, and literature as superior or universal, often at the expense of non-Western perspectives. | “Ahmad also criticizes Said’s use of the work of Michel Foucault, as, while Said remains an avowed humanist, Foucault’s project was entirely opposed to the institutions of the Enlightenment and Western humanism.” (Long, p. 236) |
| Colonial Discourse | The system of representation through which colonial powers construct the identities of colonizers and the colonized. | “Achebe’s reading of Heart of Darkness is contrapuntal, as Africa is a site for Europe’s metaphysical crises and a place to stage its ‘comforting myths’.” (Long, p. 237) |
| Literary Canon Formation | The process through which certain texts are deemed as “great” or “universal,” often reinforcing Western-centric values while marginalizing non-Western voices. | “Should the novella be taught at all, and, if so, in what sort of pedagogical context?” (Long, p. 238) |
| Liberal Settler Consciousness | The ideological framework in which colonial settlers perceive themselves as both progressive and universal, while remaining complicit in colonial domination. | “The Stranger is more difficult to read as a racist text, and it is only with Said’s reading practice that we might understand how this vaunted novel of Western consciousness is in fact an insidious text of liberal settler consciousness.” (Long, p. 236) |
Contribution of “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Postcolonial Literary Theory
- Challenges the Eurocentrism of literary canon formation by interrogating the continued valorization of Conrad, Camus, and other modernist writers.
- Critiques the exclusion of Third World writers from dominant literary discourse, aligning with Aijaz Ahmad’s arguments in In Theory (1992).
- Questions how postcolonial studies should approach racist texts: “Should the novella be taught at all, and, if so, in what sort of pedagogical context?” (Long, p. 238).
- Demonstrates how colonial discourse shapes literary representations, as seen in Achebe’s critique of Conrad: “Achebe’s reading of Heart of Darkness is contrapuntal, as Africa is a site for Europe’s metaphysical crises and a place to stage its ‘comforting myths’.” (Long, p. 237).
2. Contrapuntal Reading (Edward Said)
- Builds on Said’s contrapuntal reading method, which highlights what is both present and absent in literary texts.
- Examines how Said applied this reading strategy to Heart of Darkness and The Stranger, revealing underlying colonial ideologies.
- Proposes a more rigorous application of contrapuntal reading to expose racial biases and class hierarchies in literature: “A contrapuntal reading recognizes the oppositions – the implicit/explicit and the absent/present – that underpin a text.” (Long, p. 241).
- Extends contrapuntal reading to contemporary texts like Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation, which “offers a counter-narrative to Camus’ The Stranger, giving voice to the murdered ‘Arab’ by telling the story from his brother’s perspective.” (Long, p. 247).
3. Cold War Cultural Critique
- Examines how Cold War intellectual traditions shaped Said’s literary criticism, influencing his engagement with modernist literature.
- Highlights the ideological roots of aesthetic detachment, irony, and cosmopolitanism in mid-20th-century literary criticism: “Said’s valuation of Joseph Conrad and many other cosmopolitan writers is rooted in what I call a Cold War cultural critique.” (Long, p. 245).
- Links Cold War literary criticism to the marginalization of anti-colonial and Marxist perspectives in Western academia: “The anticommunism, elitism, and values of the Cold War cultural critique are finally a function – moralizing – of a moral purpose and cause.” (Long, p. 245).
4. Standpoint Theory (Feminist and Postcolonial Adaptation)
- Argues that literary criticism must be informed by the perspectives of marginalized and colonized groups.
- Advocates for reading texts “from the standpoint of its victims,” following Said’s approach in Zionism from the Standpoint of its Victims (Long, p. 246).
- Demonstrates how Algerian and African voices—such as Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation and Achebe’s An Image of Africa—challenge Western literary interpretations: “Achebe is right; to the African reader the price of Conrad’s eloquent denunciation of colonization is the recycling of racist notions of the ‘dark’ continent and her people.” (Long, p. 247).
5. Canon Formation and Literary Pedagogy
- Engages in the debate over whether racially problematic literary texts should remain in the literary canon.
- Acknowledges the aesthetic complexity of texts like Heart of Darkness while questioning their continued prominence in education: “It is hard to imagine a classroom in the United States today where one might teach Heart of Darkness in the aesthetic terms – irony, detachment, existential, écriture blanche – in which it was championed for so many years.” (Long, p. 249).
- Suggests that literary pedagogy should balance critique with historical contextualization, rather than moralizing rejection: “We can read – and teach in the appropriate context – contrapuntally even the most racist poems and novels, not as an affirmation of racism or sexism but rather as a critical analysis of how the questionable worldview, and hegemony, works in a given text.” (Long, p. 248).
Examples of Critiques Through “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
| Literary Work | Critique in Long’s Chapter | Key Theoretical Concerns |
| Heart of Darkness (Joseph Conrad, 1902) | – Chinua Achebe condemns the novella as a “thoroughgoing racist” text that dehumanizes Africans and perpetuates imperialist ideology (Long, p. 235). – Edward Said, while acknowledging its racial biases, argues that its narrative technique (irony and detachment) critiques imperialism rather than affirming it (Long, p. 241). – Scholars like Cedric Watts defend Conrad, claiming Heart of Darkness exposes, rather than endorses, colonialism (Long, p. 238). | – Postcolonial Criticism (Achebe’s critique of racism in literature). – Contrapuntal Reading (Said’s nuanced interpretation of Conrad’s work). – Canon Formation Debate (Should racist texts be taught in classrooms?) |
| The Stranger (L’Étranger) (Albert Camus, 1942) | – Long critiques Said’s reading of Camus, arguing that The Stranger reflects “liberal settler consciousness,” an insidious colonial worldview that erases native Algerian perspectives (Long, p. 236). – Conor Cruise O’Brien critiques Camus for reinforcing a Eurocentric, colonialist narrative, as the murdered “Arab” remains unnamed and dehumanized (Long, p. 243). – Said views Camus as “a moral man in an immoral situation,” highlighting the contradictions in his stance on colonial Algeria (Long, p. 243). | – Colonial Discourse (The erasure of indigenous Algerians). – Cold War Cultural Critique (Camus as an existentialist figure aligned with European humanism). – Contrapuntal Reading (Long argues for a more critical reassessment of Camus’ political implications). |
| The Meursault Investigation (Kamel Daoud, 2015) | – Presents a counter-narrative to The Stranger, giving the murdered Arab a name (Musa) and telling the story from his brother’s perspective (Long, p. 247). – Daoud critiques Camus’ colonial erasure, rewriting the narrative from the standpoint of an Algerian victim of colonial violence (Long, p. 247). – Highlights the failure of postcolonial states to adequately address colonial histories, challenging both French and Algerian nationalist narratives (Long, p. 248). | – Postcolonial Rewriting (Reframing colonial literature from the perspective of the oppressed). – Standpoint Theory (The importance of marginalized perspectives in literary critique). – Contrapuntal Reading (How colonial legacies persist in literature). |
| A Bend in the River (V. S. Naipaul, 1979) | – Said critiques Naipaul for adopting an anti-African, colonialist perspective, arguing that the novel echoes Heart of Darkness in its depiction of postcolonial Africa as chaotic and ungovernable (Long, p. 241). – Naipaul’s portrayal of African politics is rooted in Eurocentric pessimism, reinforcing Western stereotypes of post-independence African nations (Long, p. 242). – Long aligns Said’s criticism with a broader discussion of cosmopolitan writers who, while critical of empire, still adopt colonialist frameworks (Long, p. 241). | – Postcolonial Critique of Cosmopolitanism (Naipaul as a “cosmopolitan intellectual” detached from Third World struggles). – Eurocentrism in Postcolonial Literature (Depicting Africa through a Western lens). – Canon Formation and Pedagogy (Should Naipaul’s work be read as critique or reinforcement of imperialist ideology?). |
Criticism Against “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
- Overemphasis on Said’s Intellectual Formation
- Long attributes Said’s contradictions largely to Cold War cultural critique, particularly the influence of Lionel Trilling and Clement Greenberg, but underplays Said’s engagement with anti-colonial and Marxist thinkers like Frantz Fanon and Antonio Gramsci (Long, p. 236).
- This reduces Said’s complex theoretical shifts to Cold War liberalism rather than acknowledging his later political radicalization.
- Limited Engagement with Third-World Literature
- Long critiques Said for favoring Western canonical writers over Third World authors (Long, p. 236), yet his own analysis remains focused on figures like Conrad, Camus, and Naipaul, engaging only briefly with writers like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o and Kamel Daoud.
- His work could benefit from more discussion of non-Western literary traditions and their critiques of cosmopolitanism.
- Contradictions in the Evaluation of Cosmopolitan Writers
- While Long argues that cosmopolitanism often masks Eurocentrism, he still engages with texts by cosmopolitan writers (e.g., Conrad, Camus, Naipaul) without fully exploring alternative postcolonial or indigenous literary frameworks (Long, p. 248).
- His critique does not fully address whether all cosmopolitan intellectuals are inevitably implicated in colonial discourse or if some transcend these limitations.
- Insufficient Discussion on Teaching Racist Texts
- Long raises the issue of whether texts like Heart of Darkness should still be taught but does not provide a clear pedagogical framework for how they should be approached in the classroom (Long, p. 238).
- His argument remains ambiguous on whether the contrapuntal method alone is enough to justify their continued inclusion in literary curricula.
- Binary Framing of Postcolonial Criticism
- His analysis sometimes frames postcolonial criticism as either moralistic denunciation (Ahmad) or contrapuntal critique (Said) without considering other methodologies (Long, p. 249).
- This neglects alternative postcolonial approaches, such as decoloniality, that might offer more radical critiques beyond contrapuntal reading.
- Neglects the Role of Gender in Literary Criticism
- While engaging with race, colonialism, and class, Long does not address the role of gender and how colonial discourse intersects with representations of women in cosmopolitan literature (Long, p. 237).
- His discussion of Heart of Darkness and The Stranger does not critically examine the portrayal of women in these texts, despite their importance in colonial narratives.
Representative Quotations from “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Indeed, Said never fully answered Chinua Achebe’s denunciation of the novelist as a ‘thoroughgoing racist,’ and his reluctance, I argue, is rooted in his intellectual formation in Cold War literary and cultural criticism.” (p. 235) | Long critiques Said’s hesitance to engage with Achebe’s critique of Heart of Darkness, attributing this to Said’s academic background, which was shaped by Cold War intellectuals such as Lionel Trilling. |
| “The racism of Heart of Darkness is obvious, The Stranger is more difficult to read as a racist text, and it is only with Said’s reading practice … that we might understand how this vaunted novel of Western consciousness is in fact an insidious text of liberal settler consciousness.” (p. 235) | Long highlights how different canonical texts contain racial biases, suggesting that Said’s methods help expose their ideological underpinnings. He suggests that Camus’ The Stranger also embodies colonial racism, despite its surface neutrality. |
| “Ahmad also criticizes Said’s use of the work of Michel Foucault, as, while Said remains an avowed humanist, Foucault’s project was entirely opposed to the institutions of the Enlightenment and Western humanism.” (p. 236) | Aijaz Ahmad critiques Said for inconsistencies in his theoretical influences, noting a contradiction in his admiration for both Foucault and the humanist literary tradition. |
| “It is especially exasperating for Ahmad that Said champions Salman Rushdie, a writer long based in Britain. Without supporting the fatwa, Ahmad points out that Rushdie writes for an elite Anglophone audience, not his fellow working-class Britons of South Asian ancestry.” (p. 236) | Ahmad sees a contradiction in Said’s postcolonial critique, arguing that Said privileges cosmopolitan, elite writers over more grounded Third World voices. |
| “The strongest parts of his argument, however, concern the representation of Africans in Heart of Darkness and the racist language of the text.” (p. 237) | Long acknowledges Achebe’s critique of Conrad’s portrayal of Africans as dehumanized figures, reinforcing the argument that Heart of Darkness perpetuates racist imagery. |
| “Should the novella be taught at all, and, if so, in what sort of pedagogical context?” (p. 238) | Long raises the important question of how racist texts should be engaged in contemporary classrooms—whether they should be studied as historical artifacts or challenged through new critical frameworks. |
| “It is only in his well-known chapter of Culture and Imperialism ‘Two Visions in Heart of Darkness’ that Said finally discusses the colonial and racial references and textual features of this novella.” (p. 241) | Long points out that Said took a long time to directly address the racial aspects of Heart of Darkness, suggesting an initial reluctance to frame it as a racist text. |
| “For O’Brien, as Said observes, Camus was a ‘moral man in an immoral situation,’ a position which preserves his humanist reputation and resonates with Said’s comments on Conrad and his novella.” (p. 243) | Long connects critiques of Conrad and Camus, arguing that both are excused as humanists despite the colonialist and racist dimensions of their works. |
| “Simply put, Said’s valuation of Joseph Conrad and many other cosmopolitan writers is rooted in what I call a Cold War cultural critique, albeit with some aspects inverted.” (p. 244) | Long introduces the idea that Said’s literary criticism was shaped by Cold War-era aesthetic and political debates, which shaped his tendency to defend certain canonical figures. |
| “And yet, yes, we should not jettison these texts, at least according to Said’s valuation of literature in Orientalism and in Culture and Imperialism … even the most racist poems and novels, not as an affirmation of racism or sexism but rather as a critical analysis of how the questionable worldview, and hegemony, works in a given text.” (p. 248) | Long concludes that racist texts should not be discarded but rather critically analyzed using Said’s contrapuntal method, which exposes their underlying power structures. |
Suggested Readings: “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
- Long, Andrew C. “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?.” Orientalism and Literature.
- Long AC. Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism? In: Nash GP, ed. Orientalism and Literature. Cambridge Critical Concepts. Cambridge University Press; 2019:235-252.
- Long, Andrew C.. “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” Orientalism and Literature (2019): https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Can-the-Cosmopolitan-Writer-Be-Absolved-of-Racism-Long/1153134e6aab9606cd3038263805b3f2c938cf6f