Category: Literary Devices

Anagram

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Etymology of Anagram

The word “anagram” comes from the Greek “ana-” meaning “back” or “again,” and “graphein” meaning “to write.” Anagrams have been used as a literary device for centuries. They are present in literature from ancient times to the present day.

Meanings:

The meanings behind anagrams can vary widely depending on the context in which they are used.

  • An anagram is a word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters of another word or phrase.
  • Anagrams serves various purposes, including entertainment, creating distinctive names, conveying hidden messages or meanings, and adding humor, depth, or complexity to a work of literature.
  • Anagrams are a versatile literary device that can be used in many different contexts, from casual word games to serious writing.
Anagram in Grammar

Grammatically, “anagram” is a noun and its plural form is “anagrams.” As a verb, “anagram” means to form a word or phrase by rearranging the letters of another word or phrase. For example, one could say “I will anagram the word ‘cinema’ to get the word ‘iceman.’” In this case, “anagram” is used as a transitive verb. It is not used as an intransitive verb or a linking verb.

Definition of Literary Device of Anagram

The literary device of anagram involves rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to form a new word or phrase. Anagrams are used in literature to create wordplay, reveal hidden meanings, or add a sense of mystery or intrigue.

Types of anagrams

There are several types of anagrams used as literary devices. Here are a few examples:

  1. Direct anagram: This is the simplest type of anagram, where the letters of the original word or phrase are simply rearranged to form a new word or phrase. For example, “listen” and “silent” are direct anagrams of each other.
  2. Reverse anagram: In a reverse anagram, the letters of the original word or phrase are reversed and then rearranged to form a new word or phrase. For example, “desserts” and “stressed” are reverse anagrams of each other.
  3. Transposition anagram: In a transposition anagram, some of the letters of the original word or phrase are swapped with each other to form a new word or phrase. For example, “debit card” and “bad credit” are transposition anagrams of each other.
  4. Substitution anagram: In a substitution anagram, some of the letters of the original word or phrase are replaced with other letters to form a new word or phrase. For example, “funeral” and “real fun” are substitution anagrams of each other.
  5. Hybrid anagram: This is a combination of two or more types of anagrams. For example, “astronomer” can be rearranged to form the phrase “moon starer,” which is a hybrid of a direct and a substitution anagram.
Common Examples of Anagram

Here are some common examples of anagrams:

  1. Dormitory = Dirty room
  2. Funeral = Real fun
  3. A gentleman = Elegant man
  4. The eyes = They see
  5. Astronomer = Moon starer
  6. Debit card = Bad credit
  7. Mother-in-law = Woman Hitler
  8. Eleven plus two = Twelve plus one
  9. Listen = Silent
  10. Clint Eastwood = Old West action
Literary Examples:
  1. “Madam, in Eden, I’m Adam” – This famous anagram is a palindrome popularized by Lewis Carroll in his book, Through the Looking Glass. The anagram is a play on the names Adam and Eve, the first humans according to the Bible.
  2. “The Morse code” = “Here come dots” – This anagram English writer, poet, and mathematician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, presents his fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes. The anagram is a witty play on words that transforms “The Morse Code” into “Here come dots,” emphasizing the use of dots in Morse Code.
  3. “Astronomer” = “Moon starer” – This anagram is from the play, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe, a famous Elizabethan playwright. The anagram is a clever play on words that transforms “Astronomer” into “Moon starer,” highlighting the interest in celestial bodies and stars that an astronomer might have.
  4. “Dormitory” = “Dirty room” – This anagram was made famous by the British novelist, playwright, and essayist, Tom Stoppard, in his play, Jumpers. The anagram is a humorous play on words that transforms “Dormitory” into “Dirty room,” highlighting the uncleanliness of a typical dorm room.
  5. “Eleven plus two” = “Twelve plus one” – This anagram is a play on the arithmetic equation. The British writer and mathematician, James Joyce, used it in his novel, Ulysses. The anagram emphasizes the mathematical equivalence of “Eleven plus two” and “Twelve plus one.”
  6. “Funeral” = “Real fun” – This anagram is a humorous play on words that transforms the word “Funeral” into “Real fun.” The American writer and humorist, Mark Twain, used it in his book, Following the Equator. The anagram emphasizes the irony of a funeral being described as “real fun.”
How to Create Anagram
  1. Choose a Word or Phrase
  2. Decide on a word or phrase that you want to make an anagram of.
  3. This could be anything, from a simple four-letter word to a longer phrase or sentence.
  4. Rearrange the Letters
  5. Take the letters from your chosen word or phrase and rearrange them.
  6. You can move the letters around in any order you like to create a new arrangement of letters.
  7. It’s important to use all of the letters from the original word or phrase.
  8. Create a New Word or Phrase
  9. Using the rearranged letters, create a new word or phrase.
  10. The new word or phrase can have a completely different meaning from the original, or it can be related in some way.
  11. Check your Spelling
  12. Make sure that your new word or phrase is spelled correctly.
  13. Check that you haven’t left out any letters from the original word or phrase.
  14. Have Fun!
  15. Anagrams are a fun and creative way to play with language.
  16. Experiment with different words and phrases to see what you can come up with.
Benefits:

Anagrams are words or phrases formed by rearranging the letters of another word or phrase. There are several benefits of using anagrams, including:

  1. Vocabulary Building: Creating and solving anagrams help improve your vocabulary. It is because you think of words and their various spellings.
  2. Brain Exercise: Anagrams require your brain to work and think creatively, which can help improve your cognitive skills and memory.
  3. Improved Spelling: Anagrams can help improve your spelling skills as you need to know the correct spellings of words to create them.
  4. Fun and Entertaining: Anagrams can be a fun and entertaining way to pass the time.
  5. Educational Tool: Anagrams are a good educational tool to help children learn new words and improve their language skills.
  6. Problem-Solving Skills: Creating anagrams requires you to think outside the box and develop your problem-solving skills.
  7. Communication Skills: Anagrams can help improve your communication skills as you articulate your thoughts and ideas clearly.
Literary Device of Anagram in Literary Theory

Anagram is a literary device in which the letters of a word or phrase are rearranged to form a new word or phrase. In literary theory, it can be interpreted and analyzed through various lenses.

  1. Structuralism: Structuralism emphasizes the underlying structures that shape and give meaning to human experiences. In the context of anagram, structuralists might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase reveals underlying structures and patterns in language.
  2. Post-structuralism: Poststructuralism challenges the assumptions of structuralism by emphasizing the instability and indeterminacy of language. In the context of anagram, post-structuralists might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase destabilizes the meaning of the original word or phrase and highlights the arbitrariness of language.
  3. Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis emphasizes the role of the unconscious in shaping human behavior and experience. In the context of anagram, psychoanalysts might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase reveals hidden meanings and unconscious desires.
  4. Feminist theory: Feminist theory emphasizes the importance of gender and the role that it plays in shaping human experience. In the context of anagram, feminist theorists might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase reveals gendered biases and assumptions in language.
  5. Queer theory: Queer theory challenges normative assumptions about gender and sexuality. In the context of anagram, queer theorists might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase reveals alternative possibilities for gender and sexuality.
  6. New Criticism: New Criticism emphasizes close reading and analysis of literary texts. In the context of anagram, New Critics might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase contributes to the overall meaning and effect of a literary work.
  7. Reader-response theory: Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in shaping the meaning of a literary work. In the context of anagram, reader-response theorists might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase invites readers to participate in the creation of meaning.
  8. Deconstruction: Deconstruction challenges the binary oppositions that underlie much of Western thought. In the context of anagram, deconstructionists might analyze the way that the rearrangement of letters in a word or phrase disrupts and destabilizes the binary oppositions that underlie language and thought.
Suggested Readings

Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. University of Michigan Press, 1994.

Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Columbia University Press, 1980.

Queneau, Raymond. Exercises in Style. New Directions Publishing, 1981. Steiner, George. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1975.

Adage

Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Adage

Etymology of Adage

 The word “adage” comes from the Latin word “adagium,” which means “saying” or “proverb.” The term first appeared in English in the mid-16th century and has been used ever since to describe a brief, memorable saying that expresses a general truth or piece of wisdom.

Meaning of Adage

An adage is a concise, memorable saying that expresses a general truth or piece of wisdom. Adages are often used to communicate a moral or lesson and can be found in literature, folklore, and everyday conversation. They are also known as proverbs, maxims, or aphorisms

Definition of Literary Device of Adage

An adage is a literary device that refers to a traditional and widely recognized statement that expresses a general truth or moral principle.

Common Features of an Adage
  1. It is short.
  2. It is memorable.
  3. It is pithy.
  4. It expresses cultural heritage and generational legacy.
  5. It contains general truths of a society.
  6. It contains shared experience.
Types of Adages

There are many different types of adages, including proverbs, aphorisms, maxims, and idioms.

  • Proverbs: Proverbs are short, pithy statements that convey a moral lesson or a general truth about life. Examples of proverbs include “Actions speak louder than words” and “A stitch in time saves nine.”
  • Aphorisms: Aphorisms are concise and memorable statements that express a general truth or a witty observation. They are often used to convey a message in a clever and memorable way. Examples of aphorisms include “All that glitters is not gold” and “Time heals all wounds.”
  • Maxims: Maxims are brief and memorable statements that express a general rule or a principle of conduct. They are often used to provide guidance or advice on how to behave in a particular situation. Examples of maxims include “Honesty is the best policy” and “Practice makes perfect.”
  • Idioms: Idioms are phrases or expressions that have a figurative meaning that differs from their literal meaning. They are often used to convey a message in a more colorful and interesting way. Examples of idioms include “Bite the bullet” and “Kick the bucket.”
Common Examples of Adages
  1. “Actions speak louder than words” – This means that what people do is more important than what they say.
  2. “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” – This means that eating healthy foods can help you stay healthy and avoid getting sick.
  3. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” – This means that when you’re in a new place, you should follow the customs and practices of that place.
  4. “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket” – This means that you shouldn’t risk everything on one plan or idea.
  5. “You can’t judge a book by its cover” – This means that you shouldn’t make assumptions about someone or something based on their appearance.
  6. “There’s no such thing as a free lunch” – This means that everything comes at a cost, even if it’s not immediately obvious.
  7. “The early bird catches the worm” – This means that those who start early and are proactive tend to have more success.
  8. “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” – This means that if something is working well, there’s no need to change it.
  9. “All’s fair in love and war” – This means that anything goes when it comes to matters of the heart or in a conflict situation.
  10. “Honesty is the best policy” – This means that telling the truth is always the right thing to do.
Shakespearean Adages

William Shakespeare, the famous playwright and poet, coined many adages that are still commonly used today. Here are some examples from different plays of Shakespeare.

  1. “All the world’s a stage” – This means that life is like a play, with different acts and scenes, and people playing different roles.
  2. “To be, or not to be: that is the question” – This famous line from Hamlet is often used to express uncertainty or indecision.
  3. “All that glitters is not gold” – This means that things that look good on the surface may not be as valuable or desirable as they seem.
  4. “Brevity is the soul of wit” – This means that being concise and to the point is more effective than being verbose or long-winded.
  5. “To thine own self be true” – This means that you should be honest and true to yourself, rather than pretending to be someone you’re not.
  6. “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet” – This means that a person or thing is not defined by their name, but by their actions or qualities.
  7. “The course of true love never did run smooth” – This means that love can be complicated and challenging, and there are often obstacles to overcome.
  8. “Cowards die many times before their deaths; the valiant never taste of death but once” – This means that living in fear is worse than facing one’s fears, even if it means risking one’s life.
  9. “To be forewarned is to be forearmed” – This means that being prepared and aware of potential problems or dangers can help you avoid them.
  10. “The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves” – This means that we are responsible for our own actions and decisions, rather than being controlled by fate or destiny.
Literary Examples of Adages

Here are some examples of adages from plays and poems, along with quotations and explanations:

  1. “Beauty is truth, truth beauty” – From John Keats’ poem “Ode on a Grecian Urn.” This means that true beauty is timeless and enduring, and can be found in simple, ordinary things.
  2. “The best-laid plans of mice and men often go awry” – From Robert Burns’ poem “To a Mouse.” This means that no matter how carefully we plan, things can still go wrong and not turn out as expected.
  3. “To err is human, to forgive divine” – From Alexander Pope’s poem “An Essay on Criticism.” This means that making mistakes is a natural part of being human, and forgiving others for their mistakes is a noble and virtuous act.
  4. “Parting is such sweet sorrow” – From William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet.” This means that saying goodbye can be bittersweet, as it is both painful and yet also brings closure.
  5. “Hope springs eternal in the human breast” – From Alexander Pope’s poem “An Essay on Man.” This means that even in the face of adversity and despair, people always hold onto hope for a better future.
  6. “All that we see or seem is but a dream within a dream” – From Edgar Allan Poe’s poem “A Dream Within a Dream.” This means that reality is subjective and can be interpreted differently by each individual, and that our perceptions of the world are not necessarily objective or concrete.
  7. “Out, damned spot!” – From William Shakespeare’s play “Macbeth.” This means that guilt and shame can be so overwhelming that they seem impossible to erase or remove.
  8. “Life is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing” – From William Shakespeare’s play “Macbeth.” This means that life can seem chaotic and meaningless, and that all our struggles and achievements are ultimately insignificant in the grand scheme of things.
  9. “Better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all” – From Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem “In Memoriam A.H.H.” This means that even if a relationship ends in heartbreak or loss, the experience of love is still valuable and worth pursuing.
  10. “The road to hell is paved with good intentions” – From an unknown source, but popularized by Samuel Johnson in the 18th century. This means that even if someone has good intentions, their actions can still have negative consequences, and they may still be held accountable for their mistakes.
How to Create an Adage

Creating an adage is a creative process that involves distilling a piece of wisdom or insight into a concise and memorable phrase. Here are some steps you can take to create your own adage:

  1. Identify the core message: Think about the lesson or insight you want to convey. What is the essence of your message? What is the one idea that you want people to remember?
  2. Use vivid imagery: Adages often use metaphor or analogy to make a message more vivid and memorable. Think about images or symbols that capture the essence of your message.
  3. Keep it concise: Adages are short and pithy, so aim for brevity in your phrasing. Ideally, your adage should be no more than a few words or a short sentence.
  4. Make it memorable: A good adage should stick in people’s minds, so think about how you can make it memorable. Does it have a catchy rhythm or rhyme? Does it use alliteration or repetition to create impact?
  5. Test it out: Once you have drafted your adage, try it out on friends or colleagues to see if it resonates with them. Ask for feedback on whether the message is clear and memorable, and whether the phrasing works well.
  6. Refine and polish: Based on feedback, refine your adage until you are happy with the wording and impact. Remember that adages are meant to be timeless and enduring, so take the time to craft a message that will stand the test of time.
Benefits of Using Adage

Using adages can have several benefits, including:

  1. Communicating complex ideas Easily: Adages distill complex ideas and insights into a short and memorable phrase, making them an effective way to communicate wisdom or advice in a way that is easy to understand.
  2. Providing Guidance and Inspiration: Adages often contain timeless truths and insights that can provide guidance and inspiration for personal growth, decision-making, and problem-solving.
  3. Creating Cultural Vocabulary: Adages are a part of our cultural heritage and provide a shared language that connects people across generations and cultures. They can be used to build bridges between people and to create a sense of shared identity and belonging.
  4. Boosting Memory Retention: Adages are often memorable and easy to recall, making them a useful tool for improving memory retention. By associating a complex idea or concept with a memorable phrase, it becomes easier to remember and recall when needed.
  5. Encouraging Critical Thinking: Adages often have multiple interpretations and can be applied to different situations in different ways. This encourages critical thinking and analysis, as people are forced to consider the context and meaning behind the adage and how it might apply to their own situation.
  6. Fostering Cultural Literacy: Knowledge of common adages and sayings is an important aspect of cultural literacy. Understanding and using adages helps people to connect with others and to understand the values and beliefs of different cultures.
Literary Device of Adage in Literary Theory
  1. Structuralism: In structuralism, adages are viewed as a part of the larger structure of language and literature. Adages may be analyzed for their underlying structures and meanings, and their use in literature can be seen as a reflection of larger cultural structures and systems of thought.
  2. New Criticism: New criticism emphasizes the close reading of literary texts, and adages may be analyzed as part of a text’s language and imagery. Adages can provide insights into a text’s themes and motifs, and their use can contribute to a text’s overall meaning and impact.
  3. Reader-Response Theory: In reader-response theory, the meaning of a text is seen as being constructed by the reader in their interpretation of the text. Adages may be interpreted in different ways by different readers, and their use in literature may be seen as inviting readers to bring their own perspectives and experiences to the text.
  4. Feminist Theory: In feminist theory, adages may be analyzed for their gendered implications and associations. Some adages may perpetuate gender stereotypes or reinforce patriarchal values, while others may challenge traditional gender roles and expectations.
  5. Postcolonial Theory: In postcolonial theory, adages may be analyzed for their colonial or imperialist origins and associations. Some adages may reflect and reinforce colonial power structures and attitudes, while others may challenge and subvert them.
  6. Cultural Studies: In cultural studies, adages may be analyzed for their social and cultural significance. Adages may reflect and reinforce cultural values and beliefs, or they may challenge and subvert them. They may also be used to examine the ways in which culture is constructed and transmitted through language.
Suggested Readings on Adages

Aesop’s Fables. Edited by Laura Gibbs, Oxford University Press, 2002.

The Book of Proverbs. Edited by Michael V. Fox, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs. Edited by John Simpson and Jennifer Speake, Oxford University Press, 2015.

The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. Edited by Elizabeth Knowles, Oxford University Press, 2014. The Penguin Dictionary of Proverbs. Edited by Rosalind Fergusson, Penguin Books, 2004.

In Medias Res

Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device In Medias Res

A classical Latin term, in medias res, is mostly used for literary writings. In English, it literally means “in the middle of things.” It is often compared with ab oyo which means to start from the beginning, or the origin, or the egg. Both terms are compared with each other when writing a piece of literature.

Definition of Literary Device In Medias Res

In literature, in medias res is defined as a work of literature that starts the main narrative or the main plot from the middle and not from the beginning. The main exposition of the plot is left to be started later when the middle is filled with flashbacks, reminisces, events, and frame stories.

Common Examples of Literary Device In Medias Res
  1. Hamlet starts with the death of King Hamlet when Horatio, Hamlet, and their two sentinels are on the outposts at night. Shakespeare has used in medias res in Hamlet.
  2. Homer has used this device in the Odyssey as Odysseus starts his narrative when he is present in the court of the King of Phoenicia
  3. Milton starts Paradise Lost in the middle when Satan is preparing his companions for rebellion.
  4. Dante starts his famous epic, Divine Comedy, using in medias res.
Literary Examples of In Medias Res
Example # 1

From The Iliad by Homer

Anger be now your song, immortal one,

Akhilleus’ agger, doomed and ruinous,

that caused the Akhaians loss on hitter loss

and crowded brave souls into the undergloom,

leaving so many dead men-carrion

for dogs and birds; and the will of Zeus was done.

Begin it when the two men first contending

broke with one another-

the Lord Marshal Agamemnon.

Atreus’ son, and Prince Akhilleus.

These are the first ten lines of The Iliad translated by Robert Fitzgerald. These lines show that Homer has started from the events of the Trojan War when Achilles is in the middle of the war. He terms it the will of Zeus, the Lord of Mount Olympus. The Greeks and the Trojans are fighting with each other. In other words, he has placed the readers in medias res instead of starting his epic from the very beginning of the life of Achilles.

Example # 2

From One Flew Over Cuckoo’s Nest by Ken Kesey

They’re out there. Black boys in white suits up before me to commit sex acts in the hall and get it mopped up before I can catch them. They’re mopping when I come out the dorm, all three of them sulky and hating everything, the time of day, the place they’re at here, the people they got to work around. When they hate like this, better if they don’t see me.

This passage occurs in the novel of Ken Kesey, One Flew Over Cuckoo’s Nest, in which he presents the story of Bromden known as the chief in the psychological hospital. This passage shows that the story has already taken place which means that it now starts in medias res and after that Bromden tells it in flashbacks.

Example # 3

From The Stranger by Albert Camus

Maman died today. Or yesterday maybe, I don’t know. I got a telegram from the home: “Mother deceased. Funeral tomorrow. Faithfully yours.” That doesn’t mean anything. Maybe it was yesterday. The old people’s home is at Marengo, about eighty kilometres from Algiers, I’ll take the two o’clock bus and get there in the afternoon. That way I can be there for the vigil and come back tomorrow night. I asked my boss for two days off and there was no way he was going to refuse me with an excuse like that.

This passage occurs in the novel of Albert Camus, The Stranger. Meursault narrates the death of his mother but not where he lives and where he has come from. Although these details are also not given in the novel which means that it starts in medias res, it does not show the complete usage of this term. The reason is that the story captures the rest of the incidents from this point onward yet it does not present them in chronological order. Therefore, it is safe to say that it is the use of in medias res that Camus has demonstrated here.

Example # 4

From The Odyssey by Homer

All the other Greeks
who had survived the brutal sack of Troy
sailed safely home to their own wives—except
this man alone. Calypso, a great goddess,
had trapped him in her cave; she wanted him
to be her husband. When the year rolled round
in which the gods decreed he should go home
to Ithaca, his troubles still went on.
The man was friendless. All the gods took pity,
except Poseidon’s anger never ended
until Odysseus was back at home.

These lines occur in the beginning of the epic, the Odyssey by Homer. Although every other epic starts with an invocation to Muse, the next lines tell the war of Troy and how Odysseus, the Greek hero, is going to start his homeward journey which means that Homer has employed in medias res like The Iliad. The reason is that his story does not start with this war. It rather starts from his journey toward Troy which he recounts later in the court of Phoenicia.

Example # 5

From The Glass Castle by Jeannette Walls

I was sitting in a taxi, wondering if I had overdressed for the evening, when I looked out the window and saw Mom rooting through a Dumpster. It was just after dark. A blustery March wind whipped the steam coming out of the manholes, and people hurried along the sidewalks with their collars turned up. I was stuck in traffic two blocks from the party where I was heading. Mom stood fifteen feet away. She had tied rags around her shoulders to keep out the spring chill and was picking through the trash while her dog, a black-and-white terrier mix, played at her feet.

This is the first passage of the novel by Jeannette Walls, The Glass Castle. The story of her life starts with her watching her mother in the street in New York instead of her being a child. Therefore, this is a good use of in medias res that Walls has used in her autobiographical fiction.

How to Create In Medias Res
  1. In medias rest term is used in fiction, poetry, and prose. You need to pick up the most important or significant event, incident, or point of the story.
  2. Start the story from that event and then use a flashback or frame story to move back to the past.
  3. Link all the points, historical events, or incidents through a single motif.
  4. End the story on the endpoint already decided. See that in medias res is hooking the reader appropriately.
Benefits of Using In Medias Res
  1. It hooks the readers to read the rest of the story.
  2. It makes the readers take interest in the storyline and its events.
  3. It makes the readers emotionally responsive.
  4. It helps the readers to become imaginatively creative.
In Medias Res in Literary Theory
  1. In medias res is an important literary term. It is an integral part of fiction writing. Therefore, its role appears in narratives and narratology when the focuser and the narrator need to be determined.
  2. In medias res is also an integral part of formalism as fabula determines its use in the story.
  3. Although in medias res also used in postmodern novels and stories, it loses its significance as the narrator could insert any incident without giving due regard to its criticality or importance.
  4. Other than this, in medias res does not play any significant role in other theoretical perspectives until it receives specific attention in terms of terminology specifically used in narratology.
Suggested Readings

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print. Cooren, François. “In Medias Res: Communication, Existence, And Materiality.” Communication Research and Practice 1.4 (2015): 307-321.

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Metonymy

Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Metonymy

Etymologically, the term metonymy has been derived from the Latin term metonymia. It also exists in the Greek language as metonymia which means changing the name. Another relevant term in Greek is metonomazein which means to take up a new title, or name instead of the old one. The word is made up of two terms meta which means change and onyma which means name. Therefore, it literally means to change the name.

In grammar, it is a singular noun with plural metonymies. It is mostly used in rhetoric.

Definition of Literary Device of Metonymy

In literature, metonymy is a figure of speech that refers to a term used to replace another term based on an attribute or adjunct to an idea or thing.

Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Metaphor

Metonymy, as a figure of speech, is closely associated with synecdoche. The reason is that synecdoche means to replace a host of terms with a single one, while metonymy is a single term and finds its replacement with a single term.

As far as a metaphor is concerned, it is similar to metonymy but it involves analogical relations between two ideas, things, or persons. However, a metonymy is based on contiguity or association and not analogy.

Common Examples of Metonymy
  1. Labor
  2. Cabinet
  3. Administration
  4. Management
  5. Bouregiouse
  6. Club
  7. Gulid
  8. Hand (for helping)
Literary Examples of Metonymy
Example # 1

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Than the main voice of Denmark goes withal.
Then weigh what loss your honour may sustain,
If with too credent ear you list his songs,
Or lose your heart, or your chaste treasure open
To his unmaster’d importunity.

Laertes, brother of Ophelia, speaks these lines in Hamlet, a popular play of William Shakespeare. He compares Denmark, the country, to the people of Denmark and states that Prince Hamlet represents the people of Denmark. Therefore, in both cases, she would lose it as this is an “unmastered opportunity.” This is an excellent use of metonymy of associating the nation with the name of the country.

Example # 2

From A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway

“Like what?”
“Like our home.”
“Hang out the Allied flags.”
“Oh shut up.”
“Say it again.”
“Shut up.”
“You say it so cautiously,” I said. “As though you didn’t want to offend any one.”

This conversation occurs between Herny and Catherin in the popular novel by Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms. Here she does not respect the allied flags which mean allied troops. At this, Henry explains that she has yet not offended anybody as she has said it too cautiously. This is also a metonymic use of allied as she means troops and yet she stays euphemistic.

Example # 3

From Hard Times by Charles Dickens

To his matter-of-fact home, which was called Stone Lodge, Mr. Gradgrind directed his steps. He had virtually retired from the wholesale hardware trade before he built Stone Lodge and was now looking about for a suitable opportunity of making an arithmetical figure in Parliament. Stone Lodge was situated on a moor within a mile or two of a great town – called Coketown in the present faithful guidebook.

This passage has been borrowed from Hard Times, a novel of Charles Dickens. He has beautifully named the city Coketown which is metonymic of the industrialization of England. It encompasses several things including the burning of coal as well as the town of laborers. Therefore, this association of the town with industries is metonymic.

Example # 4

From Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut

I deeply regret that British and U.S. bombers killed 135,000 people in the attack on Dresden, but I remember who started the last war and I regret even more the loss of more than 5,000,000 Allied lives in the necessary effort to completely defeat and utterly destroy Nazism.

Here are two terms that show the use of metonymy by Kurt Vonnegut in famous postmodern novel, Slaughterhouse-Five. He has used allied and Nazism. Here allied shows the forces from the allied countries whom he could not name due to space and feelings and Nazism shows the Germans of those times.

Example # 5

From The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne

“We impute it, therefore, solely to the disease in its own eye and heart, that the minister, looking upward to the zenith, beheld there an appearance of an immense letter,-the letter A,- marking out in lines of dull red light …. that another’s guilt might have seen another symbol in it.

This passage has been taken from The Scarlet Letter, a novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The color red or Letter A is a new metonymy that Nathaniel Hawthorne uses to show sin and its details. This letter and its color are metonymic in that they would symbolize the same crime against religion that she has committed.  

Example # 6

From The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood

This is the heart of Gilead, where the war cannot intrude except on television. Where the edges are we aren’t sure, they vary, according to the attacks and counterattacks; but this is the centre, where nothing moves. The Republic of Gilead, said Aunt Lydia, knows no bounds. Gilead is within you.

Although Gilead or The Republic of Gilead is a metonymy, it depends on the understanding of what type of society a reader perceives it. However, Margaret Atwood has painted this as a dystopia where anti-feminism is on the rise with the support of feminism. Therefore, this is a new and fresh metonymic use of such words.

How to Create Metonymy
  1. Think about the idea, thing, person, or gadget.
  2. Think about their attributes or adjuncts.
  3. Use that adjunct or attribute quote often in the plan.
  4. Make it a common word from a specific one, and refer to it instead of the original ideas or things to make readers familiarize with it and its meanings.
Benefits of Using Metonymy
  1. It makes writing concise and metaphorical.
  2. It makes writing easy to understand, stylish and smooth.
  3. Metonymy makes readers understand different shades of meanings.
  4. It popularizes associative terms.
Literary Device of Metonymy in Literary Theory
  1. Roman Jakobson, a Russian formalist, argues that language possesses a bipolar structure; metaphorical and metonymic. This happens through similarity and contiguity. His major contention is that poetry is metaphorical and prose is metonymical. Therefore, it is an integral part of formalism as well as structuralism.
  2. It is important in psychoanalysis as both Freud and Lacan have used them. Freud considers metonymy integral for dispensation and metaphor for identification, while Lacan uses them for binary opposition. Therefore, it is part of structuralism as well as psychoanalytic literary theory.
  3. Metonymy, therefore, has adopted its own theory which is the theory of metonymy. It is because it is an integral part of the discourse and discursive analysis with which it is compared.
Suggested Readings

Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.

Barcelona, Antonio. Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads. De Gruyter Mouton, 2000. Print.

Johnson, Barbara. Metaphor, Metonymy, and Voice in Their Eyes Were Watching God. Duke University Press, 2014. Print. Matzner, Sebastian. Rethinking Metonymy: Literary Theory and Poetic Practice from Pindar to Jakobson. Oxford University Press, 2016. Print.

You may also read: In Medias Res or Adage

Oxymoron

Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Oxymoron

Etymologically, the literary device of oxymoron finds its roots in a Greek term, oxymoros. Both have almost the same spellings except the last ‘s.’ In Greek, it is an adjective that means foolish, pointed, or sharp. As far as its roots are concerned, it comprises ak- which means sharp, and moros which means stupid.

It is also stated that a Latin term, oxymorum, also means the same thing. Therefore, that, too, could be its real root. Whatever the case is, its meanings are that an oxymoron is a pair of words having contradictory meanings.

In grammar, it is a noun having oxymorons as its plural.

Definition of Literary Devic of Oxymoron

In literature, it is a rhetorical term. It means two opposite terms, words, or ideas put together despite having contradictions in their meanings.

Types of Literary Device of Oxymoron

There are three major types of oxymorons.

  1. Comic Pairs
  2. Serious Pairs
  3. Antonymic Pairs
Common Examples of Oxymorons
  • Disciplined mob
  • Organized crowd
  • Public announcement
  • Living death
  • Wisely foolish
  • Foolishly wise
  • Terribly pretty
  • Awfully nice
  • Small crowd
Literary Examples of Oxymorons
Example # 1

From “Astrophil and Stella” by Philip Sidney

O, absent presence, Stella is not here;

    False flattering hope, that with so fair a face

    Bare me in hand, that in this orphan place

Stella, I say my Stella, should appear.

What say’st thou now? Where is that dainty cheer

    Thou told’st mine eyes should help their famished case?

These verses are from Philip Sidney’s poem “Astrophil and Stella.” The very first line shows the use of an oxymoron that is “absent presence.” This is an apt oxymoron to show that if Stella is not present there, then everybody takes notice of her absence and Astrophil sees that although she is not present, she has become conspicuous through her absence. It is because she has attracted the attention of everybody.

Example # 2

From Devotions by John Donne

O miserable abundance, O beggarly riches! how much do we lack of having remedies for  very disease, when as yet we have not names for them? But we have a Hercules against these giants, these monsters; that is, the physician; he musters up all the forces of the other world to succour this, all nature to relieve man. We have the physician, but we are not the physician. Here we shrink in our proportion, sink in our dignity, in respect of very mean creatures, who are physicians to themselves. The hart that is pursued and wounded, they say, knows an herb, which being eaten throws off the arrow: a strange kind of vomit.

This passage occurs in Devotions by Johbn Donne. In this passage, he addresses abundance, calling it miserable. The first two pairs show the beautiful usage of an oxymoron. This oxymoronic prose shows his mastery in demonstrating how different words could be paired to be used to manage one’s message to religious audiences.

Example # 3

From One Door Away from Heaven by Dean Koontz

Change isn’t easy… changing the way you live means changing what you believe about life. That’s hard… When we make our own misery, we sometimes cling to it even when we want so bad to change because the misery is something we know. The misery is comfortable.

This passage from the novel, One Door Away from Heaven, byKoontz shows that Koontz is very skillful in using oxymoronic pairs. He has used it here as misery that is comfortable. Although it could have been discomforting misery, he has beautifully turned it into a subject with comfortable as its complement.

Example # 4

From Paradise Lost by John Milton

No light, but rather darkness visible

Serv’d onely to discover sights of woe,

Regions of sorrow, doleful shades, where peace

And rest can never dwell, hope never comes

That comes to all; but torture without end

Still urges, and a fiery Deluge, fed

With ever-burning Sulphur unconsum’d:

These verses from the popular English epic, Paradise Lost, show Milton at his best in using a beautiful oxymoron such as “darkness visible.” Although it is unnoticeable, a close reading shows how darkness becomes visible when a person becomes habitual of darkness. Therefore, this oxymoronic use of the pair shows his mastery in using literary devices such as oxymoron.

Example # 5

From “Sonnet XL” by William Shakespeare

Although thou steal thee all my poverty:
And yet, love knows it is a greater grief
To bear love’s wrong, than hate’s known injury.
Lascivious grace, in whom all ill well shows,
Kill me with spites yet we must not be foes.

Shakespeare has used two major oxymorons here; the first one is stealing poverty which is an impossible task as a poor person has nothing worth stealing. The second is lascivious grace as a lascivious person does not have any grace. Both show his mastery of the usage of this term.

Example # 6

From Don Juan by Lord Byron

Of melancholy merriment, to quote
Too much of one sort would be soporific; —
Without, or with, offence to friends or foes,
I sketch your world exactly as it goes.

Lord Byron has used an oxymoron in the very first line of this verse from “Don Juan.” This is “melancholy merriment” which seems that both words are opposite to each other and yet both have supported each other in clarifying the position of Byron about his views about Don Juan.

How to Create Oxymorons

  1. Plan the context and use contradictory terms. Such as if you are in the darkness, use visible with it.
  2. Reader the full sentence within the context.
  3. Evaluate the meanings and impacts.
  4. Evaluate the reader’s response.
Benefits of Using Oxymoron
  1. Oxymoron makes ideas complex for the readers.
  2. It adds depth to a concept or idea.
  3. It makes the concept beautiful.
  4. It makes readers alert about the complexity of the situation described through words.
Literary Device of Oxymorons in Literary Theory
  1. Although oxymoron is a simple term used in figurative language, it mostly applies in formalism literary theory where figures of speech create tension or conflict and make thematic strand clear. Besides this, it also helps in understanding a piece of literature when seen from different lenses.
  2. Other than formalism or New Criticism, it does not specifically help in a critique from specific literary perspectives such as postmodernism or postcolonialism, or indigenous critical theory. Yet, its significance does not lose its luster, for it is an integral part of structuralism, post-structuralism, and deconstructionism. Even in feminism, this tops the list when comparing patriarchy and femininity.
Suggested Readings

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary Of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014. Print.

Flayih, M. “A Linguistic Study of Oxymoron.” Journal Of Kerbala University 5.1 (2009): 30-40. Hameed, Hind Tasheen, and Hind Tahseen. “Oxymoron in Day-to-Day Speech.” The Asian ESP Journal (2020): 140.

More from Literary Devices:

Litotes

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device Litotes

Etymologically, the term litotes, as its pronunciation shows, is a Greek derivative of the same word, having the same spellings. In the Grecian language, its root is litos which means smooth and plain. Litotes also means simplicity and plainness.

Literally, it means simple and unadorned style in writing or frugal and small in quantity. The term, however, finds its excessive use in rhetoric but is also common in literature.

Definition of Literary Device Litotes

In literary terms, it is an understatement used as verbal irony. It is an integral part of the figures of speech. It often uses double negatives to imply positive or affirmative meanings. Also, sometimes it is entirely a deliberate use of double negatives, while at other times, it is a cultural more (convention) such as in African American pidgin English. The other important things in its usage include context, text, and culture. It is akin to using a euphemism that means glossing over the rough usage of a word.

Common Examples of Litotes
  1. It is not that it is not rocket science.
  2. Neither are you asking, nor am I telling you.
  3. He is one of the brightest and dumbest fellows.
  4. I don’t refuse to accept your proposal.
  5. They often do not try to fail yet they fail.
Usage in Rhetoric

In rhetoric, litotes is a figure of thought. Two other figures are antenantiosis (deliberate understatement) and meiosis (intentional understatement). The most common use of this term tends to establish the ethos of a person using rhetoric as a tool. One example is of Oedipus as he uses double negative when placating the Thebans saying, “I am not sleeping, you are not waking me.” Both negatives have shown positive meanings in that he is not bragging and not underestimating but showing his modest and balanced approach.

Literary Examples of Litotes
Example # 1

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Ha, ‘swounds, I should take it, for it cannot be
But I am pigeon-livered, and lack gall
To make oppression bitter, or ere this

I should ha’ fatted all the region kites
With this slave’s offal.

These lines occur in Hamlet by William Shakespeare. He has used understatements about himself saying that “I am pigeon-livered” or “lack gall.” Although they are not negative statements, they show the use of understatement by Hamlet who often does not do so for any significant reason but only wants to show his affirmation to take action against the usurper.

Example # 2

From “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T. S. Eliot

But though I have wept and fasted, wept and prayed,
Though I have seen my head (grown slightly bald) brought in upon a platter,
I am no prophet—and here’s no great matter.

The last verses of this great poem by T. S. Eliot show the use of double negative in poetry. It shows that he is not a prophet that he should predict such matters, and the matter is not of huge importance. Both negatives show the positive meanings that Prufrock implies here. In fact, he wants to say that it does not matter to him as the issues under discussion are trivial.

Example # 3

From A Streetcar Named Desire by Lorraine Hansberry

First thing a man ought to learn in life is not to make love to no colored woman rest thing in the morning. You all some eeeevil people at eight o’clock in the morning.

This is the conversation of Walter Lee Younger when he talks to Ruth, his wife in the popular play by Lorraine Hansberry, A Streetcar Named Desire. He tells his wife that he is fed up with her and that nobody should marry an African American girl, which is an understatement. It also shows the use of double negative, which is common in the language spoken by the African Americans though sometimes the statement may not be a litotes.

Example # 4

From Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neal Hurston

What she doin’ coming back here in dem overhalls? Can’t she find no dress to put on?—Where’s dat blue satin dress she left here in?—Where alldat money her husband took and died and left her?—What dat ole forty yearole ’oman doin’ wid her hair swingin’ down her back lak some young gal?

Despite being a fine example of African American colloquialism, this short passage from Their Eyes Were Watching God by Hurston shows the double use of negatives which is also an understatement. It is because it shows that it is a quizzical expression. Therefore, this is an excellent litotes.

Example # 5

From Beloved by Toni Morrison

Then something. The plash of water, the sight of her shoes and stockings awry on the path where she had flung them; or Here Boy lapping in the puddle near her feet, and suddenly there was Sweet Home rolling, rolling, rolling out before her eyes, and although there was not a leaf on that farm that did not make her want to scream, it rolled itself out before her in shameless beauty. It never looked as terrible as it was and it made her wonder if hell was a pretty place too. Fire and brimstone all right, but hidden in lacy groves. Boys hanging from the most beautiful sycamores in the world. It shamed her–remembering the wonderful soughing trees rather than the boys. Try as she might to make it otherwise, the sycamores beat out the children every time and she could not forgive her memory for that.

This passage shows excellent use of understatements or litotes intended to make the barbarism against African Americans less barbaric and more maltreatment. Although it does not seem intentional, it is rather tragic as different litotes have not used the double negative, but they present the opposite meanings and not affirmative ones.

How to Create Litotes
  1. Plan authoring a story, a novel, or a short narrative. Also, think about your characters and their humble beginning.
  2. Place the character in a situation where they have to express humility.
  3. Try to use a double negative to elicit an affirmative answer that should be an understatement.
  4. Try out its effectiveness in the context and text.
  5. Also, try to use the context of Oedipus as he says, “I am not sleeping, you are not waking me.” It has double negative, humility as well as pride.
Benefits of Using Litotes
  1. It shows the real nature of the character as well as the author who wants to show the character in a certain light.
  2. It helps readers understand the real objective of the authors/writers.
  3. It also helps the authors and writers present down-to-earth real characters in their writings.
Literary Device of Litotes in Literary Theory
  1. Litotes is an integral part of figurative writing. Therefore, it is also essential in formalism or a formalistic analysis of a literary piece.
  2. It helps in postcolonialism as well as postmodernism to interpret the author and his real objectives of writing a piece of literature.
  3. It also helps us understand the perspective of readers’ response theory.
  4. It is important in rhetoric as it shows the assertation of the character or the speaker or the author. In this assertion lies their real objective of showing or establishing ethos to make oratory, speech, or writing convincing. Therefore, it is an important part of rhetoric.
Suggesting Readings

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. Machester, 2009. Print.

Harris, A. Leslie. “Litotes and Superlative in Beowulf.” English Studies 69.1 (1988): 1-11. Neuhaus, Laura. “On The Relation of Irony, Understatement, and Litotes.” Pragmatics & Cognition 23.1 (2016): 117-149.

You may also read Metonymy

Frame Story

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device Frame Story

Etymologically, a frame story is a term comprising two words; frame and story. It has another variant called a frame tale. It means a story inserted in a story in a way that it constitutes its main frame.

Definition of Literary Device Frame Story

In literature, it is a term that the main narrative comprises some short pieces of the same narrative or has a second narrative emphasizing the main story.

In other words, a frame story leads the readers to other secondary narratives that stress upon the main idea of the main thematic strand. Therefore, it could be defined as a set of different stories tied together with smaller narratives but slightly changed to adjust to the major theme.

Another definition that suits this term is that it is a story embedded within the main story where the main character is involved in some other incidents or narrates his own story.

Common Examples of Frame Story
  1. One Thousand and One Nights is a good example of a frame story having several short narratives.
  2. The Tale of Ameer Hamza in Urdu literature having several stories is another example of a frame story.
  3. Metamorphoses of Ovid has also parts, making a good example of a frame story.
  4. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley presents a story within a story, providing a good example of a frame story.
Literary Examples
Example # 1

The Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer

The Prologue is not only full of characters but also full of mini-narratives as they expand into separate narratives after that when the host proposes each pilgrim state his/her story. However, within this prologue, the main narrative goes on when the host tells about each character. Therefore, it is a very good example of a story within a story or a frame story.

Example # 2

If On a Winter’s Night a Traveller by Italo Calvino

The novel shows the good use of a frame story as it comprises more than twelve stories each as a chapter. The interesting point about this novel is that each story has a “you” narrator instead of a traditional third-person or first-person narrator. The story presents a man going to exchange a suitcase with somebody but it seems to the reader that the book has the same page repeated. The reader, then, returns that book but comes to know that it is not the same book. Written in a magical realistic mode, the book shows many frame stories in a similar fashion.

Example # 3

Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut

Although this postmodern masterpiece shows several examples of frame stories, these frame stories show erratic timeframes in each of them as Billy Bud does not know how to tell the narratives from his memory in chronological order. For example at one point, Vonnegut’s narrator Billy tells, “I would hate to tell you what is this lousy little book…” but again starts another story that “But not words about Dresden came….”. This shows that he has several frame stories jotted down together to present a postmodern account of his WWII experiences as a soldier.

Example # 4

The Book of Lost Names by Kristin Harmel

This latest novel by Kristin Harmel presents several frame stories. The main story of a librarian goes with her own love story and story of her fugitive status in the town lying in the free zone. Almost all of these frame stories go parallel to each other, implying to the readers that they are part of the same story though these different love, hate, escape and travel stories are frame stories or frame tales in their own way.

Example # 5

Hamlet by William Shakespeare

A play within a play, Hamlet presents a good example of a frame story. The reason is that the play within Hamlet is a separate story staged by separate players as presented by Shakespeare. Hamlet, the prince, enjoys this play as it suits him to alert his rival, King Claudius. The thematic strands are not only similar but almost the same. Although it is a classic case of a play within the play, it also suits the purpose when it comes to a frame story. In fact, this is another type of a frame story.

Example # 7

Some other popular literary examples of frame stories are Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte, and some movies such as Titanic, Forrest Gump, Cast Away, and even Braveheart have frame stories within them.

How to Create Frame Story
  1. Imagine and plan the main story.
  2. Think of different aspects of the main story.
  3. Break these aspects into mini-narratives.
  4. Insert these mini-narratives into the main story in chronological or reverse chronological order or even without it.
Benefits of Using Frame Story
  1. Make a narrative easier to decipher, understand and apply in the real life.
  2. Make a story well-connected, coherent, and well-knit.
  3. Make the readers have a sense of time and place.
  4. Make the story setting clear to the readers and audiences.
  5. Make the story interesting as well as enchanting for the readers and the audiences.
Literary Device of Frame Story in Literary Theory

It is interesting to note that a frame story as a literary device/technique is used in different literary perspectives.

  1. Certainly, this term is part of Russian formalism which uses different literary techniques to decipher the real message of a text.
  2. However, its usage in postcolonial and specifically indigenous narratives from an indigenous perspective is a question mark. Despite this, its importance in post-colonialism or para-colonialism is secondary as both of them are concerned with some other pressing issues connected with human beings and culture as a whole.
  3. Its placing, interpretation, and inclusion, however, in reader’s response theory or formalism or New Criticism is of paramount importance when interpreting a narrative. It also has vital importance in narratology.
Suggested Readings

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction To Literary And Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print.

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Hikel, Mary Lyn. “The Theory and Practice of the Frame Story as Narrative Device: Boccaccio’s Decameron” As Paradigm.” (1990): 2888-2888. Thompson, Michael, Richard Ellis, and Aaron Wildavsky. Cultural Theory. Routledge, 2018. Print.

Motif

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device Motif

Etymologically, the literary device of motif first occurred in Latin as motivus which means impelling. Later, it entered the French language in 1848 and transformed into a motif that means the main or dominating idea.

Grammatically, it is a noun and its plural is motifs. It means a recurrent thematic idea, or strand in fiction, or a poetry.

Definition of Literary Device of Motif

In literary terms, a motif is recurringly intervening ideas, having a symbolic significance in the course of the story. This could be an image, an object, a natural sign, a sound, or even a natural object.

Types of Literary Device of Motifs

There are several types of motifs. Some narratives present water, clouds, and even the sky as motifs, while others present musical notes. Generally speaking, a motif could be any of these types but not limited to only these.

  1. An abstract idea
  2. A material object
  3. A natural object
  4. A sound
  5. A natural occurrence, event, incident, or phenomenon
Common Examples of Motif

Several things could be used as motifs. Most of the common ideas and things used in different texts as motifs are as follows.

  1. Music in movies
  2. Writing with a ballpoint
  3. Walking aimlessly
  4. Fishing to pass the time
  5. Horse riding to search for meanings
  6. Cattle
  7. Birds
  8. Gothic style
  9. Natural elements
  10. Environment
Literary Examples of Motif
Example # 1

From The Jungle by Upton Sinclaire

When that personage had developed a will of his own in the matter, Marija had flung up the window of the carriage, and, leaning out, proceeded to tell him her opinion of him, first in Lithuanian, which he did not understand, and then in Polish, which he did. Having the advantage of her in altitude, the driver had stood his ground and even ventured to attempt to speak; and the result had been a furious altercation, which, continuing all the way down Ashland Avenue, had added a new swarm of urchins to the cortege at each side street for half a mile.

This passage occurs in the popular novel of Sinclair, the Jungle. Although this passage shows a simple motif that is of language whether it is the mother tongue or second language, the novel shows several other motifs used in the narrative. It is corruption, poverty as shown here, and migration as the use of a second language shows that Marija is not a native American person.

Example # 2

From The Book Thief by Markus Zusak

Many jocular comments followed, as did another onslaught of “ heil Hitlering.” You know, it
actually makes me wonder if anyone ever lost an eye or injured a hand or wrist with all of
that. You’d only need to be facing the wrong way at the wrong time or stand marginally too
close to another person. Perhaps people did get injured. Personally, I can only tell you that no
one died from it, or at least, not physically. There was, of course, the matter of forty million
people I picked up by the time the whole thing was finished, but that’s getting all metaphoric.
Allow me to return us to the fire.

Taken from the Book Thief, a novel by Markus Zusak, this passage shows the repeatedly occurring idea of injury and its association with the slogan of heil Hitlering. It clearly indicates that so far in this passage, this is a motif. However, overall, the book shows several other motifs that peep through its different chapters such as death, writing, fear, and night.

Example # 3

From The Kite Runner by Khalid Hosseini

A few months later, we used the advance for my second novel and placed a down payment on a pretty, two-bedroom Victorian house in San Francisco’s Bernal Heights. It had a peaked roof, hardwood floors, and a tiny backyard which ended in a sun deck and a fire pit. The general helped me refinish the deck and paint the walls. Khala Jamila bemoaned us moving almost an hour away, especially since she thought Soraya needed all the love and support she could get—oblivious to the fact that her well intended but overbearing sympathy was precisely what was driving Soraya to move.

This passage occurs in the Kite Runner, an unknown term in the west or the United States. Actually, a kite runner is a child who runs to catch the cut-off kites and fly them. In this novel, it is a recurring motif along with several others such as it is writing and love in this passage.

Example # 4

From Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift

I likewise felt several slender Ligatures across my Body, from my Armpits to my Thighs. I could only look upwards; the Sun began to grow hot, and the Light offended mine Eyes. I heard a confused Noise about me, but in the Posture I lay, could see nothing except the Sky. In a little time I felt something alive moving on my left Leg, which advancing gently forward over my Breast, came almost up to my Chin; when bending mine Eyes downwards as much as I could, I perceived it to be a human Creature not six Inches high, with a Bow and Arrow in his Hands, and a Quiver at his Back.

This passage occurs in the famous satire of Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels. In fact, this passage shows different motifs apart from the entire travelogue. It shows body parts as he tells about everything else that he feels is tied to the land after the Lilliputians catch him. However, overall, this book has several other motifs such as size, politics, abstract emotions, etc.

Example # 5

From Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

“Having thus arranged my dwelling and carpeted it with clean straw, I retired, for I saw the figure of a man at a distance, and I remembered too well my treatment the night before to trust myself in his power. I had first, however, provided for my sustenance for that day by a loaf of coarse bread, which I purloined, and a cup with which I could drink more conveniently than from my hand of the pure water which flowed by my retreat. The floor was a little raised, so that it was kept perfectly dry, and by its vicinity to the chimney of the cottage it was tolerably warm.

This passage occurs in Frankenstein, a novel by Mary Shelley. This shows the motif of a figure that constantly occurs in this passage. It becomes a motif as well as its main character. The second is the season that becomes hot and cold with the twists and turns in the narrative of Victor and the Monster.

How to Create a Motif
  1. If you are reading a work of fiction or a poem, check what words, ideas, or things are repeating. You can use the same as a writer.
  2. Create some specific motifs relevant to your characters.
  3. Use them quite often including the tasks that could be performed or the tasks repeatedly mentioned.
  4. Use them quite often and evaluate their importance in the story.
Benefits of Using Motif
  1. Its use makes it easier to stress upon the main thematic idea.
  2. It helps form secondary themes in the narrative.
  3. It helps readers focus their attention on one character, idea, or point of persuasion.
  4. It helps persuade the readers and the audiences.
Literary Device of Motif in Literary Theory
  1. Motif is part of those literary devices/terms which are considered essential in narratology. The focuser and the narrator focus on specific motifs when the author wants to convey his/her message through such recurrent ideas or events.
  2. Motifs are also important in cognitive stylistics for the stylistic critique of narratives or fiction writing. They let the readers/audiences have a peep into the psyche of the characters as well as the author.
  3. Motifs, specifically, related to power and subjectivity, are an integral part of post-colonialism, specifically, the narratives written to depict colonialism and post-colonialism culture.
  4. They are also part of indigenous studies, indigenous critical theory, and race critical theory to stress upon the idea of indigeneity and racial discrimination.
Suggested Readings

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 1996. Print. Freedman, William. “The literary motif: A Definition and Evaluation.” NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction. Vol. 4. No. 2. Duke University Press, 1971.

More from Literary Devices:

Allusion

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Allusion

Allusion is a literary device that refers to a person, place, thing, or event from history, mythology, religion, or literature. The word “allusion” comes from the Latin word “alludere,” which means “to play with.” An allusion is a type of figurative language that adds depth and complexity to a text by drawing on readers’ existing knowledge and cultural references.

Meanings of Allusion

Here are some of the literal meanings of allusion:

  1. Reference: Allusion is a reference to something else, usually something well-known, such as a historical event, a famous person, or a work of literature.
  2. Context: Allusion adds context to the writer’s work by referring to something that the reader is already familiar with. By making this reference, the writer can deepen the meaning of their own work.
  3. Association: Allusion creates an association between the writer’s work and the thing being alluded to. This association can be positive or negative, depending on the nature of the allusion and how the reader interprets it.
  4. Intertextuality: Allusion is a form of intertextuality, which is the relationship between texts. By making a reference to another work, the writer is creating a connection between their own work and the work they are alluding to.
  5. Subtext: Allusion can also be used to convey a subtext, which is an underlying meaning or message that is not explicitly stated in the text. By using an allusion, the writer can hint at a deeper meaning without directly stating it.
Definition of Literary Device of Allusion

Allusion is a literary device where a reference is made to a person, place, thing, or event from history, mythology, religion, or literature. It is a way for authors to enrich their writing by drawing on readers’ existing knowledge and cultural references to create resonance between the text and the wider world. Allusions can be subtle or explicit, and they are used to add depth, meaning, and complexity to a work of literature. By referencing a familiar person or event, authors can create connections and associations that enhance the reader’s understanding and appreciation of the text.

Types of Allusion

There are several types of allusion, including:

  1. Biblical Allusion: Refers to people, places, events, or stories from the Bible.
  2. Mythological Allusion: Refers to characters, places, events, or stories from Greek, Roman, or other mythologies.
  3. Historical Allusion: Refers to people, events, or places from history, including political, social, and cultural events.
  4. Literary Allusion: Refers to characters, places, events, or stories from other works of literature.
  5. Pop Culture Allusion: Refers to people, places, events, or stories from popular culture, including movies, TV shows, and music.
  6. Geographical Allusion: Refers to specific places or regions, such as cities, countries, or landmarks.
Common Examples of Allusion

There are many common examples of allusion that can be found in literature, movies, and other forms of media. Here are a few:

  1. “I was surprised his nose wasn’t growing” – An allusion to Pinocchio, the wooden puppet whose nose grew every time he told a lie.
  2. “Chocolate was her Achilles’ heel” – An allusion to the Greek myth of Achilles, whose only weakness was his heel.
  3. “I’m no Superman” – An allusion to the comic book superhero Superman.
  4. “This place is like a Garden of Eden” – An allusion to the biblical story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden.
  5. “He’s a real Romeo” – An allusion to the Shakespearean character Romeo from the play Romeo and Juliet.
  6. “She’s a modern-day Cinderella” – An allusion to the fairy tale character Cinderella.
  7. “The restaurant was a veritable Garden of Gethsemane” – An allusion to the biblical garden where Jesus prayed before his crucifixion
Literary Examples
Example # 1

T.S. Eliot, “The Waste Land”

Example: “The winter evening settles down With smell of steaks in passageways. Six o’clock. The burnt-out ends of smoky days.”

Explanation: The first three lines of this poem by T.S. Eliot allude to a famous painting by Edward Hopper called “Nighthawks.” The image of a late-night diner in an urban setting is a reference to Hopper’s painting, which features a similar scene.

Example # 2

From “Sympathy for the Devil” by The Rolling Stones

Example: “And, as I watched him on the stage My hands were clenched in fists of rage. No angel born in Hell Could break that Satan’s spell.”

Explanation: The lyrics of this song by The Rolling Stones allude to the biblical story of Satan’s fall from grace. The line “No angel born in Hell” is a reference to the idea that Satan was once an angel in heaven before he was cast out for rebelling against God.

Example # 3

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Example: “So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.”

Explanation: This line from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby alludes to a line from a poem by the 19th-century writer Tennyson: “Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all.” In Fitzgerald’s novel, the line refers to the idea that the characters are constantly struggling against the forces of time and the past.

Example # 4

From A Margin of Hope by Irving Howe

Example: “I am a Tolstoyan when it comes to love and a Dostoevskian when it comes to sin.”

Explanation: This sentence alludes to two famous Russian authors, Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky. The speaker is saying that they believe in the romantic and idealized view of love that Tolstoy portrays in his novels, but they also recognize the darker, more complex aspects of human nature that Dostoevsky explores in his work.

How to Create Allusions

Creating effective allusions involves making connections between different works or events in a way that enhances the meaning of the text. Here are some steps to follow when creating allusions:

  1. Choose the reference: Choose a reference that is relevant to the message you are trying to convey. This could be a literary work, historical event, cultural phenomenon, or artistic piece.
  2. Understand the reference: Before using a reference as an allusion, it is important to understand the context and significance of the reference. This may involve research or reading the original work.
  3. Make the connection: Make a connection between the reference and the message you are trying to convey. This could involve drawing parallels or highlighting similarities and differences.
  4. Use the allusion effectively: Use the allusion in a way that enhances the meaning of the text. Avoid using allusions that are too obscure or that require too much explanation, as this can detract from the message.
  5. Consider your audience: When using allusions, it is important to consider your audience and their background knowledge. An allusion that is familiar to one group of people may be completely unknown to another.
  6. Use allusions sparingly: Overusing allusions can detract from the message and make the text difficult to understand. Use allusions sparingly and only when they add value to the text.
Benefits of Using Allusions

Here are some benefits of using allusions:

  1. Enhance understanding: Allusions can help readers or listeners to better understand or relate to the message being conveyed. It can also make the text more engaging and interesting.
  2. Add layers of meaning: Allusions can add layers of meaning to the text by connecting it to other works or events, providing a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
  3. Save time and space: Allusions can be a quick way to convey information or ideas without the need for lengthy explanations or descriptions.
  4. Build credibility: Allusions can show the writer or speaker’s knowledge of culture, history, and literature, which can enhance their credibility and authority on the subject.
  5. Create emotional connections: Allusions can create emotional connections with readers or listeners who share a common cultural or historical background, leading to a deeper emotional impact.
Literary Device of Allusion in Literary Theory

It is a common literary device used across various literary theories. Here are eight literary theories and how it is used in each:

  1. New Criticism: New criticism emphasizes close reading of the text itself, and allusion is often used to highlight connections within the text, such as referencing a character’s previous actions or words.
  2. Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response theory focuses on the reader’s interpretation of the text, and allusion can be used to evoke the reader’s own personal experiences and associations.
  3. Feminist Criticism: Feminist Criticism often uses allusion to reference female characters or authors, as well as historical or cultural events related to women’s rights.
  4. Marxist Criticism: Marxist Criticism uses allusion to connect the text to social and economic structures, such as referencing historical events or literary works that reflect class struggle.
  5. Postcolonial Criticism: Postcolonial Criticism uses allusion to reference colonialism, imperialism, and cultural domination, such as referencing historical events or literary works that reflect the effects of colonization.
  6. Psychoanalytic Criticism: Psychoanalytic Criticism uses allusion to explore the psychological motivations of characters, such as referencing works related to the character’s subconscious desires or experiences.
  7. Deconstruction: Deconstruction uses allusion to highlight the contradictions and ambiguities within the text, often by referencing other works that expose these contradictions.
  8. Queer Theory: Queer theory uses allusion to highlight LGBTQ+ themes and references, such as referencing works that explore gender and sexuality in different ways.
Suggested Readings

Bloom, Harold. The Anatomy of Influence: Literature as a Way of Life. Yale University Press, 2011.

Hirsch, E.D. Jr. Validity in Interpretation. Yale University Press, 1967. Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. University of Illinois Press, 2000.

Hyperbole

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device Hyperbole

Etymologically, the term hyperbole is a derivative of a Greek term, huperbole that entered the Latin language as hyperbola. It entered the English language during the Middle Ages and turned into hyperbole that means to exaggerate.

Literally, it means to throw beyond. There was also a Greek verb of hyperbola that was hyperballein which also means throw beyond, or over something. In other words, the term has similar meanings in both Greek and Latin languages.

Grammatically, it is a noun used as a singular having hyperboles as its plural.

Definition of Literary Device Hyperbole

In literature, hyperbole is a term used to exaggerate something. However, it is mostly used in rhetoric, poetry, and oratory to emphasize something or evoke strong feelings about something.

It is a figure of speech that means not to take something literally and exaggerate things to evoke a strong response from the readers or the audience.

Common Examples of Hyperbole
  1. He could have wept buckets over her death.
  2. He is so agile that he could have jumped rivers to reach his home.
  3. My grandfather is ages old now.
  4. You must have run millions of miles to reach him.
  5. He is a matchstick wrestler.
  6. He is as tall as a bamboo.
  7. His color exceeds bitumen in blackness.
  8. The night was scaring him.
Literary Examples of Hyperbole
Example # 1

From The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger

In the first place, that stuff bores me, and in the second place, my parents would have about two hemorrhages apiece if I told anything pretty personal about them.

This sentence occurs in The Catcher in the Rye, a phenomenal novel by Salinger. Holden Caulfield thinks about his parents that had they known his school behavior, they would have had two hemorrhages which do not seem possible. He has rather exaggerated their likely shock at the situation in which he has put himself in.

Example # 2

From “Air and Angels” by John Donne

Twice or thrice had I lov’d thee,

Before I knew thy face or name;

So in a voice, so in a shapeless flame

Angels affect us oft, and worshipp’d be;

         Still when, to where thou wert, I came,

Some lovely glorious nothing I did see.

These verses occur in the poem “Air and Angels” written by a popular metaphysical poet, John Donne. Almost every other verse exaggerates things that are not possible in the world. Donne cannot love a person twice or thrice nor do the angles come to intensify their love. Therefore, this is merely an exaggeration of feelings.

Example # 3

From “The Anniversary” by John Donne

All Kings, and all their favourites,

         All glory of honours, beauties, wits,

    The sun itself, which makes times, as they pass,

    Is elder by a year now than it was

    When thou and I first one another saw:

    All other things to their destruction draw,

         Only our love hath no decay;

    This no tomorrow hath, nor yesterday,

    Running it never runs from us away,

But truly keeps his first, last, everlasting day.

These verses have been borrowed from the poem of John Donne, “The Anniversary.” Every other verse exaggerates things to the extreme. Instead of enjoying their own festivity and counting time, he argues that the sun has gone older and that other things have witnessed decay but their love is still fresh. Almost every other conceit he has used in this poem is a hyperbole.

Example # 4

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

What a piece of work is man…how like an apprehension, how like a god; the beauty of the world…. And yet to me, what is this quintessence of dust?

These lines occur in the play, Hamlet, by William Shakespeare. He has exaggerated man, equating him to god and the entire beauty of the world. This exaggeration, then, ends on the point that he (man) is a quintessence of dust. This is a beautiful hyperbole he has used in Hamlet.

Example # 5

From Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison

Two men stood directly in front of me, one speaking with intense earnestness. “. . . and Johnson hit Jeffries at an angle of 45 degrees from his lower left lateral incisor, producing an instantaneous blocking of his entire thalamic rine, frosting it over like the freezing unit of a refrigerator, thus shattering his autonomous nervous system and rocking the big brick-laying creampuff with extreme hyperspasmic muscular tremors.

This passage occurs in the novel, Invisible Man, by Ralph Ellison. Johnson is thrashing Jeffries but it does not occur in such a precise manner as he is stating. Nobody sees the degree of the angel when hitting or nobody makes another one frosty like a refrigerator. These are merely exaggerations. Therefore, these are beautiful hyperboles Ellison has used.

How to Create Hyperboles

  1. Plan using an idea such as light.
  2. Create a similarity between two ideas such as the brightness of the light.
  3. Use a simile such as the light was as bright as the sun itself.
  4. Use it in descriptive writing through a character or a third-person narrator.
  5. A hyperbole must be relevant, direct, clear, outlandish, or outrageous, and deliberate.
Benefits of Using Hyperbole
  1. It leads to the clarity of ideas.
  2. It enhances the impact of the description.
  3. It widens readers’ imagination.
  4. It makes readers aware of the enormity of situations or the reality of things
Literary Device Hyperbole in Literary Theory
  1. As hyperbole is an essential element of figurative language, obviously it is important when taking a formalistic literary review of a poem, story, or novel. Also, when it involves the rhetoric of fiction, it means that hyperbole is part of the rhetoric. Therefore, hyperbole helps readers understand the real message of the writing when analyzed through formalism.
  2. Hyperbole also helps in indigenous critical theory and race critical theory when a piece of art or literature is analyzed from this perspective. The reason is that indigenous linguistic features and indigenous discourse often employ hyperboles to intensify the feelings of oppression and suppression.
  3. Hyperbole is the main element of rhetoric and psycholinguistics. The reason is that rhetoric means to persuade and convince the people about the just or unjust case in the political realm. As every fiction is a political discourse in one or the other way, it is part of rhetoric and hence hyperbole is an essential part of it. Therefore, when doing a rhetorical analysis or doing analysis from a psycholinguistic point of view, it is important to review the role of hyperbole in such writings.
Suggested Readings

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction To Literary And Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print.

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Mora, Laura Cano. “All Or Nothing: A Semantic Analysis of Hyperbole.” Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas 4.1 (2009): 25-35. Thompson, Michael, Richard Ellis, and Aaron Wildavsky. Cultural Theory. Routledge, 2018. Print.