Category: Poem Analysis

Introduction: “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

“The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop first appeared in her 1946 collection North & South‘ marking her debut in the literary world. This narrative poem captures an intricate and empathetic observation of a caught fish’ showcasing Bishop’s hallmark qualities of vivid imagery’ meticulous attention to detail’ and a deep connection with the natural world. Through the speaker’s evolving perception of the fish’ the poem explores themes of respect’ resilience’ and the interconnectedness of life. It remains a popular choice in literature textbooks due to its accessibility’ rich use of descriptive language’ and the way it encourages readers to reflect on ethical relationships between humans and nature. The layered symbolism and emotional depth make it an enduring work for analysis and discussion in academic settings.

Text: “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

I caught a tremendous fish
and held him beside the boat
half out of water’ with my hook
fast in a corner of his mouth.
He didn’t fight.
He hadn’t fought at all.
He hung a grunting weight’
battered and venerable
and homely. Here and there
his brown skin hung in strips
like ancient wallpaper’
and its pattern of darker brown
was like wallpaper:
shapes like full-blown roses
stained and lost through age.
He was speckled with barnacles’
fine rosettes of lime’
and infested
with tiny white sea-lice’
and underneath two or three
rags of green weed hung down.
While his gills were breathing in
the terrible oxygen
—the frightening gills’
fresh and crisp with blood’
that can cut so badly—
I thought of the coarse white flesh
packed in like feathers’
the big bones and the little bones’
the dramatic reds and blacks
of his shiny entrails’
and the pink swim-bladder
like a big peony.
I looked into his eyes
which were far larger than mine
but shallower’ and yellowed’
the irises backed and packed
with tarnished tinfoil
seen through the lenses
of old scratched isinglass.
They shifted a little’ but not
to return my stare.
—It was more like the tipping
of an object toward the light.
I admired his sullen face’
the mechanism of his jaw’
and then I saw
that from his lower lip
—if you could call it a lip—
grim’ wet’ and weaponlike’
hung five old pieces of fish-line’
or four and a wire leader
with the swivel still attached’
with all their five big hooks
grown firmly in his mouth.
A green line’ frayed at the end
where he broke it’ two heavier lines’
and a fine black thread
still crimped from the strain and snap
when it broke and he got away.
Like medals with their ribbons
frayed and wavering’
a five-haired beard of wisdom
trailing from his aching jaw.
I stared and stared
and victory filled up
the little rented boat’
from the pool of bilge
where oil had spread a rainbow
around the rusted engine
to the bailer rusted orange’
the sun-cracked thwarts’
the oarlocks on their strings’
the gunnels—until everything
was rainbow’ rainbow’ rainbow!
And I let the fish go.

Annotations: “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

Section	Lines/Excerpt	Annotation/Analysis
Introduction of the Fish	“I caught a tremendous fish and held him beside the boat…”	The speaker begins with a straightforward narrative of catching the fish’ emphasizing its size and strength through the word “tremendous.” The calm demeanor of the fish contrasts with the usual struggle expected in fishing.
Physical Description	“His brown skin hung in strips like ancient wallpaper…”	Bishop uses detailed and vivid imagery to describe the fish’ comparing its peeling skin to “ancient wallpaper.” This metaphor evokes a sense of age and wear’ portraying the fish as venerable and weathered by life.
Symbolism of Age and Resilience	“Speckled with barnacles’ fine rosettes of lime…”	The barnacles and sea-lice represent the passage of time and the fish’s survival despite hardships. The “rosettes of lime” create a delicate’ almost artistic image’ adding dignity to the fish’s battered appearance.
The Frightening Gills	“The frightening gills’ fresh and crisp with blood…”	The gills’ description emphasizes the fish’s vitality and biological complexity. The juxtaposition of “terrible oxygen” and “frightening gills” suggests the fish’s struggle to survive out of water’ reinforcing its vulnerability.
Internal Imagery	“The big bones and the little bones’ the dramatic reds and blacks of his shiny entrails…”	Bishop’s detailed anatomy of the fish demonstrates her keen observational skill. The comparison of the swim bladder to a “peony” adds a touch of beauty to this visceral description’ blending biology and artistry.
The Fish’s Eyes	“I looked into his eyes which were far larger than mine but shallower’ and yellowed…”	The eyes are described as shallow and “backed and packed with tarnished tinfoil'” symbolizing the fish’s endurance but also a sense of detachment’ as if the fish has accepted its fate without resistance.
Hooks and Scars	“Hung five old pieces of fish-line…like medals with their ribbons…”	The embedded hooks symbolize the fish’s survival against previous captures’ likened to “medals.” This imagery emphasizes the fish’s resilience and strength’ earning the speaker’s admiration and respect.
Shift in Perception	“Victory filled up the little rented boat…”	The tone shifts as the speaker sees the fish not as a prize to be taken but as a symbol of triumph and life’s beauty. The imagery of rainbows created by the oil reflects a moment of epiphany and reverence for the fish and the natural world.
Climactic Release	“And I let the fish go.”	The decision to release the fish represents a moral and emotional resolution. The act of letting go is both a gesture of respect for the fish’s resilience and a recognition of shared existence and survival in nature.
Symbolism of the Rainbow	“Rainbow’ rainbow’ rainbow!”	The repetition of “rainbow” suggests a moment of transcendence and unity’ where the ordinary setting is transformed into a celebration of beauty and life. The rainbow serves as a metaphor for interconnectedness and wonder.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“The big bones'” “held him beside the boat”	The repetition of initial consonant sounds (b in “big bones'” h in “held him beside”) draws attention to key phrases’ enhancing rhythm and focus on imagery.
Assonance	“he hung a grunting weight”	The repetition of vowel sounds (“u” in hung’ grunting) creates a rhythmic and cohesive auditory effect.
Caesura	“—if you could call it a lip—”	The pause in the middle of the line reflects the speaker’s reflective tone’ adding to the conversational nature of the poem.
Consonance	“frayed and wavering’ a five-haired beard”	The repetition of the “r” and “v” sounds creates a sense of texture and movement in the description.
Detail	“like ancient wallpaper’ and its pattern of darker brown”	Bishop’s use of precise and intricate details immerses readers in the scene’ making the fish vivid and tangible.
Enjambment	“I caught a tremendous fish / and held him beside the boat”	The continuation of thought across lines without punctuation mirrors the fluidity of the speaker’s observations.
Epiphany	“everything was rainbow’ rainbow’ rainbow!”	The realization of the interconnected beauty of life is central to the speaker’s transformative moment’ marking an emotional high point in the poem.
Imagery	“his brown skin hung in strips like ancient wallpaper”	Vivid sensory descriptions enable readers to visualize the fish’s texture and age’ evoking a sense of respect for its resilience.
Irony	“terrible oxygen”	Referring to oxygen as “terrible” is ironic because while essential for humans’ it is life-threatening for a fish out of water.
Juxtaposition	“The dramatic reds and blacks of his shiny entrails / and the pink swim-bladder”	Contrasting colors and textures highlight both the beauty and the visceral reality of the fish’s anatomy.
Metaphor	“Like medals with their ribbons frayed and wavering”	The old hooks and lines in the fish’s jaw are likened to medals’ symbolizing the fish’s hard-won survival and endurance.
Onomatopoeia	“He hung a grunting weight”	The use of “grunting” mimics the sound associated with the fish’ adding auditory texture to the scene.
Paradox	“terrible oxygen”	Oxygen’ necessary for life’ is described as terrible’ reflecting the fish’s struggle to survive out of its natural habitat.
Personification	“victory filled up the little rented boat”	Victory is given human-like qualities’ embodying the speaker’s emotional transformation and triumph.
Repetition	“rainbow’ rainbow’ rainbow!”	The repeated word emphasizes the speaker’s awe and the climactic moment of realization’ imbuing the scene with a sense of transcendence.
Simile	“His brown skin hung in strips like ancient wallpaper”	The fish’s peeling skin is compared to wallpaper’ emphasizing its aged’ weathered condition.
Symbolism	“five old pieces of fish-line…like medals”	The hooks symbolize the fish’s survival and resilience’ elevating it as a figure of wisdom and experience.
Synesthesia	“terrible oxygen”	The description merges sensory experiences (smell/taste and fear)’ adding complexity to the fish’s distress.
Tone	“I admired his sullen face’ the mechanism of his jaw”	The tone of admiration and respect underscores the speaker’s growing empathy and understanding of the fish.
Visual Imagery	“the dramatic reds and blacks of his shiny entrails / and the pink swim-bladder”	Vivid colors and textures create striking visual imagery’ allowing readers to imagine the fish’s anatomy in detail.

Themes: “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

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Literary Theories and “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

Literary Theory	Application to “The Fish”	References from the Poem
Ecocriticism	This theory examines the relationship between literature and the natural world. In “The Fish'” Bishop reflects on humanity’s connection with nature and the respect owed to it.	The detailed imagery’ such as the fish’s “brown skin hung in strips like ancient wallpaper'” highlights its weathered beauty and resilience. The release of the fish signifies an ethical stance toward the natural world.
Feminist Theory	Although the poem doesn’t explicitly address gender’ a feminist lens might interpret the speaker’s decision to release the fish as rejecting domination and power hierarchies.	The speaker’ rather than asserting dominance’ admires the fish’s “venerable” and “homely” appearance’ recognizing its strength and endurance.
New Criticism	This theory focuses on the text itself’ analyzing the use of literary devices’ structure’ and imagery without external context.	The use of metaphors (“like medals with their ribbons”) and repetition (“rainbow’ rainbow’ rainbow”) reflects a self-contained symbolic narrative.
Existentialism	This interpretation views the poem as a meditation on life’s struggles’ mortality’ and the meaning found in endurance and survival.	The fish’s scars—”five old pieces of fish-line…like medals”—symbolize its confrontation with death and the dignity of surviving repeated challenges.

Critical Questions about “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

Literary Works Similar to “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

1. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats
   Similarity: Like “The Fish'” Keats’s poem explores into the relationship between humans and nature’ blending vivid imagery with deep introspection about life’ mortality’ and beauty.
2. “To a Skylark” by Percy Bysshe Shelley
   Similarity: Both poems celebrate the natural world while reflecting on the symbolic significance of an individual creature’ using detailed descriptions to elevate the subject’s role.
3. “The Moose” by Elizabeth Bishop
   Similarity: Another of Bishop’s works’ this poem mirrors “The Fish” in its careful observation of a single animal’ using precise imagery and a meditative tone to explore themes of connection and respect for nature.
4. “Snake” by D.H. Lawrence
   Similarity: Lawrence’s poem’ like “The Fish'” features a speaker who experiences a transformative encounter with a creature’ leading to a reevaluation of human dominance over the natural world.
5. “The Horses” by Ted Hughes
   Similarity: Hughes’s poem shares “The Fish”‘s focus on animals and their symbolic resonance’ with a similarly quiet yet powerful tone that conveys respect for the natural world and its mysteries.

Representative Quotations of “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“I caught a tremendous fish and held him beside the boat”	Introduces the fish as a physical object caught by the speaker’ setting the stage for a narrative of observation and transformation.	New Criticism: Focus on the structural beginning that establishes the narrative arc of the poem.
“His brown skin hung in strips like ancient wallpaper”	Describes the fish’s aged and weathered appearance’ evoking its resilience and connection to time.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the fish’s integration into the natural environment and the passage of time.
“He hadn’t fought at all. He hung a grunting weight”	Depicts the fish’s resignation’ contrasting the expected struggle of a catch.	Existentialism: Reflects on the fish’s acceptance of its condition’ evoking themes of mortality and struggle.
“Like medals with their ribbons frayed and wavering”	The hooks and lines in the fish’s jaw are likened to medals’ symbolizing survival and past victories.	Symbolism: The fish becomes a figure of resilience’ enduring repeated challenges.
“A five-haired beard of wisdom trailing from his aching jaw”	Describes the hooks as symbols of wisdom gained through survival’ elevating the fish’s character.	Feminist Theory: Challenges hierarchical power dynamics’ portraying the fish as an equal worthy of respect.
“The frightening gills’ fresh and crisp with blood”	Observes the visceral and vulnerable aspects of the fish’ emphasizing its life force.	Phenomenology: Centers on the immediate and embodied experience of encountering the fish.
“I admired his sullen face’ the mechanism of his jaw”	Marks the speaker’s growing respect and fascination with the fish as more than a catch.	Humanism: Demonstrates the recognition of dignity and individuality in the fish.
“Victory filled up the little rented boat”	A moment of emotional triumph and realization for the speaker’ shifting the narrative toward reverence for the fish.	Reader-Response Theory: Encourages readers to interpret the speaker’s epiphany as their own moment of enlightenment.
“Rainbow’ rainbow’ rainbow!”	The oil-slicked water becomes a symbol of beauty and interconnectedness’ transforming the ordinary into the extraordinary.	Symbolism: Suggests a moment of transcendence and the unity of all life.
“And I let the fish go”	The speaker releases the fish’ signaling a moral resolution and respect for its autonomy.	Ethical Criticism: Explores the moral implications of the speaker’s choice’ emphasizing empathy and respect for nature.

Suggested Readings: “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop

1. Frost’ Carol. “Elizabeth Bishop’s Inner Eye.” New England Review (1990-)‘ vol. 25′ no. 1/2′ 2004’ pp. 250–57. JSTOR‘ http://www.jstor.org/stable/40244395. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
2. Southworth’ James G. “The Poetry of Elizabeth Bishop.” College English‘ vol. 20′ no. 5′ 1959’ pp. 213–17. JSTOR‘ https://doi.org/10.2307/372687. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
3. Edelman’ Lee’ and Elizabeth Bishop. “The Geography of Gender: Elizabeth Bishop’s ‘In the Waiting Room.'” Contemporary Literature‘ vol. 26′ no. 2′ 1985’ pp. 179–96. JSTOR‘ https://doi.org/10.2307/1207932. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
4. Elkins’ Mary J. “Elizabeth Bishop and the Act of Seeing.” South Atlantic Review 48.4 (1983): 43-57.

Introduction: “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

“The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats first appeared in 1820 in the collection Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. The narrative poem is celebrated for its lush, sensuous imagery and exploration of themes like forbidden love, youthful passion, and the tension between idealism and reality. Set on the feast night of St. Agnes, the poem intertwines the romantic and the mystical, centering on the love between Madeline and Porphyro amidst the backdrop of a feuding family. Its vivid descriptions, medieval setting, and mastery of the Spenserian stanza make it a staple of Romantic poetry. Its popularity as a textbook poem stems from its rich symbolism, narrative sophistication, and its encapsulation of Romantic ideals, making it a fertile ground for literary analysis and interpretation.

Text and Annotations of “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

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Stanza 1

St. Agnes’ Eve—Ah, bitter chill it was!
The owl, for all his feathers, was a-cold;
The hare limp’d trembling through the frozen grass,
And silent was the flock in woolly fold:
Numb were the Beadsman’s fingers, while he told
His rosary, and while his frosted breath,
Like pious incense from a censer old,
Seem’d taking flight for heaven, without a death,
Past the sweet Virgin’s picture, while his prayer he saith.

Annotation:
The opening stanza sets a chilling, bleak tone, underscoring the harshness of winter on St. Agnes’ Eve. The natural imagery—”owl,” “hare,” and “frozen grass”—emphasizes the biting cold. The Beadsman’s devout prayer, visualized as “pious incense,” contrasts with the physical suffering of his “numb fingers” and frosted breath. This juxtaposition highlights the dedication required for spiritual acts, despite mortal frailty.

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Stanza 2

His prayer he saith, this patient, holy man;
Then takes his lamp, and riseth from his knees,
And back returneth, meagre, barefoot, wan,
Along the chapel aisle by slow degrees:
The sculptur’d dead, on each side, seem to freeze,
Emprison’d in black, purgatorial rails:
Knights, ladies, praying in dumb orat’ries,
He passeth by; and his weak spirit fails
To think how they may ache in icy hoods and mails.

Annotation:
The Beadsman’s frailty is further emphasized as he rises weakly, “meagre, barefoot, wan.” The gothic imagery of the “sculptur’d dead” encased in “purgatorial rails” lends a ghostly air to the chapel. This imagery reflects the spiritual liminality of the setting, where the living and dead intersect. The Beadsman empathizes with the frozen knights and ladies, imagining their eternal discomfort, which mirrors his own physical suffering.

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Stanza 3

Northward he turneth through a little door,
And scarce three steps, ere Music’s golden tongue
Flatter’d to tears this aged man and poor;
But no—already had his deathbell rung;
The joys of all his life were said and sung:
His was harsh penance on St. Agnes’ Eve:
Another way he went, and soon among
Rough ashes sat he for his soul’s reprieve,
And all night kept awake, for sinners’ sake to grieve.

Annotation:
The Beadsman moves away from the warmth of the chapel into the desolation of his harsh penance. His isolation contrasts with the “Music’s golden tongue,” representing the revelry of the wealthy. The “deathbell” signals the imminence of his mortality, highlighting the futility of earthly pleasures for him. His devotion is profound, choosing asceticism and grief for sinners over comfort, reflecting themes of sacrifice and redemption.

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Stanza 4

That ancient Beadsman heard the prelude soft;
And so it chanc’d, for many a door was wide,
From hurry to and fro. Soon, up aloft,
The silver, snarling trumpets ‘gan to chide:
The level chambers, ready with their pride,
Were glowing to receive a thousand guests:
The carved angels, ever eager-eyed,
Star’d, where upon their heads the cornice rests,
With hair blown back, and wings put cross-wise on their breasts.

Annotation:
The scene shifts from the Beadsman’s somber prayer to the lively and opulent feast. The imagery of “silver, snarling trumpets” and glowing chambers conveys the lavishness and chaos of the preparations. The carved angels, depicted as “eager-eyed,” seem to judge the extravagance of human pride, adding an air of subtle critique to the excesses of the revelry.

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Stanza 5

At length burst in the argent revelry,
With plume, tiara, and all rich array,
Numerous as shadows haunting faerily
The brain, new stuff’d, in youth, with triumphs gay
Of old romance. These let us wish away,
And turn, sole-thoughted, to one Lady there,
Whose heart had brooded, all that wintry day,
On love, and wing’d St. Agnes’ saintly care,
As she had heard old dames full many times declare.

Annotation:
The opulent “argent revelry” embodies the spirit of youthful indulgence. However, Keats redirects the focus to Madeline, whose romantic and spiritual musings set her apart from the worldly crowd. Her thoughts of love and devotion to St. Agnes’ Eve rituals emphasize her purity and idealism, aligning her with themes of divine inspiration and romantic yearning.

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Stanza 6

They told her how, upon St. Agnes’ Eve,
Young virgins might have visions of delight,
And soft adorings from their loves receive
Upon the honey’d middle of the night,
If ceremonies due they did aright;
As, supperless to bed they must retire,
And couch supine their beauties, lily white;
Nor look behind, nor sideways, but require
Of Heaven with upward eyes for all that they desire.

Annotation:
The superstition surrounding St. Agnes’ Eve is laid out, where young virgins can glimpse their future lovers in dreams. The prescribed rituals of fasting, purity, and unwavering faith in Heaven symbolize both spiritual devotion and romantic idealism. Madeline’s adherence to these rites underscores her innocence and trust in divine providence.

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Stanza 7

Full of this whim was thoughtful Madeline:
The music, yearning like a God in pain,
She scarcely heard: her maiden eyes divine,
Fix’d on the floor, saw many a sweeping train
Pass by—she heeded not at all: in vain
Came many a tiptoe, amorous cavalier,
And back retir’d; not cool’d by high disdain,
But she saw not: her heart was otherwhere:
She sigh’d for Agnes’ dreams, the sweetest of the year.

Annotation:
Madeline’s absorption in her romantic fantasy renders her oblivious to the lively banquet. The “amorous cavalier” represents worldly love, but Madeline’s focus is on the transcendental love promised by St. Agnes’ Eve. The “yearning like a God in pain” in the music reflects her inner turmoil and longing, foreshadowing the dreamlike events to follow.

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Stanza 8

She danc’d along with vague, regardless eyes,
Anxious her lips, her breathing quick and short:
The hallow’d hour was near at hand: she sighs
Amid the timbrels, and the throng’d resort
Of whisperers in anger, or in sport;
‘Mid looks of love, defiance, hate, and scorn,
Hoodwink’d with faery fancy; all amort,
Save to St. Agnes and her lambs unshorn,
And all the bliss to be before to-morrow morn.

Annotation:
Madeline’s anticipation crescendos as the ritual hour approaches. Her “vague, regardless eyes” and “quick” breathing reflect her nervous yet resolute focus. She is detached from the surrounding crowd’s chaotic emotions—love, hate, scorn—fixated instead on her spiritual aspirations. The reference to “lambs unshorn” emphasizes her innocence and the purity of her desires, contrasting with the worldliness of the banquet.

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Stanza 9

So, purposing each moment to retire,
She linger’d still. Meantime, across the moors,
Had come young Porphyro, with heart on fire
For Madeline. Beside the portal doors,
Buttress’d from moonlight, stands he, and implores
All saints to give him sight of Madeline,
But for one moment in the tedious hours,
That he might gaze and worship all unseen;
Perchance speak, kneel, touch, kiss—in sooth such things have been.

Annotation:
Porphyro is introduced as a romantic figure driven by passionate devotion to Madeline. His “heart on fire” signals his fervent emotions, and his prayer to saints aligns with the spiritual undertones of the poem. His longing to “gaze and worship” suggests a blend of reverence and earthly love, creating tension between divine ideals and mortal desires.

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Stanza 10

He ventures in: let no buzz’d whisper tell:
All eyes be muffled, or a hundred swords
Will storm his heart, Love’s fev’rous citadel:
For him, those chambers held barbarian hordes,
Hyena foemen, and hot-blooded lords,
Whose very dogs would execrations howl
Against his lineage: not one breast affords
Him any mercy, in that mansion foul,
Save one old beldame, weak in body and in soul.

Annotation:
Porphyro’s intrusion into the hostile mansion is fraught with danger, as he perceives its occupants as “barbarian hordes” and “hyena foemen.” These hyperbolic descriptions emphasize his isolation and vulnerability. The “beldame,” Angela, becomes his only ally, underscoring themes of loyalty and the interplay of morality within an otherwise hostile setting.

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Stanza 11

Ah, happy chance! the aged creature came,
Shuffling along with ivory-headed wand,
To where he stood, hid from the torch’s flame,
Behind a broad half-pillar, far beyond
The sound of merriment and chorus bland:
He startled her; but soon she knew his face,
And grasp’d his fingers in her palsied hand,
Saying, “Mercy, Porphyro! hie thee from this place;
They are all here to-night, the whole blood-thirsty race!”

Annotation:
Angela recognizes Porphyro and expresses her alarm at his presence in the mansion. Her “palsied hand” and “ivory-headed wand” reflect her frailty, contrasting with the fervor of Porphyro’s love. Her warning about the “blood-thirsty race” heightens the suspense and the stakes, portraying the mansion as a dangerous, almost mythic place of peril.

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Stanza 12

“Get hence! get hence! there’s dwarfish Hildebrand;
He had a fever late, and in the fit
He cursed thee and thine, both house and land:
Then there’s that old Lord Maurice, not a whit
More tame for his gray hairs—Alas me! flit!
Flit like a ghost away.”—”Ah, Gossip dear,
We’re safe enough; here in this arm-chair sit,
And tell me how”—”Good Saints! not here, not here;
Follow me, child, or else these stones will be thy bier.”

Annotation:
Angela’s dire warnings about the mansion’s inhabitants emphasize the real danger Porphyro faces. Her references to Hildebrand and Lord Maurice portray the household as vengeful and unrelenting. Porphyro’s reassurance contrasts with her panic, demonstrating his determination to remain despite the risks. The urgency in Angela’s plea adds a sense of immediacy to the narrative.

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Stanza 13

He follow’d through a lowly arched way,
Brushing the cobwebs with his lofty plume,
And as she mutter’d “Well-a—well-a-day!”
He found him in a little moonlight room,
Pale, lattic’d, chill, and silent as a tomb.
“Now tell me where is Madeline,” said he,
“O tell me, Angela, by the holy loom
Which none but secret sisterhood may see,
When they St. Agnes’ wool are weaving piously.”

Annotation:
Angela leads Porphyro to a secluded, moonlit room described as “silent as a tomb.” This gothic imagery reinforces the poem’s themes of secrecy and foreboding. Porphyro’s invocation of “the holy loom” connects the scene to the spiritual rituals of St. Agnes’ Eve, emphasizing his belief in the sanctity of his love for Madeline.

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Stanza 14

“St. Agnes! Ah! it is St. Agnes’ Eve—
Yet men will murder upon holy days:
Thou must hold water in a witch’s sieve,
And be liege-lord of all the Elves and Fays,
To venture so: it fills me with amaze
To see thee, Porphyro!—St. Agnes’ Eve!
God’s help! my lady fair the conjuror plays
This very night: good angels her deceive!
But let me laugh awhile, I’ve mickle time to grieve.”

Annotation:
Angela expresses her disbelief at Porphyro’s audacity to intrude on such a sacred night. Her mention of “witch’s sieve” and “Elves and Fays” blends the supernatural with Christian ritual, reflecting the mystical tension of the poem. Her ironic laughter conveys both her helplessness and the absurdity of the situation.

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Stanza 15

Feebly she laugheth in the languid moon,
While Porphyro upon her face doth look,
Like puzzled urchin on an aged crone
Who keepeth clos’d a wond’rous riddle-book,
As spectacled she sits in chimney nook.
But soon his eyes grew brilliant, when she told
His lady’s purpose; and he scarce could brook
Tears, at the thought of those enchantments cold,
And Madeline asleep in lap of legends old.

Annotation:
Angela’s feeble laughter contrasts with Porphyro’s intense emotions. Her description of Madeline as being “asleep in lap of legends old” underscores her innocence and connection to timeless traditions. Porphyro’s tearful reaction highlights the depth of his love and the spiritual weight he attributes to the moment.

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Stanza 16

Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose,
Flushing his brow, and in his pained heart
Made purple riot: then doth he propose
A stratagem, that makes the beldame start:
“A cruel man and impious thou art:
Sweet lady, let her pray, and sleep, and dream
Alone with her good angels, far apart
From wicked men like thee. Go, go!—I deem
Thou canst not surely be the same that thou didst seem.”

Annotation:
Porphyro devises a bold plan to stay hidden in Madeline’s room. The metaphor of the “full-blown rose” captures the suddenness and intensity of his idea. Angela’s reaction reveals her moral conflict—she views Porphyro’s intent as selfish and intrusive, threatening Madeline’s innocence. Her reproach highlights the tension between Porphyro’s passionate love and Angela’s protective instincts.

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Stanza 17

“I will not harm her, by all saints I swear,”
Quoth Porphyro: “O may I ne’er find grace
When my weak voice shall whisper its last prayer,
If one of her soft ringlets I displace,
Or look with ruffian passion in her face:
Good Angela, believe me by these tears;
Or I will, even in a moment’s space,
Awake, with horrid shout, my foemen’s ears,
And beard them, though they be more fang’d than wolves and bears.”

Annotation:
Porphyro passionately defends his intentions, invoking saints and swearing an oath of respect for Madeline. His appeal to Angela is deeply emotional, underscored by his tears and dramatic resolve to confront his enemies if necessary. This moment emphasizes his reverence for Madeline, presenting him as a figure of romantic idealism, albeit one driven by overwhelming desire.

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Stanza 18

“Ah! why wilt thou affright a feeble soul?
A poor, weak, palsy-stricken, churchyard thing,
Whose passing-bell may ere the midnight toll;
Whose prayers for thee, each morn and evening,
Were never miss’d.”—Thus plaining, doth she bring
A gentler speech from burning Porphyro;
So woful, and of such deep sorrowing,
That Angela gives promise she will do
Whatever he shall wish, betide her weal or woe.

Annotation:
Angela’s lamentation underscores her vulnerability and reluctance. Her characterization as a “churchyard thing” reinforces her frailty and closeness to death. However, Porphyro’s sorrowful and earnest appeals sway her, leading her to agree to his risky plan. The stanza captures Angela’s internal conflict and foreshadows the moral ambiguities of her decision.

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Stanza 19

Which was, to lead him, in close secrecy,
Even to Madeline’s chamber, and there hide
Him in a closet, of such privacy
That he might see her beauty unespy’d,
And win perhaps that night a peerless bride,
While legion’d faeries pac’d the coverlet,
And pale enchantment held her sleepy-ey’d.
Never on such a night have lovers met,
Since Merlin paid his Demon all the monstrous debt.

Annotation:
Angela agrees to smuggle Porphyro into Madeline’s chamber. The plan is fraught with secrecy and tension, emphasizing the stakes of their endeavor. The imagery of “legion’d faeries” and “pale enchantment” reinforces the poem’s dreamlike atmosphere, merging the mystical and romantic. The reference to Merlin’s demon introduces an ominous note, suggesting that such passionate encounters often have a price.

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Stanza 20

“It shall be as thou wishest,” said the Dame:
“All cates and dainties shall be stored there
Quickly on this feast-night: by the tambour frame
Her own lute thou wilt see: no time to spare,
For I am slow and feeble, and scarce dare
On such a catering trust my dizzy head.
Wait here, my child, with patience; kneel in prayer
The while: Ah! thou must needs the lady wed,
Or may I never leave my grave among the dead.”

Annotation:
Angela’s reluctant acquiescence is laced with her apprehension and a sense of inevitability. She offers practical details about Madeline’s room while insisting on Porphyro’s sincerity by urging him to wed Madeline. Her parting words highlight her fear of betrayal and her desire to protect Madeline’s honor, underscoring the moral tension in their scheme.

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Stanza 21

So saying, she hobbled off with busy fear.
The lover’s endless minutes slowly pass’d;
The dame return’d, and whisper’d in his ear
To follow her; with aged eyes aghast
From fright of dim espial. Safe at last,
Through many a dusky gallery, they gain
The maiden’s chamber, silken, hush’d, and chaste;
Where Porphyro took covert, pleas’d amain.
His poor guide hurried back with agues in her brain.

Annotation:
Angela leads Porphyro to Madeline’s chamber through the shadowy, labyrinthine mansion, intensifying the gothic atmosphere. The “silken, hush’d, and chaste” room symbolizes Madeline’s purity and contrasts with Porphyro’s passionate intent. Angela’s departure, marked by her “agues in her brain,” reflects her physical and emotional toll, leaving Porphyro to face his moment of truth alone.

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Stanza 22

Her falt’ring hand upon the balustrade,
Old Angela was feeling for the stair,
When Madeline, St. Agnes’ charmed maid,
Rose, like a mission’d spirit, unaware:
With silver taper’s light, and pious care,
She turn’d, and down the aged gossip led
To a safe level matting. Now prepare,
Young Porphyro, for gazing on that bed;
She comes, she comes again, like ring-dove fray’d and fled.

Annotation:
Madeline’s appearance is ethereal and almost otherworldly, aligning her with divine purity. She is described as a “mission’d spirit,” reflecting her ritualistic devotion. The “silver taper’s light” and her gentle care for Angela reinforce her angelic imagery. This stanza builds anticipation as Madeline unwittingly sets the stage for her encounter with Porphyro.

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Stanza 23

Out went the taper as she hurried in;
Its little smoke, in pallid moonshine, died:
She clos’d the door, she panted, all akin
To spirits of the air, and visions wide:
No uttered syllable, or, woe betide!
But to her heart, her heart was voluble,
Paining with eloquence her balmy side;
As though a tongueless nightingale should swell
Her throat in vain, and die, heart-stifled, in her dell.

Annotation:
Madeline enters her chamber in a dreamlike state, extinguishing the “taper” and immersing herself in darkness. Her silent yet expressive emotions, described as a “tongueless nightingale,” convey her vulnerability and longing. The stanza captures the tension between her spiritual innocence and the awakening passion she unknowingly embodies.

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Stanza 24

A casement high and triple-arch’d there was,
All garlanded with carven imag’ries
Of fruits, and flowers, and bunches of knot-grass,
And diamonded with panes of quaint device,
Innumerable of stains and splendid dyes,
As are the tiger-moth’s deep-damask’d wings;
And in the midst, ‘mong thousand heraldries,
And twilight saints, and dim emblazonings,
A shielded scutcheon blush’d with blood of queens and kings.

Annotation:
This stanza paints a vivid picture of Madeline’s chamber, particularly the elaborate casement window. The “triple-arch’d” design, adorned with carvings and stained glass, evokes a sense of opulence and reverence. The comparison to a tiger-moth’s wings emphasizes the intricate and colorful artistry, while the “shielded scutcheon” connects the setting to themes of heritage, lineage, and aristocracy. The window’s imagery also reflects the blending of the natural and the sacred.

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Stanza 25

Full on this casement shone the wintry moon,
And threw warm gules on Madeline’s fair breast,
As down she knelt for heaven’s grace and boon;
Rose-bloom fell on her hands, together prest,
And on her silver cross soft amethyst,
And on her hair a glory, like a saint:
She seem’d a splendid angel, newly drest,
Save wings, for heaven:—Porphyro grew faint:
She knelt, so pure a thing, so free from mortal taint.

Annotation:
The moonlight streaming through the casement bathes Madeline in a heavenly glow, emphasizing her purity and sanctity. Keats likens her to a “splendid angel,” further associating her with divine imagery. Porphyro’s reaction—growing faint—underscores the overwhelming reverence and desire he feels. This stanza reinforces the tension between Madeline’s spiritual devotion and Porphyro’s earthly passion.

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Stanza 26

Anon his heart revives: her vespers done,
Of all its wreathed pearls her hair she frees;
Unclasps her warmed jewels one by one;
Loosens her fragrant bodice; by degrees
Her rich attire creeps rustling to her knees:
Half-hidden, like a mermaid in sea-weed,
Pensive awhile she dreams awake, and sees,
In fancy, fair St. Agnes in her bed,
But dares not look behind, or all the charm is fled.

Annotation:
As Madeline prepares for bed, the sensual imagery of her undressing contrasts with the spiritual tone of the earlier stanzas. Her “rich attire” and “fragrant bodice” symbolize her mortal beauty, while her dreamy state aligns her with the mystical rituals of St. Agnes’ Eve. The comparison to a “mermaid in sea-weed” evokes her vulnerability and otherworldly allure. The superstition that looking behind will break the spell heightens the suspense and her faith in the ritual.

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Stanza 27

Soon, trembling in her soft and chilly nest,
In sort of wakeful swoon, perplex’d she lay,
Until the poppied warmth of sleep oppress’d
Her soothed limbs, and soul fatigued away;
Flown, like a thought, until the morrow-day;
Blissfully haven’d both from joy and pain;
Clasp’d like a missal where swart Paynims pray;
Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain,
As though a rose should shut, and be a bud again.

Annotation:
Madeline drifts into a dreamlike sleep, her vulnerability symbolized by the “soft and chilly nest.” The “poppied warmth” suggests a hypnotic, almost narcotic state, reflective of her surrender to the ritual’s magic. The simile of being “clasp’d like a missal” emphasizes her purity and devotion, while the rose imagery evokes both her beauty and innocence, poised on the brink of transformation.

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Stanza 28

Stol’n to this paradise, and so entranced,
Porphyro gaz’d upon her empty dress,
And listen’d to her breathing, if it chanced
To wake into a slumberous tenderness;
Which when he heard, that minute did he bless,
And breath’d himself: then from the closet crept,
Noiseless as fear in a wide wilderness,
And over the hush’d carpet, silent, stept,
And ‘tween the curtains peep’d, where, lo!—how fast she slept.

Annotation:
Porphyro, now in Madeline’s room, watches her with a mix of reverence and yearning. The description of her “empty dress” emphasizes her vulnerability and the intimacy of the moment. His movements are “noiseless as fear,” reflecting both his caution and the tension of his intrusion. The juxtaposition of his quiet adoration with the potential danger highlights the fragility of the scene.

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Stanza 29

Then by the bed-side, where the faded moon
Made a dim, silver twilight, soft he set
A table, and, half anguish’d, threw thereon
A cloth of woven crimson, gold, and jet:—
O for some drowsy Morphean amulet!
The boisterous, midnight, festive clarion,
The kettle-drum, and far-heard clarinet,
Affray his ears, though but in dying tone:—
The hall door shuts again, and all the noise is gone.

Annotation:
Porphyro prepares a feast for Madeline, creating an intimate, almost ceremonial atmosphere. The “woven crimson, gold, and jet” reflects both luxury and passion. His wish for a “Morphean amulet” underscores his desire to preserve the dreamlike peace of the moment. The fading noise of the revelry outside contrasts with the quiet intensity of their encounter, isolating them in their private world.

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Stanza 30

And still she slept an azure-lidded sleep,
In blanched linen, smooth, and lavender’d,
While he forth from the closet brought a heap
Of candied apple, quince, and plum, and gourd;
With jellies soother than the creamy curd,
And lucent syrups, tinct with cinnamon;
Manna and dates, in argosy transferr’d
From Fez; and spiced dainties, every one,
From silken Samarcand to cedar’d Lebanon.

Annotation:
Madeline’s serene slumber contrasts with Porphyro’s bustling activity as he lays out an extravagant feast. The detailed description of the delicacies—”candied apple,” “lucent syrups,” “dates”—evokes sensory richness and exoticism. The imagery of “Fez” and “Samarcand” imbues the scene with a sense of fantasy and enchantment, emphasizing the surreal nature of their union.

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Stanza 31

These delicates he heap’d with glowing hand
On golden dishes and in baskets bright
Of wreathed silver: sumptuous they stand
In the retired quiet of the night,
Filling the chilly room with perfume light.—
“And now, my love, my seraph fair, awake!
Thou art my heaven, and I thine eremite:
Open thine eyes, for meek St. Agnes’ sake,
Or I shall drowse beside thee, so my soul doth ache.”

Annotation:
Porphyro’s actions take on a devotional quality as he addresses Madeline as his “seraph fair,” likening her to a celestial being. His plea for her to awaken captures both his deep longing and the spiritual intensity of the moment. The “retired quiet” of the room contrasts with his internal turmoil, as he teeters between reverence and desire.

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Stanza 32

Thus whispering, his warm, unnerved arm
Sank in her pillow. Shaded was her dream
By the dusk curtains:—’twas a midnight charm
Impossible to melt as iced stream:
The lustrous salvers in the moonlight gleam;
Broad golden fringe upon the carpet lies:
It seem’d he never, never could redeem
From such a stedfast spell his lady’s eyes;
So mus’d awhile, entoil’d in woofed phantasies.

Annotation:
Porphyro’s whisper and physical presence heighten the intimacy of the scene. Madeline remains lost in her enchanted sleep, described as a “midnight charm,” impenetrable and ethereal. The rich imagery of “lustrous salvers” and “broad golden fringe” reflects the luxurious surroundings, emphasizing the dreamlike atmosphere. Porphyro’s musings reveal his emotional entanglement in the moment, torn between awe and hesitation.

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Stanza 33

Awakening up, he took her hollow lute,—
Tumultuous,—and, in chords that tenderest be,
He play’d an ancient ditty, long since mute,
In Provence call’d, “La belle dame sans mercy”:
Close to her ear touching the melody;—
Wherewith disturb’d, she utter’d a soft moan:
He ceas’d—she panted quick—and suddenly
Her blue affrayed eyes wide open shone:
Upon his knees he sank, pale as smooth-sculptured stone.

Annotation:
Porphyro plays a delicate melody to awaken Madeline, choosing “La belle dame sans mercy,” a song of unfulfilled love. This choice subtly foreshadows the tension between desire and consequence. Madeline’s “soft moan” and “blue affrayed eyes” emphasize her vulnerability and confusion as she awakens. Porphyro’s kneeling posture, likened to a “smooth-sculptured stone,” conveys his reverence and frozen anticipation.

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Stanza 34

Her eyes were open, but she still beheld,
Now wide awake, the vision of her sleep:
There was a painful change, that nigh expell’d
The blisses of her dream so pure and deep
At which fair Madeline began to weep,
And moan forth witless words with many a sigh;
While still her gaze on Porphyro would keep;
Who knelt, with joined hands and piteous eye,
Fearing to move or speak, she look’d so dreamingly.

Annotation:
Madeline’s awakening blurs the lines between her dream and reality. The “painful change” signifies the disruption of her idealized vision of love, contrasting with the “pure and deep” bliss of her dreams. Her weeping and “witless words” reflect her disorientation, while Porphyro’s kneeling and silent fear highlight his helplessness, unsure of how to bridge the gap between fantasy and reality.

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Stanza 35

“Ah, Porphyro!” said she, “but even now
Thy voice was at sweet tremble in mine ear,
Made tuneable with every sweetest vow;
And those sad eyes were spiritual and clear:
How chang’d thou art! how pallid, chill, and drear!
Give me that voice again, my Porphyro,
Those looks immortal, those complainings dear!
Oh leave me not in this eternal woe,
For if thou diest, my Love, I know not where to go.”

Annotation:
Madeline recognizes Porphyro but perceives him as altered from her dream. Her description of him as “pallid, chill, and drear” contrasts with the idealized image of him in her vision. Her plea for him to restore his “immortal” presence underscores her struggle to reconcile her dream with reality. This stanza captures the fragility of romantic expectations when faced with the imperfections of reality.

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Stanza 36

Beyond a mortal man impassion’d far
At these voluptuous accents, he arose
Ethereal, flush’d, and like a throbbing star
Seen mid the sapphire heaven’s deep repose;
Into her dream he melted, as the rose
Blendeth its odour with the violet,—
Solution sweet: meantime the frost-wind blows
Like Love’s alarum pattering the sharp sleet
Against the window-panes; St. Agnes’ moon hath set.

Annotation:
Porphyro’s emotions reach a climactic intensity as he becomes almost “ethereal,” likened to a “throbbing star.” The imagery of his blending into her dream, “as the rose blendeth its odour with the violet,” symbolizes their unity and the transcendence of love. However, the “frost-wind” and “sharp sleet” outside serve as reminders of the harshness of reality, contrasting with their tender moment. The setting of St. Agnes’ moon marks the passage of their enchanted night.

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Stanza 37

‘Tis dark: quick pattereth the flaw-blown sleet:
“This is no dream, my bride, my Madeline!”
‘Tis dark: the iced gusts still rave and beat:
“No dream, alas! alas! and woe is mine!
Porphyro will leave me here to fade and pine.—
Cruel! what traitor could thee hither bring?
I curse not, for my heart is lost in thine,
Though thou forsakest a deceived thing;—
A dove forlorn and lost with sick unpruned wing.”

Annotation:
Madeline’s realization that this is not a dream brings both joy and sorrow. Her fear of abandonment and her description of herself as a “dove forlorn” emphasize her vulnerability. Her love for Porphyro is unwavering, even as she wrestles with feelings of betrayal and insecurity. The dark and stormy weather mirrors her inner turmoil and heightens the tension of the scene.

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Stanza 38

“My Madeline! sweet dreamer! lovely bride!
Say, may I be for aye thy vassal blest?
Thy beauty’s shield, heart-shap’d and vermeil dyed?
Ah, silver shrine, here will I take my rest
After so many hours of toil and quest,
A famish’d pilgrim,—sav’d by miracle.
Though I have found, I will not rob thy nest
Saving of thy sweet self; if thou think’st well
To trust, fair Madeline, to no rude infidel.”

Annotation:
Porphyro reassures Madeline of his devotion, pledging himself as her “vassal.” His metaphors of a “silver shrine” and “famish’d pilgrim” emphasize his reverence and persistence in his quest for her love. He promises to respect her and asks for her trust, framing their union as a sacred bond. This declaration balances his earthly passion with spiritual devotion.

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Stanza 39

“Hark! ’tis an elfin-storm from faery land,
Of haggard seeming, but a boon indeed:
Arise—arise! the morning is at hand;—
The bloated wassailers will never heed:—
Let us away, my love, with happy speed;
There are no ears to hear, or eyes to see,—
Drown’d all in Rhenish and the sleepy mead:
Awake! arise! my love, and fearless be,
For o’er the southern moors I have a home for thee.”

Annotation:
Porphyro urges Madeline to flee with him, describing the storm as an “elfin-storm” that provides cover for their escape. The contrast between the drunken revelers (“bloated wassailers”) and their sober, romantic resolve underscores the purity of their love. The promise of a safe home on the “southern moors” symbolizes hope and a fresh start, away from the dangers of the mansion.

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Final Stanzas

They glide, like phantoms, into the wide hall;
Like phantoms, to the iron porch, they glide;
Where lay the Porter, in uneasy sprawl,
With a huge empty flaggon by his side:
The wakeful bloodhound rose, and shook his hide,
But his sagacious eye an inmate owns:
By one, and one, the bolts full easy slide:—
The chains lie silent on the footworn stones;—
The key turns, and the door upon its hinges groans.

And they are gone: ay, ages long ago
These lovers fled away into the storm.
That night the Baron dreamt of many a woe,
And all his warrior-guests, with shade and form
Of witch, and demon, and large coffin-worm,
Were long be-nightmar’d. Angela the old
Died palsy-twitch’d, with meagre face deform;
The Beadsman, after thousand aves told,
For aye unsought for slept among his ashes cold.

Annotation:
Porphyro and Madeline escape the mansion “like phantoms,” their stealthy movements reinforcing the gothic atmosphere. The descriptions of the groaning door and sleeping bloodhound heighten the suspense. The conclusion shifts to the aftermath: the Baron’s haunting nightmares, Angela’s death, and the Beadsman’s lonely passing. These somber images contrast with the lovers’ hopeful flight, leaving a bittersweet ending.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“The hare limp’d trembling through the frozen grass”	The repetition of the “t” sound in “trembling” and “through” creates a soft rhythm, reflecting the cold and delicate atmosphere of the stanza.
Allusion	“St. Agnes’ Eve”	Refers to the feast of Saint Agnes, traditionally associated with visions of future lovers. This biblical and cultural allusion ties the poem to themes of faith and ritual.
Anaphora	“And still she slept… And loosens her fragrant bodice…”	The repetition of “And” at the beginning of successive lines builds a hypnotic rhythm, emphasizing the continuity and flow of the scene.
Assonance	“A dove forlorn and lost with sick unpruned wing”	The repetition of the “o” sound in “forlorn” and “lost” creates a melancholic tone, enhancing the feeling of despair and vulnerability.
Contrast	The Beadsman’s asceticism vs. the revelry of the feast	Juxtaposes the spiritual devotion of the Beadsman with the worldly indulgence of the feasting guests, emphasizing themes of piety and excess.
Enjambment	“Full on this casement shone the wintry moon, / And threw warm gules on Madeline’s fair breast”	The line spills over without a pause, mirroring the natural flow of light and lending a fluid, lyrical quality to the description.
Foreshadowing	“Already had his deathbell rung”	Suggests the impending death of the Beadsman, creating a foreboding atmosphere that foreshadows the somber conclusion of the poem.
Gothic Imagery	“The sculptur’d dead, on each side, seem to freeze, / Emprison’d in black, purgatorial rails”	Evokes a haunting, macabre mood characteristic of Gothic literature, emphasizing themes of mortality and spiritual liminality.
Hyperbole	“Legion’d faeries pac’d the coverlet”	Exaggerates the fantastical elements of Madeline’s dreams, emphasizing their magical and otherworldly quality.
Imagery	“Candied apple, quince, and plum, and gourd; / With jellies soother than the creamy curd”	Vivid sensory details appeal to taste and sight, enhancing the lush and luxurious tone of the scene.
Irony	The Beadsman prays for others but dies alone, unsought.	Highlights the futility of his sacrifices and the indifference of the world, creating a poignant commentary on devotion and mortality.
Metaphor	“Porphyro grew faint: she knelt, so pure a thing, / So free from mortal taint”	Compares Madeline to an ethereal, angelic figure, underscoring her purity and innocence.
Mood	The storm at the end: “Quick pattereth the flaw-blown sleet”	The storm creates a sense of urgency and danger, reflecting the lovers’ flight and the chaos surrounding their escape.
Onomatopoeia	“The kettle-drum, and far-heard clarinet, / Affray his ears”	The sounds of the instruments are mimicked in the text, enhancing the sensory experience of the revelry and contrasting with the quietude of Madeline’s room.
Personification	“Music’s golden tongue / Flatter’d to tears this aged man and poor”	Gives human qualities to music, emphasizing its emotional power and its ability to affect even the frail Beadsman.
Romanticism	The lovers’ escape into the storm, leaving societal norms behind	Embodies the Romantic ideals of individualism, passion, and a connection with nature.
Sensory Imagery	“Her blanched linen, smooth, and lavender’d”	Appeals to touch and smell, enhancing the reader’s immersion in the poem’s intimate and sensory-rich environment.
Simile	“Like a rose should shut, and be a bud again”	Compares Madeline’s vulnerability and innocence to a rose, symbolizing beauty, fragility, and the possibility of renewal.
Symbolism	The “silver cross” on Madeline’s chest	Represents her faith and purity, acting as a spiritual safeguard amid the temptations and dangers of the night.
Tone	Shifts from reverent and dreamlike to urgent and foreboding	The reverence in the descriptions of Madeline’s rituals shifts to tension as Porphyro intrudes, and finally to a sense of bittersweet urgency as they flee together.

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Themes: “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

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Literary Theories and “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

Literary Theory	Application to The Eve of St. Agnes	References from the Poem
Romanticism	Romanticism emphasizes emotion, individual experience, and the sublime. Keats explores the intensity of love, the interplay of dreams and reality, and the beauty of nature.	Madeline’s yearning for her dream lover exemplifies Romantic idealism: “She sigh’d for Agnes’ dreams, the sweetest of the year.” The storm outside mirrors the sublime power of nature.
Feminist Criticism	This theory critiques gender dynamics and the treatment of women. Madeline’s passive role in the narrative reflects societal expectations of female purity and submission.	Madeline is idealized as “so pure a thing, / So free from mortal taint,” and her ritualistic devotion renders her vulnerable to Porphyro’s gaze and actions.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Freud’s concepts of dreams, desires, and the unconscious can be applied to Madeline’s and Porphyro’s behaviors. Her dream represents suppressed longing, and his actions, desire.	Madeline’s adherence to the St. Agnes ritual reveals her subconscious yearning: “Full of this whim was thoughtful Madeline.” Porphyro intrudes her dream world, blending desire and reality.
New Historicism	This theory examines the historical and cultural context. The poem reflects societal norms of the Romantic era, including chivalric ideals and Christian traditions.	The St. Agnes ritual, where “young virgins might have visions of delight,” highlights historical beliefs about purity, gender, and faith. Porphyro’s knightly devotion aligns with chivalric ideals.

Critical Questions about “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

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Literary Works Similar to “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

1. “La Belle Dame Sans Merci” by John Keats
   Both poems explore themes of idealized love, enchantment, and the tension between reality and fantasy. The portrayal of a dreamlike, otherworldly atmosphere links the two works.
2. “Christabel” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
   This Gothic narrative poem shares an atmosphere of mystery and supernatural tension, with a central focus on innocence, seduction, and the interplay of light and dark.
3. “The Lady of Shalott” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
   Similar in its exploration of isolation, longing, and a dreamlike existence, this poem also juxtaposes the idealized inner world of the protagonist with the harshness of reality.
4. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
   Both poems incorporate rich imagery, Gothic elements, and themes of penance and spiritual transformation, weaving a sense of foreboding into the narrative.
5. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats
   This poem reflects Keats’s fascination with the conflict between transience and permanence, mirroring the tension in “The Eve of St. Agnes” between the fleeting nature of dreams and the permanence of reality.

Representative Quotations of “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“St. Agnes’ Eve—Ah, bitter chill it was!”	Opens the poem with a description of the cold, harsh setting, establishing the gothic atmosphere and tension between warmth and isolation.	Romanticism: Emphasizes nature’s impact on human emotions and sets the tone for the tension between physical and spiritual realms.
“The sculptur’d dead, on each side, seem to freeze, / Emprison’d in black, purgatorial rails.”	Describes the Beadsman’s prayer in a chapel filled with statues, reflecting themes of mortality and spiritual liminality.	New Historicism: Highlights historical attitudes toward death and the afterlife during Keats’s era.
“She sigh’d for Agnes’ dreams, the sweetest of the year.”	Reflects Madeline’s yearning for the mystical promise of St. Agnes’ Eve, where dreams reveal a lover’s identity.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Suggests her subconscious desire for romantic fulfillment and transcendence.
“And still she slept an azure-lidded sleep, / In blanched linen, smooth, and lavender’d.”	Describes Madeline in a state of pure, dreamlike innocence, as seen from Porphyro’s perspective.	Feminist Criticism: Examines the idealization of female purity and the male gaze’s role in shaping her image.
“Her eyes were open, but she still beheld, / The vision of her sleep.”	Captures the moment Madeline awakens, still caught between her dream and reality, reflecting the tension of the poem.	Romanticism: Explores the interplay between imagination and reality, a hallmark of Romantic thought.
“As though a rose should shut, and be a bud again.”	Likens Madeline’s vulnerability and innocence to a rose, symbolizing beauty and fragility in the context of her ritualistic faith.	Symbolism: The rose represents purity and the fleeting nature of youth and idealism.
“Porphyro grew faint: she knelt, so pure a thing, / So free from mortal taint.”	Describes Porphyro’s awe-struck reaction to Madeline, reinforcing her angelic and unattainable image.	Feminist Criticism: Highlights the construction of women as objects of male reverence and idealization.
“The bloated wassailers will never heed:— / Let us away, my love, with happy speed.”	Porphyro urges Madeline to flee the hostile environment of the mansion, emphasizing urgency and danger.	Gothic Theory: Blends romance with elements of suspense and danger, characteristic of the Gothic tradition.
“Like a throbbing star / Seen mid the sapphire heaven’s deep repose.”	Porphyro is described with celestial imagery, reflecting his passion and idealized role as a romantic hero.	Romanticism: Elevates human emotions to sublime, universal levels, characteristic of Romantic literature.
“And they are gone: ay, ages long ago / These lovers fled away into the storm.”	The poem concludes with the lovers’ escape into the unknown, blending hope and foreboding.	Romanticism: Focuses on individual passion and the embrace of nature as a liberating force, even amid uncertainty.

Suggested Readings: “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats

1. Farnell, Gary. “‘Unfit for Ladies’: Keats’s ‘The Eve of St Agnes.'” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 34, no. 3, 1995, pp. 401–12. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25601127. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
2. Wilson, James D. “John Keats’ Self-Reflexive Narrative: ‘The Eve of St. Agnes.'” South Central Review, vol. 1, no. 4, 1984, pp. 44–52. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3189461. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
3. Gibson, Gail McMurray. “Ave Madeline: Ironic Annunciation in Keats’s ‘The Eve of St. Agnes.'” Keats-Shelley Journal, vol. 26, 1977, pp. 39–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30212802. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
4. Bennett, Andrew J. “‘Hazardous Magic’: Vision and Inscription in Keats’s ‘The Eve of St. Agnes.'” Keats-Shelley Journal, vol. 41, 1992, pp. 100–21. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30210432. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
5. Gilbreath, Marcia. “The Etymology of Porphyro’s Name in Keats’s ‘Eve of St. Agnes.'” Keats-Shelley Journal, vol. 37, 1988, pp. 20–25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30209888. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
6. Betz, Laura Wells. “Keats and the Charm of Words: Making Sense of ‘The Eve of St. Agnes.'” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 47, no. 3, 2008, pp. 299–319. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25602151. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

“The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht, first appeared in 1967 in the collection The Hard Hours, explores themes of desire, mortality, and the intrusion of the sublime or uncanny into human intimacy. Hecht’s masterful blending of narrative and lyrical elements, alongside his vivid imagery, creates an atmosphere that is simultaneously sensual and foreboding. The poem’s striking juxtaposition of the ordinary—a romantic encounter in a cabin—and the extraordinary—a confrontation with a menacing, symbolic presence—reflects the tension between human vulnerability and the vast, indifferent forces of nature and death. Its popularity as a “textbook poem” stems from its technical sophistication, evocative use of sound and imagery, and its capacity to provoke deep literary and philosophical discussions about human experience and the sublime.

Text: “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

A dying firelight slides along the quirt
Of the cast iron cowboy where he leans
Against my father’s books. The lariat
Whirls into darkness. My girl in skin tight jeans
Fingers a page of Captain Marriat
Inviting insolent shadows to her shirt.

We rise together to the second floor.
Outside, across the lake, an endless wind
Whips against the headstones of the dead and wails
In the trees for all who have and have not sinned.
She rubs against me and I feel her nails.
Although we are alone, I lock the door.

The eventual shapes of all our formless prayers:
This dark, this cabin of loose imaginings,
Wind, lip, lake, everything awaits
The slow unloosening of her underthings
And then the noise. Something is dropped. It grates
against the attic beams. I climb the stairs
Armed with a belt.

A long magnesium shaft
Of moonlight from the dormer cuts a path
Among the shattered skeletons of mice.
A great black presence beats its wings in wrath.
Above the boneyard burn its golden eyes.
Some small grey fur is pulsing in its grip.

Annotations: “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

Line	Annotation
A dying firelight slides along the quirt / Of the cast iron cowboy where he leans	The “dying firelight” sets a melancholic and foreboding tone. The quirt (a whip handle) and cast iron cowboy evoke nostalgia and rugged masculinity, contrasting with the intimacy to follow.
Against my father’s books. The lariat / Whirls into darkness.	The father’s books symbolize knowledge or authority, while the lariat (a cowboy’s rope) metaphorically whirls into darkness, hinting at the unknown and the encroachment of chaos.
My girl in skin tight jeans / Fingers a page of Captain Marriat	The modern sensuality of “skin tight jeans” contrasts with the old-world adventure of Captain Marryat’s works, blending eroticism with a literary ambiance.
Inviting insolent shadows to her shirt.	Shadows suggest ambiguity and a sense of creeping unease, as though sensuality also brings vulnerability or danger.
We rise together to the second floor.	The act of ascending the stairs could symbolize a transition to intimacy or a movement into a private, liminal space away from societal norms.
Outside, across the lake, an endless wind / Whips against the headstones of the dead	The wind’s ferocity against the headstones adds a gothic, eerie element, linking the natural environment with mortality and the inevitability of death.
and wails / In the trees for all who have and have not sinned.	The “wailing” wind evokes guilt or divine judgment, emphasizing universal human frailty and the tension between morality and desire.
She rubs against me and I feel her nails. / Although we are alone, I lock the door.	The intimacy is palpable, but the act of locking the door underscores the tension between vulnerability, privacy, and the implicit fear of intrusion or judgment.
The eventual shapes of all our formless prayers:	Suggests the culmination of desires and anxieties in a tangible act or experience. “Formless prayers” reflect subconscious fears and hopes taking shape in this moment.
This dark, this cabin of loose imaginings,	The darkness and “loose imaginings” highlight the uncertainty and potential for either creativity or chaos in this isolated space.
Wind, lip, lake, everything awaits	These natural and sensual images converge, building an atmosphere of anticipation, as though the environment itself participates in their experience.
The slow unloosening of her underthings	A direct, intimate moment that juxtaposes the tension of the earlier imagery with an explicit act of vulnerability and sensuality.
And then the noise. Something is dropped. It grates	The sudden noise disrupts the moment, introducing an element of suspense or intrusion, breaking the flow of intimacy.
against the attic beams. I climb the stairs / Armed with a belt.	The narrator’s decision to arm himself adds a sense of foreboding and defensive readiness, as though the threat is both external and symbolic.
A long magnesium shaft / Of moonlight from the dormer cuts a path	The moonlight’s sharpness contrasts with the earlier warmth of firelight, casting a stark and cold clarity over the unfolding scene.
Among the shattered skeletons of mice.	The imagery of shattered mice skeletons evokes decay and death, reinforcing the gothic, eerie tone of the attic space.
A great black presence beats its wings in wrath.	The “great black presence” (likely an owl) symbolizes death or the sublime, an elemental force beyond human control, intruding into the private sphere.
Above the boneyard burn its golden eyes.	The owl’s “golden eyes” provide a moment of vivid focus, connecting the creature to themes of death, wisdom, and predation.
Some small grey fur is pulsing in its grip.	The image of a small prey being caught emphasizes the inevitability of mortality and the natural order, paralleling the tension in the human encounter below.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“shattered skeletons of mice”	The repetition of the “s” sound creates a sharp, hissing tone, emphasizing decay and eeriness in the attic scene.
Ambiguity	“Although we are alone, I lock the door.”	The act of locking the door suggests both intimacy and fear, leaving the reader questioning the motive and emotional undertone.
Anaphora	“Wind, lip, lake, everything awaits”	The repetition of structure and rhythm emphasizes the convergence of nature, desire, and anticipation.
Assonance	“Whips against the headstones of the dead”	The repetition of the “e” sound evokes a somber and mournful tone, matching the subject matter of death and wailing wind.
Caesura	“Although we are alone, I lock the door.”	The pause mid-line creates tension and a sense of hesitation, mirroring the narrator’s inner conflict.
Consonance	“lip, lake, everything awaits”	The repetition of the “l” sound creates a flowing rhythm, contrasting with the darker imagery that follows.
Contrast	“A dying firelight” vs. “A great black presence”	The contrast between warmth and decay versus darkness and predation highlights the tension between comfort and fear.
Dark Imagery	“shattered skeletons of mice”	This graphic image evokes death and decay, enhancing the poem’s gothic tone.
Diction	“This dark, this cabin of loose imaginings”	The choice of words like “dark” and “loose imaginings” conveys uncertainty and a sense of foreboding.
Enjambment	“The eventual shapes of all our formless prayers: / This dark, this cabin of loose imaginings”	The continuation of the sentence across lines reflects the fluidity and tension of the moment being described.
Foreshadowing	“Something is dropped. It grates against the attic beams.”	The noise and mention of the attic hint at the menacing presence revealed later in the poem.
Gothic Elements	“Above the boneyard burn its golden eyes.”	The imagery of a boneyard and ominous creature invokes a classic gothic atmosphere.
Imagery	“A long magnesium shaft / Of moonlight from the dormer cuts a path”	The vivid description appeals to the visual sense, setting a dramatic and eerie scene.
Juxtaposition	“The slow unloosening of her underthings” vs. “Something is dropped”	The sensual and intimate moment is interrupted by a jarring noise, creating a sharp contrast between passion and fear.
Metaphor	“The eventual shapes of all our formless prayers”	Prayers are compared to shapes, suggesting that emotions and desires take on tangible forms through experience.
Mood	“A great black presence beats its wings in wrath.”	The ominous description of the creature establishes a mood of fear and tension.
Personification	“Wind… wails in the trees”	The wind is given human qualities of wailing, creating a ghostly and unsettling atmosphere.
Symbolism	“A great black presence beats its wings in wrath.”	The black presence (likely an owl) symbolizes death, fate, or an uncontrollable external force.
Tone	“Outside, across the lake, an endless wind / Whips against the headstones of the dead”	The tone is somber and reflective, infused with a sense of inevitable mortality and judgment.
Visual Imagery	“Some small grey fur is pulsing in its grip.”	This vividly describes the prey in the owl’s grasp, emphasizing the natural violence that mirrors the tension of the human encounter.

Themes: “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

Literary Theories and “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References and Explanation
Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores the unconscious desires, fears, and conflicts of the speaker.	The speaker’s intense desire, represented by “The slow unloosening of her underthings,” is juxtaposed with fear, as shown in “Although we are alone, I lock the door.” Freud’s concepts of Eros (desire) and Thanatos (death drive) are evident in the tension between intimacy and the intrusion of mortality, symbolized by the owl.
Feminist Theory	Examines gender dynamics, power relations, and representation of the female character.	The woman in the poem is described through a male lens, emphasizing her physicality (“My girl in skin tight jeans”) and her role in the speaker’s experience. Feminist critique would question her lack of agency and the objectification implicit in the focus on her body and actions.
Ecocriticism	Analyzes the representation of nature and its interaction with human experience.	Nature is portrayed as a dominant and indifferent force, with imagery such as “endless wind / Whips against the headstones of the dead” and “A great black presence beats its wings in wrath.” The owl, a symbol of nature’s predatory cycle, mirrors human vulnerability, positioning humanity as part of, yet subordinate to, nature.
Gothic Theory	Focuses on elements of fear, the uncanny, and the sublime.	The poem employs classic Gothic motifs, such as the “dark, this cabin of loose imaginings” and the “great black presence” in the attic. The sudden noise that “grates against the attic beams” and the confrontation with the owl evoke a sense of the uncanny, disrupting the couple’s intimacy with fear and awe.

Critical Questions about “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

Literary Works Similar to “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

1. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats
   Shares themes of mortality and the sublime, as both poems use natural imagery (the nightingale and the owl) to explore the tension between human longing and the inevitability of death.
2. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe
   Both poems create a gothic atmosphere and feature a dark, symbolic bird (the raven and the owl) that serves as a harbinger of death and the uncanny.
3. “Leda and the Swan” by W.B. Yeats
   Examines the intersection of human vulnerability and overwhelming cosmic forces, similar to Hecht’s juxtaposition of intimacy and the sublime in nature.
4. “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning
   Combines themes of love and decay, reflecting Hecht’s exploration of intimacy amidst reminders of mortality and the passage of time.
5. “Because I Could Not Stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson
   Like Hecht’s poem, it delves into the omnipresence of death, using striking imagery and tone shifts to explore mortality’s intrusion into ordinary life.

Representative Quotations of “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“A dying firelight slides along the quirt / Of the cast iron cowboy where he leans”	Sets the scene in a rustic, nostalgic environment, introducing a sense of fading warmth.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the interplay between human-made objects and nature’s diminishing light, evoking transience.
“Outside, across the lake, an endless wind / Whips against the headstones of the dead”	Evokes a somber, gothic atmosphere with natural and mortal imagery.	Gothic Theory: Nature is indifferent, serving as a force that emphasizes mortality and the fragility of human existence.
“She rubs against me and I feel her nails. / Although we are alone, I lock the door.”	The couple shares an intimate moment, but the locked door hints at vulnerability or fear.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the tension between desire (Eros) and underlying anxiety or fear (Thanatos).
“This dark, this cabin of loose imaginings, / Wind, lip, lake, everything awaits”	Suggests a buildup of anticipation in an isolated setting, blending nature with human desire.	Phenomenology: Explores the perception of intimacy and nature as unified experiences of the speaker.
“The slow unloosening of her underthings”	An explicit moment of vulnerability and intimacy between the speaker and his partner.	Feminist Theory: Raises questions about the portrayal of female agency in male-dominated perspectives.
“Something is dropped. It grates / Against the attic beams.”	A sudden noise disrupts the intimacy, introducing suspense and fear.	Gothic Theory: The uncanny intrusion creates tension, blending human vulnerability with external forces.
“A long magnesium shaft / Of moonlight from the dormer cuts a path”	Describes a stark, cold light that exposes the attic scene.	Ecocriticism: Nature, through the moonlight, serves as an impartial observer of human events and vulnerabilities.
“A great black presence beats its wings in wrath.”	The owl, a predatory symbol, dominates the attic scene, embodying death and the sublime.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Represents an external manifestation of the speaker’s subconscious fears of mortality.
“Above the boneyard burn its golden eyes.”	The owl’s eyes shine in the darkness, symbolizing wisdom, death, and predation.	Symbolism: The golden eyes signify a divine or predatory omniscience, tying nature to mortality and fate.
“Some small grey fur is pulsing in its grip.”	Describes the owl’s prey, emphasizing the inevitability of death and predation.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the unflinching reality of nature’s cycle of life and death, mirrored in human vulnerabilities.

Suggested Readings: “The End of the Weekend” by Anthony Hecht

1. Fairchild, B. H. “In Memoriam: Anthony Hecht.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 113, no. 3, 2005, pp. 463–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27549712. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
2. Hecht, Anthony. “The End of the Weekend.” The Hudson Review 12.3 (1959): 357-357.

Introduction: “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

“Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning first appeared in 1855 as part of his poetry collection Men and Women. The poem juxtaposes the grandeur of a fallen ancient civilization with the enduring, intimate power of love. Through its contrast between the transient nature of material accomplishments and the timeless essence of human connection, the poem captures Browning’s philosophical exploration of love as the ultimate value. Its unique structure, alternating between longer descriptive lines and shorter lyrical refrains, adds to its charm. This textual ingenuity, combined with its exploration of universal themes, has made it a favorite in literary anthologies and textbooks, often used to demonstrate the Victorian fascination with themes of historical decay and the triumph of emotional bonds.

Text: “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

Annotations: “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

Line	Annotation
Where the quiet-coloured end of evening smiles,	Describes the serene, pastoral setting at twilight, setting a peaceful tone that contrasts with the grandeur of the city’s past. The “quiet-coloured” evokes a sense of calm and simplicity.
Miles and miles	Emphasizes the vastness of the pastoral landscape, now empty and undisturbed.
On the solitary pastures where our sheep	Indicates the rural simplicity of the present compared to the bustling city that once stood there.
Half-asleep	Suggests a tranquil, almost dreamlike quality to the setting.
Tinkle homeward thro’ the twilight, stray or stop	Evokes imagery of sheep bells in the quiet evening, reinforcing the idyllic and pastoral atmosphere.
As they crop—	The sheep graze, highlighting the natural, unhurried rhythm of life.
Was the site once of a city great and gay,	Introduces the idea of a vanished civilization that was once vibrant and prosperous.
(So they say)	Adds a tone of uncertainty or folklore to the city’s history, hinting at its legendary status.
Of our country’s very capital, its prince	Establishes the city as a central hub of power and authority, presided over by a prince.
Ages since	Suggests the long passage of time since the city’s peak, adding a sense of historical distance.
Held his court in, gathered councils, wielding far	Highlights the city’s political significance and the reach of its influence.
Peace or war.	Shows the city’s dual role in maintaining order and engaging in conflict, reflecting the complexities of power.
Now the country does not even boast a tree,	Contrasts the vibrant past with the barren present, underscoring the theme of decay.
As you see,	Directly engages the reader, making them an observer of the present desolation.
To distinguish slopes of verdure, certain rills	Describes the indistinguishable landscape, where even the streams (“rills”) blend into the hills.
From the hills	Continues the idea of natural simplicity replacing man-made splendor.
Intersect and give a name to, (else they run	Indicates how nature is now the defining feature of the area, replacing the city’s boundaries.
Into one)	Suggests the loss of individuality and structure that once characterized the city.
Where the domed and daring palace shot its spires	Alludes to the city’s architectural grandeur, now vanished. The “domed and daring” evokes ambition and artistry.
Up like fires	The imagery of spires rising like flames symbolizes the city’s energy and brilliance.
O’er the hundred-gated circuit of a wall	References the city’s immense size and fortification, suggesting its importance and invulnerability.
Bounding all	The wall enclosed the city, signifying its power and protection.
Made of marble, men might march on nor be prest	Marble emphasizes luxury and durability. The wide walls allowed for large processions, signifying grandeur.
Twelve abreast.	Highlights the immense scale of the city’s construction.
And such plenty and perfection, see, of grass	Contrasts the past magnificence with the present abundance of nature, which has overtaken the ruins.
Never was!	Exaggerates the lushness of the grass, underscoring the change from human dominance to natural reclamation.
Such a carpet as, this summer-time, o’er-spreads	Suggests the grass as a metaphorical “carpet” covering the city’s remnants, beautifying its decay.
And embeds	Implies that nature has entirely absorbed the traces of the city.
Every vestige of the city, guessed alone,	Suggests that only faint traces of the city remain, hinting at the passage of time and erosion of memory.
Stock or stone—	Refers to the minimal physical evidence of the city that survives.
Where a multitude of men breathed joy and woe	Reflects on the human experiences that once animated the city, now lost to time.
Long ago;	Reinforces the historical distance.
Lust of glory pricked their hearts up, dread of shame	Describes the driving motivations of the city’s people, emphasizing their pursuit of fame and fear of failure.
Struck them tame;	Suggests that fear of shame tempered their ambitions, highlighting the complexities of human nature.
And that glory and that shame alike, the gold	Reflects on how material wealth (“gold”) influenced and corrupted both glory and shame.
Bought and sold.	Suggests the commodification of values and the city’s moral decay.
Now—the single little turret that remains	Marks the contrast between the city’s former grandeur and its current state of decay, symbolized by a solitary turret.
On the plains,	Places the turret in the vast, empty landscape, emphasizing its isolation.
By the caper overrooted, by the gourd	Depicts nature overtaking the remnants of human construction, symbolizing the impermanence of civilization.
Overscored,	Suggests the dominance of nature over man-made structures.
While the patching houseleek’s head of blossom winks	Personifies the houseleek plant, adding a touch of life and continuity to the ruins.
Through the chinks—	Suggests the ruins’ vulnerability and the passage of time.
Marks the basement whence a tower in ancient time	Indicates that even the tower’s foundation is barely discernible now.
Sprang sublime,	Emphasizes the tower’s former magnificence, contrasting with its current state.
And a burning ring, all round, the chariots traced	Alludes to the excitement and vitality of the city’s past spectacles, such as chariot races.
As they raced,	Evokes the energy and spectacle of the ancient games.
And the monarch and his minions and his dames	Highlights the grandeur and luxury of the royal court, which enjoyed these entertainments.
Viewed the games.	Connects the tower to its historical use as a vantage point for royal spectators.
And I know, while thus the quiet-coloured eve	Shifts the focus to the present moment, where the speaker reflects on the past.
Smiles to leave	Personifies the evening, imbuing it with a gentle, fading beauty.
To their folding, all our many-tinkling fleece	Refers to the sheep being gathered, symbolizing pastoral peace.
In such peace,	Reinforces the tranquil present compared to the tumultuous past.
And the slopes and rills in undistinguished grey	Suggests the landscape’s fading into the dusk, blending into one indistinct whole.
Melt away—	Continues the theme of dissolution and fading memories of the past.
That a girl with eager eyes and yellow hair	Introduces the love interest, symbolizing youth, beauty, and continuity.
Waits me there	Establishes a personal connection and anticipation, contrasting with the impersonal history of the city.
In the turret whence the charioteers caught soul	Links the girl to the ancient past, showing continuity between history and the present moment of love.
For the goal,	Implies the girl inspires the speaker as the goal once did for the charioteers.
When the king looked, where she looks now, breathless, dumb	Draws a parallel between the girl and the king, underscoring the tower’s enduring symbolism.
Till I come.	Suggests longing and fulfillment, connecting the themes of love and presence.
But he looked upon the city, every side,	Contrasts the king’s perspective with the speaker’s; the former focused on grandeur, the latter on intimacy.
Far and wide,	Emphasizes the king’s sweeping view of his domain.
All the mountains topped with temples, all the glades’	Highlights the city’s architectural splendor and integration with nature.
Colonnades,	Adds a sense of majesty to the city’s past structures.
All the causeys, bridges, aqueducts,—and then	Lists the city’s infrastructure, showcasing its former magnificence.
All the men!	Brings attention to the people who once animated the city, now absent.
When I do come, she will speak not, she will stand,	Suggests a profound, almost sacred connection between the speaker and the girl.
Either hand	Indicates closeness and mutual affection.
On my shoulder, give her eyes the first embrace	Portrays an intimate moment of connection, emphasizing love’s power.
Of my face,	Reinforces the personal, immediate nature of their bond.
Ere we rush, ere we extinguish sight and speech	Suggests the overwhelming passion and unity of their love.
Each on each.	Implies mutual surrender and emotional merging.
In one year they sent a million fighters forth	Reflects on the city’s military might, contrasting it with the simplicity of the present.
South and North,	Suggests the city’s extensive reach and influence.
And they built their gods a brazen pillar high	Alludes to the city’s religious and cultural ambitions.
As the sky	Highlights the city’s hubris and aspiration for immortality.
Yet reserved a thousand chariots in full force—	Emphasizes the city’s wealth and readiness for war.
Gold, of course.	Critiques the materialism and corruption of the city’s values.
O heart! oh blood that freezes, blood that burns!	Reflects the speaker’s emotional response to the contrast between the city’s grandeur and its eventual decay.
Earth’s returns	Suggests the ultimate futility of human ambition, as all returns to the earth.
For whole centuries of folly, noise and sin!	Critiques the city’s history of excess and moral failings.
Shut them in,	Implies the city’s legacy is sealed away in its ruins.
With their triumphs and their glories and the rest!	Dismisses the city’s accomplishments as ultimately meaningless.
Love is best.	Concludes with the central theme: love transcends all material and historical achievements.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Miles and miles”	The repetition of the “m” sound in successive words creates a rhythmic and musical effect, enhancing the imagery of vastness.
Allusion	“Ages since Held his court in, gathered councils, wielding far”	Refers to ancient empires or legendary civilizations, indirectly drawing on historical or cultural associations of grandeur.
Anaphora	“And the slopes and rills in undistinguished grey Melt away—”	The repetition of “And the” at the beginning of successive lines emphasizes the cumulative description of the landscape fading into the twilight.
Assonance	“Such a carpet as, this summer-time, o’er-spreads”	The repetition of the vowel sounds “a” and “e” adds a melodious quality to the line, enhancing the softness of the scene described.
Caesura	“O heart! oh blood that freezes, blood that burns!”	The pause in the middle of the line (indicated by punctuation) creates dramatic emphasis, highlighting the intensity of the speaker’s emotions.
Contrast	“Love is best.”	Contrasts the enduring, universal value of love with the fleeting glory of material achievements, drawing a philosophical conclusion.
Diction	“And the monarch and his minions and his dames”	The formal and elevated language reflects the opulence and majesty of the past, contrasting with the simplicity of the present.
Enjambment	“As they crop— Was the site once of a city great and gay”	The continuation of thought without pause across lines creates a flowing, conversational rhythm that mirrors the passing of time.
Imagery	“Where the domed and daring palace shot its spires Up like fires”	Creates vivid visual imagery of the palace’s ambitious architecture, comparing its spires to flames to emphasize its former grandeur.
Irony	“Such plenty and perfection, see, of grass Never was!”	The irony lies in how nature’s lushness overtakes and obliterates the ruins of human civilization, a reversal of the city’s prior dominance.
Juxtaposition	“Now—the single little turret that remains”	The isolation of the present ruins is placed alongside the grandeur of the past, emphasizing the stark contrast between the two.
Metaphor	“Such a carpet as, this summer-time, o’er-spreads”	The grass is metaphorically described as a “carpet,” suggesting the natural reclamation of the ruins by nature.
Onomatopoeia	“Tinkle homeward thro’ the twilight”	The word “tinkle” mimics the sound of the sheep’s bells, adding an auditory element to the serene setting.
Oxymoron	“Blood that freezes, blood that burns!”	Contradictory ideas of freezing and burning blood reflect the speaker’s conflicting emotions about the passage of time and the impermanence of human achievements.
Parallelism	“Earth’s returns For whole centuries of folly, noise and sin!”	The repetition of similar grammatical structures emphasizes the cyclical nature of human folly and its inevitable end.
Personification	“While the patching houseleek’s head of blossom winks”	The plant is personified as “winking,” giving it human qualities to depict nature’s subtle dominance over the ruins.
Repetition	“And the monarch and his minions and his dames”	The repeated “and his” emphasizes the grandeur of the scene and the multitude of people who once populated the city.
Rhyme	“Was the site once of a city great and gay, (So they say)”	The rhyming of “gay” and “say” contributes to the poem’s lyrical and musical quality.
Symbolism	“The single little turret that remains”	The turret symbolizes the remnants of a once-great civilization, representing the endurance of history amidst decay.
Theme	“Love is best.”	The line encapsulates the central theme of the poem, asserting that love holds greater value than material or historical achievements.

Themes: “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

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Literary Theories and “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Romanticism	Emphasizes the power of nature and the triumph of love over material achievements, reflecting Romantic ideals of simplicity and emotional depth.	The flourishing “grass” that “o’er-spreads every vestige of the city” contrasts with the “domed and daring palace” that has vanished. The assertion that “Love is best” aligns with the Romantic valorization of human emotion over worldly success.
Historical Criticism	Examines the decline of ancient civilizations, reflecting the Victorian fascination with history and the lessons of past empires.	The city, described as “our country’s very capital,” once housed “councils” and “gathered fighters,” yet its legacy is reduced to “stock or stone.” This historical lens captures Victorian concerns about impermanence and imperial decay.
Ecocriticism	Focuses on the interaction between nature and humanity, highlighting nature’s reclamation of man-made structures and its enduring vitality.	The descriptions of nature, such as “slopes of verdure” and “patching houseleek,” illustrate how natural elements thrive amidst the ruins of the city, symbolizing nature’s dominance over human constructs.
Postcolonial Criticism	Critiques the power structures and imperial ambitions of the past, questioning their moral and ethical consequences.	The city’s “brazen pillar high as the sky” and the “million fighters” sent to war highlight its imperial might, while the eventual ruin symbolizes the futility and destructiveness of colonial ambitions.

Critical Questions about “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

Literary Works Similar to “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

1. “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley
   Similar in its meditation on the transience of human power and grandeur, Shelley’s poem explores the inevitable decay of once-great civilizations, paralleling Browning’s theme of impermanence.
2. “The Ruined City” (Anonymous, Anglo-Saxon Elegy)
   This Old English poem reflects on the decay of a once-flourishing city, evoking a similar sense of loss and the passage of time as Browning’s work.
3. “Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold
   Arnold’s poem shares a reflective tone and a focus on enduring emotional connections, such as love, in a world marked by change and uncertainty, akin to Browning’s conclusion in “Love is best.”
4. “Tintern Abbey” by William Wordsworth
   Wordsworth’s exploration of nature’s permanence and the personal significance of memory resonates with Browning’s juxtaposition of the enduring natural landscape with human impermanence.
5. “The Deserted Village” by Oliver Goldsmith
   Goldsmith’s poem laments the decline of a vibrant community, drawing a parallel to Browning’s depiction of a ruined city overtaken by nature.

Representative Quotations of “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Love is best.”	The final line of the poem asserts the supremacy of love over material and historical achievements.	Romanticism: Prioritizes human emotion and intimacy over worldly pursuits.
“Where the quiet-coloured end of evening smiles”	Sets the pastoral and serene tone, contrasting the present with the past grandeur of the city.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the tranquility and enduring presence of nature.
“Was the site once of a city great and gay”	Introduces the ruins of a once-prosperous city, emphasizing its historical significance.	Historical Criticism: Reflects on the rise and fall of civilizations.
“And such plenty and perfection, see, of grass Never was!”	The lush grass symbolizes nature’s reclamation of the city’s ruins.	Ecocriticism: Examines how nature outlasts human constructs.
“O heart! oh blood that freezes, blood that burns!”	The speaker reflects on the emotional tension between admiration for the past and acceptance of its impermanence.	Romanticism: Explores intense personal emotion as a lens to understand history and decay.
“Of our country’s very capital, its prince Ages since Held his court in, gathered councils, wielding far”	Describes the city’s historical grandeur and its central role in governance and power.	Postcolonial Criticism: Questions the motivations and implications of power structures in imperial contexts.
“The slopes and rills in undistinguished grey Melt away”	Depicts the landscape blending into the evening twilight, suggesting the dissolution of distinct features.	Modernism: Focuses on the blending of time and space, creating a sense of transience.
“Marks the basement whence a tower in ancient time Sprang sublime”	Highlights the remnants of a once-magnificent tower, now reduced to its foundation.	Archaeological Criticism: Analyzes the physical remnants as symbols of historical and cultural memory.
“For whole centuries of folly, noise, and sin!”	Critiques the excesses and moral failings of the city’s inhabitants, which contributed to its fall.	Moral Criticism: Highlights the ethical consequences of human ambition and indulgence.
“The single little turret that remains”	Symbolizes the minimal and fragile remnants of human achievement amidst the passage of time.	Symbolism: The turret serves as a metaphor for the vulnerability of human efforts in the face of nature.

Suggested Readings: “Love Among the Ruins” by Robert Browning

1. Law, Robert Adger. “The Background of Browning’s Love among the Ruins.” Modern Language Notes, vol. 37, no. 5, 1922, pp. 312–13. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2915211. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
2. Lang, Cecil Y. “Love among the Ruins.” Browning Institute Studies, vol. 15, 1987, pp. 1–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25057801. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
3. Parr, Johnstone. “The Site and Ancient City of Browning’s Love among the Ruins.” PMLA, vol. 68, no. 1, 1953, pp. 128–37. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/459911. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.
4. Farkas, Ann. “Digging among the Ruins.” Victorian Poetry, vol. 29, no. 1, 1991, pp. 33–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40002052. Accessed 28 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

“The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens first appeared in 1923 in his debut poetry collection Harmonium. The poem is celebrated for its enigmatic exploration of themes like mortality, sensuality, and the fleeting nature of life. It juxtaposes the vivacity of life with the finality of death, reflecting on the human inclination to embrace sensory pleasures even in the face of inevitable demise. The poem’s vivid imagery—such as “kitchen cups concupiscent curds” and “flowers in last month’s newspapers”—highlights an unembellished, almost hedonistic acceptance of life’s tangible joys. Its enduring popularity as a textbook poem stems from its rich interpretive layers and its signature modernist style. Stevens’ central dictum, “Let be be finale of seem,” challenges readers to confront life authentically, rejecting pretense. The titular “emperor of ice-cream” symbolizes the supremacy of the immediate and the corporeal, offering a poignant meditation on the ephemerality of existence. The contrast between the celebratory tone in the first stanza and the somber setting of a funeral in the second underscores this existential paradox.

Text: “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

Annotations: “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

Line	Annotation
Call the roller of big cigars,	The “roller of big cigars” suggests a figure of physical vigor, vitality, and indulgence. It may symbolize life’s sensual pleasures.
The muscular one, and bid him whip	Reinforces the physicality and raw energy associated with life; “whip” adds an active, commanding tone.
In kitchen cups concupiscent curds.	“Concupiscent” (lustful, sensual) curds represent the indulgence in sensory pleasures. Kitchen imagery grounds it in the mundane.
Let the wenches dawdle in such dress	Encourages carefree behavior and authenticity. “Wenches” evoke a rustic, unpretentious atmosphere.
As they are used to wear, and let the boys	Suggests natural, unembellished states of being, free from societal pressures or formalities.
Bring flowers in last month’s newspapers.	Flowers symbolize beauty and transience; the “last month’s newspapers” add a note of impermanence and decay.
Let be be finale of seem.	A philosophical statement: urges embracing reality (“be”) over appearances or illusions (“seem”).
The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream.	Declares the supremacy of life’s fleeting pleasures over pretenses or abstract ideals. “Ice-cream” embodies transient joys.

Take from the dresser of deal,	The “dresser of deal” (cheap, unvarnished wood) reflects simplicity and practicality.
Lacking the three glass knobs, that sheet	Details the dresser’s incompleteness, mirroring the imperfections of life. The “sheet” is a shroud for the dead.
On which she embroidered fantails once	Evokes nostalgia and the fragility of life, as the deceased once crafted beauty but is now gone.
And spread it so as to cover her face.	Covers the face of the deceased, a ritual act that signifies the finality of death.
If her horny feet protrude, they come	The “horny feet” emphasize the physicality and reality of the corpse, rejecting idealized notions of death.
To show how cold she is, and dumb.	Reinforces the stark, unembellished reality of death: cold, silent, and lifeless.
Let the lamp affix its beam.	The “lamp” represents clarity or illumination, directing attention to the truth of death.
The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream.	Reiterates the poem’s central theme: life’s physical pleasures and truths reign supreme over illusions and death.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“If her horny feet protrude, they come”	The repetition of the “h” sound a rhythmic and emphatic image of the feet.
Allusion	“The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream”	Refers to the idea of transient pleasures as the supreme authority in life.
Ambiguity	“Let be be finale of seem”	This line has multiple interpretations, urging the embrace of reality over illusion.
Antithesis	Contrast between life’s vibrancy (stanza 1) and death’s stillness (stanza 2).	Highlights the tension between life and death.
Assonance	“Let be be finale of seem”	The repetition of the “e” sound creates a melodic and contemplative effect.
Connotation	“Concupiscent curds”	“Concupiscent” implies sensuality, emphasizing indulgence and earthly pleasures.
Contrast	Celebratory life in stanza 1 vs. somber death in stanza 2.	Reflects the poem’s exploration of life and death as intertwined realities.
Enjambment	“Let the wenches dawdle in such dress / As they are used to wear”	Continuation of a sentence across lines creates a flowing, conversational tone.
Ephemeral Imagery	“Flowers in last month’s newspapers”	Suggests impermanence and the transience of beauty.
Imagery	“Horny feet protrude”	Evokes a stark, physical image of death’s reality.
Imperative Mood	“Call the roller of big cigars”	Commands create a sense of immediacy and involvement.
Irony	“The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream”	Ironic as ice-cream, a fleeting pleasure, is contrasted with the grand notion of an emperor.
Juxtaposition	Life’s vibrancy (“concupiscent curds”) vs. death’s stillness (“horny feet”).	Highlights the interplay between life and death.
Metaphor	“The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream”	Ice-cream symbolizes transient pleasure and life’s fleeting nature.
Motif	Ice-cream	Recurs as a symbol of impermanence and the sensual pleasures of life.
Paradox	“Let be be finale of seem”	Challenges logical interpretation, urging readers to accept the truth of existence.
Personification	“Let the lamp affix its beam”	The lamp is personified as if it actively illuminates or clarifies death’s reality.
Sensory Imagery	“In kitchen cups concupiscent curds”	Appeals to taste and touch, evoking a sensual, vivid image.
Symbolism	“The sheet / On which she embroidered fantails”	The sheet symbolizes the deceased’s life and the fragility of existence.
Tone	Vibrant and celebratory in stanza 1; solemn and reflective in stanza 2.	The shift in tone mirrors the transition from life to death.

Themes: “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

• The Transience of Life and Pleasure: The central theme of “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” revolves around the fleeting nature of life and the celebration of its ephemeral pleasures. The poem juxtaposes the indulgence in sensory experiences, represented by the “concupiscent curds” and the vibrant energy of the “roller of big cigars,” with the inevitable reality of death. By declaring, “The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream,” Stevens emphasizes that life’s transient joys, symbolized by ice-cream, are the ultimate authority in a world marked by impermanence. This underscores the importance of embracing life’s pleasures in the moment, as they are fleeting and all we truly possess.
• The Reality of Death: In stark contrast to the vivacity of the first stanza, the second stanza shifts to a somber meditation on death. The description of the deceased woman, covered by “the sheet / On which she embroidered fantails,” brings a stark reality to the inevitability of mortality. Details like her “horny feet” protruding from the shroud emphasize the unembellished truth of death, devoid of romanticization or pretense. The line “Let the lamp affix its beam” suggests a cold, clinical illumination of death’s finality, urging readers to confront its inescapable truth.
• The Contrast Between Appearance and Reality: Stevens explores the tension between appearance and reality with the philosophical statement, “Let be be finale of seem.” This line challenges readers to discard illusions and focus on the authentic aspects of existence. The poem’s vivid imagery and unembellished descriptions urge acceptance of life and death as they truly are, rather than as we wish to perceive them. This theme reinforces the modernist rejection of idealized representations, advocating for the embrace of reality in all its rawness.
• The Interplay of Life and Death: The poem intricately weaves the themes of life and death, showing them as interconnected rather than opposing forces. The lively imagery in the first stanza, with “wenches dawdling” and boys carrying “flowers in last month’s newspapers,” reflects life’s vibrancy and its transient joys. However, these elements are juxtaposed with the cold stillness of the second stanza, which details the rituals of death. The recurring line, “The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream,” serves as a bridge between these contrasts, suggesting that both life and death are governed by the impermanence that defines human existence.

Literary Theories and “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the poem’s structure, language, and literary devices rather than external context or authorial intent.	The use of alliteration (“If her horny feet protrude, they come”), paradox (“Let be be finale of seem”), and imagery (“flowers in last month’s newspapers”).
Modernism	Explores themes of existential reality, mortality, and the rejection of traditional ideals. The poem reflects modernist ideals through its fragmented imagery and philosophical tone.	The paradoxical line “Let be be finale of seem” embodies modernist skepticism of appearances versus reality.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores subconscious fears of mortality and the human impulse to find meaning in life’s pleasures to cope with the inevitability of death.	The juxtaposition of sensual imagery (“concupiscent curds”) with stark descriptions of death (“horny feet protrude”) highlights a dualistic psyche.
Post-Structuralism	Challenges fixed meanings and embraces ambiguity, focusing on the interpretive openness of the text.	The refrain “The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream” invites multiple interpretations, reflecting life’s fleeting and unstructured nature.

Critical Questions about “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

Literary Works Similar to “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

1. “Because I Could Not Stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson
   Shares a meditative exploration of mortality, contrasting the inevitability of death with a vivid depiction of life’s journey and transient beauty.
2. “To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell
   Similar in its carpe diem theme, it emphasizes the urgency of savoring life’s pleasures in the face of time’s relentless march.
3. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats
   Reflects on the fleeting nature of life and beauty, juxtaposing the immortal song of the nightingale with human mortality.
4. “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas
   Like Stevens’ poem, it grapples with mortality but contrasts by urging resistance against death rather than acceptance.
5. “Sunday Morning” by Wallace Stevens
   Another Stevens poem, it parallels “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” in its themes of earthly pleasures, mortality, and the rejection of spiritual illusions in favor of tangible life experiences.

Representative Quotations of “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Call the roller of big cigars”	Introduces a figure of vitality, physicality, and indulgence.	Formalism: Focuses on the robust imagery and its role in establishing a lively tone.
“In kitchen cups concupiscent curds”	Sensual, earthly pleasures depicted through culinary imagery.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Represents subconscious desires and indulgences.
“Let the wenches dawdle in such dress”	Advocates for authenticity and simplicity in life.	Modernism: Challenges societal norms by valuing the ordinary and unrefined.
“Flowers in last month’s newspapers”	Symbolizes transient beauty and the passage of time.	Post-Structuralism: Suggests multiple interpretations of decay and renewal.
“Let be be finale of seem”	Philosophical assertion of embracing reality over appearances.	Existentialism: Encourages acceptance of authentic existence.
“The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream”	Celebrates the supremacy of ephemeral pleasures over abstract ideals.	Hedonism: Elevates sensory enjoyment as life’s ultimate pursuit.
“Take from the dresser of deal”	Introduces the setting for death, with unembellished details about the shroud and the deceased.	Realism: Portrays the stark, practical aspects of mortality.
“That sheet on which she embroidered fantails”	Evokes nostalgia and the fragility of human creativity in the face of death.	Feminist Theory: Highlights domestic labor and the often-overlooked contributions of women.
“Her horny feet protrude, they come”	Emphasizes the physical, unidealized reality of death.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Brings attention to the confrontation with mortality.
“Let the lamp affix its beam”	Focuses on clarity and illumination of death’s reality.	Formalism: Uses stark imagery to emphasize the theme of mortality.

Suggested Readings: “The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens

1. Hudson, Deatt. “Wallace Stevens.” Twentieth Century Literature, vol. 1, no. 3, 1955, pp. 135–38. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/440826. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
2. CULBERT, TAYLOR, and JOHN M. VIOLETTE. “Wallace Stevens’ Emperor.” Criticism, vol. 2, no. 1, 1960, pp. 38–47. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23091016. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
3. Ellmann, Richard. “Wallace Stevens’ Ice-Cream.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 19, no. 1, 1957, pp. 89–105. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4333729. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
4. Shakespeare, William, et al. “Commonplace Costumes and Essential Gaudiness: Wallace Stevens’ ‘Emperor of Ice-Cream.'” College Literature, vol. 1, no. 3, 1974, pp. 230–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25111043. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
5. BEDETTI, GABRIELLA. “Prosody and “The Emperor of Ice-Cream”: The Elegiac in the Modern Lyric.” The Wallace Stevens Journal, vol. 8, no. 2, 1984, pp. 96–102. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44884069. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
6. DILWORTH, THOMAS. “Death and Pleasure in Stevens’ ‘The Emperor of Ice-Cream.'” The Wallace Stevens Journal, vol. 34, no. 2, 2010, pp. 144–60. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44885244. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

“Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg first appeared in 1916, during the height of World War I, in various wartime anthologies and later as part of collected works. The poem’s vivid imagery and sardonic tone capture the grim reality of trench warfare, making it a cornerstone of war poetry. Rosenberg uses the unlikely symbol of a rat—a creature of survival and indifference to national divides—to underscore the shared human suffering and futility of war. The poppy, a symbol of remembrance, contrasts sharply with the blood-soaked battlefields, emphasizing fragility and continuity amid devastation. This poem is widely studied as a textbook example of modernist war poetry for its stark realism, poignant symbolism, and Rosenberg’s ability to merge the personal and universal in a few concise lines. Its enduring popularity lies in its unflinching portrayal of war’s absurdity and its challenge to romanticized notions of heroism.

Text: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Annotations: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Line	Annotation
The darkness crumbles away.	Symbolizes the dawn breaking, but also suggests the fleeting nature of life and safety in the trenches.
It is the same old druid Time as ever,	Time is personified as a druid, emphasizing its ancient, unchanging, and mystical qualities amidst the chaos of war.
Only a live thing leaps my hand,	Introduces the rat, a stark contrast to the death surrounding the speaker, symbolizing life’s resilience in a war zone.
A queer sardonic rat,	The rat is described as “sardonic,” highlighting its ironic detachment from the horrors around it, adding dark humor.
As I pull the parapet’s poppy	The poppy symbolizes both remembrance and the fragility of life, rooted in the context of WWI.
To stick behind my ear.	Juxtaposes the poppy’s tragic symbolism with a casual, almost whimsical act, showcasing the speaker’s resigned attitude.
Droll rat, they would shoot you if they knew	Highlights the absurdity of war where even a rat might be targeted, underscoring human cruelty and misplaced priorities.
Your cosmopolitan sympathies.	Suggests the rat’s neutrality and its disregard for national divisions, mocking human conflicts.
Now you have touched this English hand	The rat bridges the divide between enemy soldiers, emphasizing shared humanity and the futility of war.
You will do the same to a German	Reinforces the rat’s indifference to human conflict, further mocking the nationalism fueling the war.
Soon, no doubt, if it be your pleasure	Implies that war is meaningless to nature, as life continues indifferent to human suffering.
To cross the sleeping green between.	Refers to “no man’s land,” ironically described as “sleeping green,” masking its reality as a deadly battlefield.
It seems you inwardly grin as you pass	The rat’s “grin” symbolizes its survival against odds, contrasting with human vulnerability and mortality.
Strong eyes, fine limbs, haughty athletes,	A bitter reflection on the youthful vigor of soldiers lost to war, emphasizing their tragic waste.
Less chanced than you for life,	Points out the paradox of war: the rat survives while strong and capable humans perish.
Bonds to the whims of murder,	Soldiers are described as being bound to the arbitrary, senseless violence of war, stripping them of autonomy.
Sprawled in the bowels of the earth,	Vivid imagery of dead soldiers in trenches, suggesting both physical and moral degradation.
The torn fields of France.	Evokes the physical destruction of the landscape, symbolizing the scars of war on nature and humanity.
What do you see in our eyes	A direct address to the rat, questioning its perspective on human suffering and despair.
At the shrieking iron and flame	Describes the relentless violence of warfare with auditory and visual imagery, symbolizing terror and destruction.
Hurled through still heavens?	Contrasts the chaos of war with the serenity of the heavens, highlighting the tragedy of human actions against nature’s calm.
What quaver—what heart aghast?	Suggests the fear and shock experienced by soldiers, reflecting the emotional toll of war.
Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins	A powerful metaphor linking the poppy (remembrance) to the bloodshed and sacrifices of soldiers.
Drop, and are ever dropping;	Indicates the continuous cycle of death and loss in war, symbolized by the falling poppies.
But mine in my ear is safe—	The speaker’s poppy, placed behind his ear, symbolizes a fragile sense of safety amidst pervasive danger.
Just a little white with the dust.	The poppy’s whiteness from dust symbolizes the pervasive death and decay in the trenches, overshadowing its vibrant meaning.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Just a little white with the dust.”	Repetition of the “w” sounds emphasizes the color.
Allusion	“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins”	Refers to the cultural and historical symbolism of poppies in WWI, connected to death and remembrance.
Ambiguity	“What do you see in our eyes?”	The question posed to the rat is ambiguous, reflecting both literal and metaphorical interpretations about the perception of human suffering.
Anthropomorphism	“Droll rat, they would shoot you if they knew / Your cosmopolitan sympathies”	The rat is given human traits (humor and cosmopolitan views), emphasizing its ironic detachment from human conflicts.
Contrast	“Strong eyes, fine limbs, haughty athletes” vs. “less chanced than you for life”	Juxtaposes the vitality of soldiers with their grim fate, highlighting the irony of war’s indiscriminate destruction.
Enjambment	“To cross the sleeping green between / It seems you inwardly grin as you pass”	The continuation of a sentence across lines creates a flowing, conversational tone that mimics thought processes.
Ephemeral Imagery	“The darkness crumbles away”	Describes the fleeting nature of safety and darkness in war, evoking the transitory state of life and peace.
Hyperbole	“Shrieking iron and flame hurled through still heavens”	Exaggerates the chaos and violence of artillery fire to emphasize the destructive nature of war.
Imagery	“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth”	Vividly depicts the trenches, evoking a sense of decay and the macabre realities of war.
Irony	“Droll rat, they would shoot you”	The absurdity of targeting a rat contrasts with the larger horrors of war, emphasizing its darkly ironic nature.
Metaphor	“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins”	Compares the poppy’s roots to the blood of soldiers, linking the flower to the sacrifice and death in war.
Mood	“Hurled through still heavens”	Evokes a mood of chaos and terror as serene imagery of the heavens contrasts with the violent destruction of war.
Oxymoron	“Sleeping green between”	Contradictory terms “sleeping” and “green” describe “no man’s land,” highlighting the eerie calm of a deadly zone.
Personification	“Time as ever, Only a live thing leaps”	Gives human qualities to time and the rat, emphasizing their permanence and detachment from human suffering.
Repetition	“Drop, and are ever dropping”	The repetition of “drop” emphasizes the endless cycle of death in war.
Rhetorical Question	“What do you see in our eyes?”	Invites introspection and reflection, questioning the rat’s perspective on human emotions amidst war.
Satire	“Your cosmopolitan sympathies”	Mockingly attributes sophisticated neutrality to the rat, subtly critiquing the absurd divisions of human warfare.
Simile	“As I pull the parapet’s poppy”	While not a direct simile, this gesture blends the personal and symbolic, connecting the act to the universal theme of remembrance.
Symbolism	“Poppy”	Represents the fragility of life, death, and remembrance, especially in the context of WWI.
Tone	“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth”	A tone of bitterness and resignation pervades the poem, reflecting the futility and horror of war.

Themes: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Theories and “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Marxist Criticism	Examines the class dynamics and material conditions reflected in the poem. The trenches are a great equalizer, where societal hierarchies dissolve.	“Less chanced than you for life, Bonds to the whims of murder” reflects the dehumanization and loss of agency of soldiers.
Postcolonial Criticism	Explores the universal and arbitrary nature of national identities in wartime, highlighting shared humanity and critiquing imperialist divides.	“Your cosmopolitan sympathies” critiques the meaningless divisions of war and the rat’s neutral crossing of “the sleeping green between.”
Ecocriticism	Focuses on the relationship between humans and nature, with nature’s indifference to human suffering as a central theme.	“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins” symbolizes how nature absorbs and outlasts human violence, while the rat thrives in the trenches.
Modernist Theory	Analyzes the fragmented and ironic tone of the poem, reflecting disillusionment with traditional values, heroism, and narrative structures.	“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth” conveys despair and the rejection of glorified depictions of war, characteristic of Modernist perspectives.

Critical Questions about “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Works Similar to “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen
   Explores the grim realities of war, rejecting its romanticized ideals through vivid and harrowing imagery, much like Rosenberg’s critique of war’s futility.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
   Uses poignant contrasts and somber tone to mourn the loss of young lives in war, paralleling Rosenberg’s depiction of wasted potential and shared human suffering.
3. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
   Centers on the symbolism of poppies as a link between life, death, and remembrance, aligning with Rosenberg’s use of the poppy motif in the trenches.
4. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke
   While more idealistic, it grapples with themes of identity and sacrifice in war, offering a contrasting yet thematically resonant perspective to Rosenberg’s realism.

Representative Quotations of “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The darkness crumbles away.”	Describes the breaking dawn in the trenches, symbolizing the fleeting nature of safety and time in war.	Modernism: Highlights the fragmented experience of war and the impermanence of peace.
“It is the same old druid Time as ever.”	Personifies time as an ancient, mystical force, indifferent to human suffering.	Ecocriticism: Suggests the continuity of natural cycles despite human conflict.
“A queer sardonic rat.”	Introduces the rat as a symbol of survival and detachment, observing the absurdity of human warfare.	Irony and Satire: Critiques human conflict by contrasting it with the rat’s indifference.
“Droll rat, they would shoot you if they knew / Your cosmopolitan sympathies.”	Reflects the absurdity of human divisions and violence through the rat’s freedom to cross enemy lines.	Postcolonial Criticism: Challenges notions of national boundaries and enmity.
“Now you have touched this English hand / You will do the same to a German.”	Suggests the shared humanity of soldiers on both sides, united by their vulnerability in war.	Marxist Criticism: Emphasizes equality in suffering, erasing class and national distinctions.
“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth.”	Vividly depicts the dehumanization and decay of soldiers in the trenches.	Modernism: Rejects romanticized notions of war, portraying its grotesque realities.
“The torn fields of France.”	Alludes to the destruction of the natural landscape caused by war, linking human violence to environmental degradation.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the scars of war on both humanity and nature.
“What do you see in our eyes?”	A rhetorical question directed at the rat, inviting reflection on the human condition amidst war.	Existentialism: Questions the meaning of life and suffering in the face of senseless conflict.
“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins.”	Uses the poppy as a symbol of remembrance, linking it to the bloodshed and sacrifice of soldiers.	Symbolism: Connects the natural world to human suffering and mortality.
“But mine in my ear is safe— / Just a little white with the dust.”	Contrasts the fragility of the speaker’s poppy with the larger devastation around, blending irony with survival.	Irony and Modernism: Reflects the triviality of individual acts in the vastness of war’s destruction.

Suggested Readings: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

1. SIMPSON, MATT. “Only a Living Thing — Some Notes towards a Reading of Isaac Rosenberg’s ‘Break of Day in the Trenches.’” Critical Survey, vol. 2, no. 2, 1990, pp. 128–36. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41555520. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
2. JOHNSTON, JOHN H. “POETRY AND PITY: ISAAC ROSENBERG.” English Poetry of the First World War, Princeton University Press, 1964, pp. 210–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pt66.9. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
3. JOHNSTON, JOHN H. “POETRY AND PITY: ISAAC ROSENBERG.” English Poetry of the First World War, Princeton University Press, 1964, pp. 210–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pt66.9. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
4. Sackton, Alexander H. “TWO POEMS ON WAR: A CRITICAL EXERCISE.” The University of Texas Studies in English, vol. 31, 1952, pp. 120–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20776054. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

“Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg first appeared in 1916, during the height of World War I, in various wartime anthologies and later as part of collected works. The poem’s vivid imagery and sardonic tone capture the grim reality of trench warfare, making it a cornerstone of war poetry. Rosenberg uses the unlikely symbol of a rat—a creature of survival and indifference to national divides—to underscore the shared human suffering and futility of war. The poppy, a symbol of remembrance, contrasts sharply with the blood-soaked battlefields, emphasizing fragility and continuity amid devastation. This poem is widely studied as a textbook example of modernist war poetry for its stark realism, poignant symbolism, and Rosenberg’s ability to merge the personal and universal in a few concise lines. Its enduring popularity lies in its unflinching portrayal of war’s absurdity and its challenge to romanticized notions of heroism.

Text: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Annotations: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Line	Annotation
The darkness crumbles away.	Symbolizes the dawn breaking, but also suggests the fleeting nature of life and safety in the trenches.
It is the same old druid Time as ever,	Time is personified as a druid, emphasizing its ancient, unchanging, and mystical qualities amidst the chaos of war.
Only a live thing leaps my hand,	Introduces the rat, a stark contrast to the death surrounding the speaker, symbolizing life’s resilience in a war zone.
A queer sardonic rat,	The rat is described as “sardonic,” highlighting its ironic detachment from the horrors around it, adding dark humor.
As I pull the parapet’s poppy	The poppy symbolizes both remembrance and the fragility of life, rooted in the context of WWI.
To stick behind my ear.	Juxtaposes the poppy’s tragic symbolism with a casual, almost whimsical act, showcasing the speaker’s resigned attitude.
Droll rat, they would shoot you if they knew	Highlights the absurdity of war where even a rat might be targeted, underscoring human cruelty and misplaced priorities.
Your cosmopolitan sympathies.	Suggests the rat’s neutrality and its disregard for national divisions, mocking human conflicts.
Now you have touched this English hand	The rat bridges the divide between enemy soldiers, emphasizing shared humanity and the futility of war.
You will do the same to a German	Reinforces the rat’s indifference to human conflict, further mocking the nationalism fueling the war.
Soon, no doubt, if it be your pleasure	Implies that war is meaningless to nature, as life continues indifferent to human suffering.
To cross the sleeping green between.	Refers to “no man’s land,” ironically described as “sleeping green,” masking its reality as a deadly battlefield.
It seems you inwardly grin as you pass	The rat’s “grin” symbolizes its survival against odds, contrasting with human vulnerability and mortality.
Strong eyes, fine limbs, haughty athletes,	A bitter reflection on the youthful vigor of soldiers lost to war, emphasizing their tragic waste.
Less chanced than you for life,	Points out the paradox of war: the rat survives while strong and capable humans perish.
Bonds to the whims of murder,	Soldiers are described as being bound to the arbitrary, senseless violence of war, stripping them of autonomy.
Sprawled in the bowels of the earth,	Vivid imagery of dead soldiers in trenches, suggesting both physical and moral degradation.
The torn fields of France.	Evokes the physical destruction of the landscape, symbolizing the scars of war on nature and humanity.
What do you see in our eyes	A direct address to the rat, questioning its perspective on human suffering and despair.
At the shrieking iron and flame	Describes the relentless violence of warfare with auditory and visual imagery, symbolizing terror and destruction.
Hurled through still heavens?	Contrasts the chaos of war with the serenity of the heavens, highlighting the tragedy of human actions against nature’s calm.
What quaver—what heart aghast?	Suggests the fear and shock experienced by soldiers, reflecting the emotional toll of war.
Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins	A powerful metaphor linking the poppy (remembrance) to the bloodshed and sacrifices of soldiers.
Drop, and are ever dropping;	Indicates the continuous cycle of death and loss in war, symbolized by the falling poppies.
But mine in my ear is safe—	The speaker’s poppy, placed behind his ear, symbolizes a fragile sense of safety amidst pervasive danger.
Just a little white with the dust.	The poppy’s whiteness from dust symbolizes the pervasive death and decay in the trenches, overshadowing its vibrant meaning.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Just a little white with the dust.”	Repetition of the “w” sounds emphasizes the color.
Allusion	“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins”	Refers to the cultural and historical symbolism of poppies in WWI, connected to death and remembrance.
Ambiguity	“What do you see in our eyes?”	The question posed to the rat is ambiguous, reflecting both literal and metaphorical interpretations about the perception of human suffering.
Anthropomorphism	“Droll rat, they would shoot you if they knew / Your cosmopolitan sympathies”	The rat is given human traits (humor and cosmopolitan views), emphasizing its ironic detachment from human conflicts.
Contrast	“Strong eyes, fine limbs, haughty athletes” vs. “less chanced than you for life”	Juxtaposes the vitality of soldiers with their grim fate, highlighting the irony of war’s indiscriminate destruction.
Enjambment	“To cross the sleeping green between / It seems you inwardly grin as you pass”	The continuation of a sentence across lines creates a flowing, conversational tone that mimics thought processes.
Ephemeral Imagery	“The darkness crumbles away”	Describes the fleeting nature of safety and darkness in war, evoking the transitory state of life and peace.
Hyperbole	“Shrieking iron and flame hurled through still heavens”	Exaggerates the chaos and violence of artillery fire to emphasize the destructive nature of war.
Imagery	“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth”	Vividly depicts the trenches, evoking a sense of decay and the macabre realities of war.
Irony	“Droll rat, they would shoot you”	The absurdity of targeting a rat contrasts with the larger horrors of war, emphasizing its darkly ironic nature.
Metaphor	“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins”	Compares the poppy’s roots to the blood of soldiers, linking the flower to the sacrifice and death in war.
Mood	“Hurled through still heavens”	Evokes a mood of chaos and terror as serene imagery of the heavens contrasts with the violent destruction of war.
Oxymoron	“Sleeping green between”	Contradictory terms “sleeping” and “green” describe “no man’s land,” highlighting the eerie calm of a deadly zone.
Personification	“Time as ever, Only a live thing leaps”	Gives human qualities to time and the rat, emphasizing their permanence and detachment from human suffering.
Repetition	“Drop, and are ever dropping”	The repetition of “drop” emphasizes the endless cycle of death in war.
Rhetorical Question	“What do you see in our eyes?”	Invites introspection and reflection, questioning the rat’s perspective on human emotions amidst war.
Satire	“Your cosmopolitan sympathies”	Mockingly attributes sophisticated neutrality to the rat, subtly critiquing the absurd divisions of human warfare.
Simile	“As I pull the parapet’s poppy”	While not a direct simile, this gesture blends the personal and symbolic, connecting the act to the universal theme of remembrance.
Symbolism	“Poppy”	Represents the fragility of life, death, and remembrance, especially in the context of WWI.
Tone	“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth”	A tone of bitterness and resignation pervades the poem, reflecting the futility and horror of war.

Themes: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Theories and “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Marxist Criticism	Examines the class dynamics and material conditions reflected in the poem. The trenches are a great equalizer, where societal hierarchies dissolve.	“Less chanced than you for life, Bonds to the whims of murder” reflects the dehumanization and loss of agency of soldiers.
Postcolonial Criticism	Explores the universal and arbitrary nature of national identities in wartime, highlighting shared humanity and critiquing imperialist divides.	“Your cosmopolitan sympathies” critiques the meaningless divisions of war and the rat’s neutral crossing of “the sleeping green between.”
Ecocriticism	Focuses on the relationship between humans and nature, with nature’s indifference to human suffering as a central theme.	“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins” symbolizes how nature absorbs and outlasts human violence, while the rat thrives in the trenches.
Modernist Theory	Analyzes the fragmented and ironic tone of the poem, reflecting disillusionment with traditional values, heroism, and narrative structures.	“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth” conveys despair and the rejection of glorified depictions of war, characteristic of Modernist perspectives.

Critical Questions about “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Literary Works Similar to “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen
   Explores the grim realities of war, rejecting its romanticized ideals through vivid and harrowing imagery, much like Rosenberg’s critique of war’s futility.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
   Uses poignant contrasts and somber tone to mourn the loss of young lives in war, paralleling Rosenberg’s depiction of wasted potential and shared human suffering.
3. “The Dead” by Rupert Brooke
   Reflects on the sacrifice and loss of soldiers in war, though with a more elegiac tone compared to Rosenberg’s ironic bitterness.
4. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
   Centers on the symbolism of poppies as a link between life, death, and remembrance, aligning with Rosenberg’s use of the poppy motif in the trenches.
5. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke
   While more idealistic, it grapples with themes of identity and sacrifice in war, offering a contrasting yet thematically resonant perspective to Rosenberg’s realism.

Representative Quotations of “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The darkness crumbles away.”	Describes the breaking dawn in the trenches, symbolizing the fleeting nature of safety and time in war.	Modernism: Highlights the fragmented experience of war and the impermanence of peace.
“It is the same old druid Time as ever.”	Personifies time as an ancient, mystical force, indifferent to human suffering.	Ecocriticism: Suggests the continuity of natural cycles despite human conflict.
“A queer sardonic rat.”	Introduces the rat as a symbol of survival and detachment, observing the absurdity of human warfare.	Irony and Satire: Critiques human conflict by contrasting it with the rat’s indifference.
“Droll rat, they would shoot you if they knew / Your cosmopolitan sympathies.”	Reflects the absurdity of human divisions and violence through the rat’s freedom to cross enemy lines.	Postcolonial Criticism: Challenges notions of national boundaries and enmity.
“Now you have touched this English hand / You will do the same to a German.”	Suggests the shared humanity of soldiers on both sides, united by their vulnerability in war.	Marxist Criticism: Emphasizes equality in suffering, erasing class and national distinctions.
“Sprawled in the bowels of the earth.”	Vividly depicts the dehumanization and decay of soldiers in the trenches.	Modernism: Rejects romanticized notions of war, portraying its grotesque realities.
“The torn fields of France.”	Alludes to the destruction of the natural landscape caused by war, linking human violence to environmental degradation.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the scars of war on both humanity and nature.
“What do you see in our eyes?”	A rhetorical question directed at the rat, inviting reflection on the human condition amidst war.	Existentialism: Questions the meaning of life and suffering in the face of senseless conflict.
“Poppies whose roots are in man’s veins.”	Uses the poppy as a symbol of remembrance, linking it to the bloodshed and sacrifice of soldiers.	Symbolism: Connects the natural world to human suffering and mortality.
“But mine in my ear is safe— / Just a little white with the dust.”	Contrasts the fragility of the speaker’s poppy with the larger devastation around, blending irony with survival.	Irony and Modernism: Reflects the triviality of individual acts in the vastness of war’s destruction.

Suggested Readings: “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg

1. SIMPSON, MATT. “Only a Living Thing — Some Notes towards a Reading of Isaac Rosenberg’s ‘Break of Day in the Trenches.’” Critical Survey, vol. 2, no. 2, 1990, pp. 128–36. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41555520. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
2. JOHNSTON, JOHN H. “POETRY AND PITY: ISAAC ROSENBERG.” English Poetry of the First World War, Princeton University Press, 1964, pp. 210–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pt66.9. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
3. JOHNSTON, JOHN H. “POETRY AND PITY: ISAAC ROSENBERG.” English Poetry of the First World War, Princeton University Press, 1964, pp. 210–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pt66.9. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.
4. Sackton, Alexander H. “TWO POEMS ON WAR: A CRITICAL EXERCISE.” The University of Texas Studies in English, vol. 31, 1952, pp. 120–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20776054. Accessed 27 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

“To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane first appeared in 1930 as the opening poem of his celebrated collection The Bridge. The poem captures the grandeur and symbolic resonance of the Brooklyn Bridge, presenting it as a unifying structure between the mundane and the divine, the past and the future. Through vivid imagery and a lyrical style, Crane explores themes of connection, industrial progress, and transcendence, making the bridge a metaphor for American optimism and cultural identity. Its complexity and evocative symbolism have secured its place as a popular poem in literature textbooks, often studied for its modernist techniques and its ability to weave a distinctly American mythos.

Text: “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

Annotations: “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

Stanza	Text	Annotation
1	How many dawns, chill from his rippling rest The seagull’s wings shall dip and pivot him, Shedding white rings of tumult, building high Over the chained bay waters Liberty—	The opening invokes the recurring image of the seagull, symbolizing freedom and natural grace, set against the backdrop of the Brooklyn Bridge. “Chained bay waters Liberty” juxtaposes the constrained industrial bay with the liberating image of the bridge and the Statue of Liberty.
2	Then, with inviolate curve, forsake our eyes As apparitional as sails that cross Some page of figures to be filed away; —Till elevators drop us from our day …	The “inviolate curve” of the bridge represents its enduring perfection. The mention of elevators and “sails that cross some page” reflects the transient, mechanical nature of urban life contrasted with the eternal presence of the bridge.
3	I think of cinemas, panoramic sleights With multitudes bent toward some flashing scene Never disclosed, but hastened to again, Foretold to other eyes on the same screen;	The cinematic imagery reflects modernity’s fleeting illusions and collective experiences. The bridge, in contrast, symbolizes permanence amid these ephemeral pursuits.
4	And Thee, across the harbor, silver paced As though the sun took step of thee yet left Some motion ever unspent in thy stride,— Implicitly thy freedom staying thee!	The bridge is personified and glorified, likened to a divine figure that holds an inexhaustible energy. Its “stride” and “freedom” evoke a timeless, almost supernatural force.
5	Out of some subway scuttle, cell or loft A bedlamite speeds to thy parapets, Tilting there momently, shrill shirt ballooning, A jest falls from the speechless caravan.	This stanza depicts an eccentric figure, possibly representing humanity’s madness or creativity, momentarily connecting with the bridge’s grandeur before vanishing back into anonymity. The bridge becomes a stage for fleeting human drama.
6	Down Wall, from girder into street noon leaks, A rip-tooth of the sky’s acetylene; All afternoon the cloud flown derricks turn … Thy cables breathe the North Atlantic still.	The industrial imagery of Wall Street and construction (“derricks,” “acetylene”) contrasts with the bridge’s organic, breathing presence, linking industry and nature.
7	And obscure as that heaven of the Jews, Thy guerdon … Accolade thou dost bestow Of anonymity time cannot raise: Vibrant reprieve and pardon thou dost show.	The bridge is likened to an obscure yet divine reward (“heaven of the Jews”). Its gift is a sense of anonymity and timelessness, offering solace and redemption to those who encounter it.
8	O harp and altar, of the fury fused, (How could mere toil align thy choiring strings!) Terrific threshold of the prophet’s pledge, Prayer of pariah, and the lover’s cry,	The bridge is elevated to a sacred object (“harp and altar”), representing both industrial achievement and spiritual transcendence. It becomes a place for devotion, art, and universal human expression.
9	Again the traffic lights that skim thy swift Unfractioned idiom, immaculate sigh of stars, Beading thy path—condense eternity: And we have seen night lifted in thine arms.	The traffic lights and stars merge into a poetic vision of eternal movement and cosmic connection. The bridge becomes a vessel that “lifts” the night, symbolizing a metaphysical bridge between worlds.
10	Under thy shadow by the piers I waited Only in darkness is thy shadow clear. The City’s fiery parcels all undone, Already snow submerges an iron year …	Darkness is a motif of clarity and reflection. The bridge’s shadow symbolizes insight gained in obscurity. Snow covering the city suggests the passage of time and the impermanence of urban life.
11	O Sleepless as the river under thee, Vaulting the sea, the prairies’ dreaming sod, Unto us lowliest sometime sweep, descend And of the curveship lend a myth to God.	The bridge is described as “sleepless,” in perpetual motion over land and sea. It connects the physical and the divine, embodying a mythical quality that transcends human understanding, a gift to both the humble and the sacred.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“chill from his rippling rest”	Repetition of the consonant sound “r” enhances the rhythmic and lyrical quality of the line.
Allusion	“And obscure as that heaven of the Jews”	Refers to Jewish mysticism or religious tradition, adding depth to the spiritual metaphor.
Anaphora	“Unto us lowliest sometime sweep, descend”	Repetition of “Unto us” emphasizes the universal connection Crane seeks with the bridge.
Apostrophe	“O Sleepless as the river under thee”	Directly addressing the bridge as if it were a sentient being, a hallmark of apostrophe.
Assonance	“sails that cross some page”	Repetition of the “a” sound creates a smooth, melodic tone that mirrors the sails’ movement.
Chiasmus	“Only in darkness is thy shadow clear”	The reversal of structure in this phrase emphasizes the paradoxical clarity found in obscurity.
Consonance	“Vaulting the sea, the prairies’ dreaming sod”	Repetition of the “s” sound ties together the imagery of the sea and land.
Enjambment	“Shedding white rings of tumult, building high / Over the chained bay waters Liberty—”	The continuation of a sentence without pause between lines adds fluidity to the imagery.
Epiphany	“And we have seen night lifted in thine arms”	The narrator experiences a moment of profound realization about the bridge’s symbolic power.
Hyperbole	“Terrific threshold of the prophet’s pledge”	Exaggerates the bridge’s significance as a divine or prophetic symbol.
Imagery	“All afternoon the cloud flown derricks turn”	Vivid visual description of industrial activity juxtaposed with the natural world.
Metaphor	“O harp and altar, of the fury fused”	The bridge is metaphorically described as both a musical instrument and a sacred altar.
Oxymoron	“chill from his rippling rest”	Combines contrasting terms (“chill” and “rippling rest”) to create a layered image.
Paradox	“Only in darkness is thy shadow clear”	A statement that contradicts itself but reveals a deeper truth about understanding and clarity.
Personification	“Thy cables breathe the North Atlantic still”	The bridge is endowed with human qualities, making it feel alive and dynamic.
Repetition	“And Thee, across the harbor”	Repetition of “Thee” emphasizes the bridge’s centrality and its divine presence.
Simile	“As apparitional as sails that cross”	Compares the bridge to ghostly sails, enhancing its ethereal quality.
Symbolism	“The City’s fiery parcels all undone”	Symbolizes the chaotic energy of urban life being subdued or transformed by the bridge.
Synecdoche	“Thy cables breathe”	The “cables” represent the entirety of the bridge, a common use of synecdoche.
Tone	“Prayer of pariah, and the lover’s cry”	The tone is reverent and awe-inspired, reflecting the bridge’s spiritual and emotional impact.

Themes: “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

Literary Theories and “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

Literary Theory	Application to “To Brooklyn Bridge”	References from the Poem
Modernism	The poem reflects the Modernist movement’s focus on fragmentation, industrial progress, and transcendence.	“Thy cables breathe the North Atlantic still” and “O harp and altar, of the fury fused” emphasize industrial and spiritual dualities.
Romanticism	The bridge is portrayed as a sublime and spiritual symbol, echoing Romantic ideals of nature and transcendence.	“Terrific threshold of the prophet’s pledge” and “condense eternity” highlight awe and the bridge’s elevation to a divine status.
Symbolism	The poem uses the bridge as a central symbol to convey universal themes of connection and redemption.	“And of the curveship lend a myth to God” shows how the bridge transcends its materiality to symbolize spiritual and mythical ideas.
Urbanism and Marxist Criticism	The poem critiques urban alienation while celebrating industrial achievement, examining the effects of modernity on society.	“A bedlamite speeds to thy parapets” and “multitudes bent toward some flashing scene” reflect themes of alienation in the urban landscape.

Critical Questions about “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

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1. How does Crane depict the Brooklyn Bridge as a symbol of transcendence?

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Literary Works Similar to “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

1. “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry” by Walt Whitman
   Similarity: Both poems explore the connection between humanity and the cityscape, with the Brooklyn waterfront serving as a central motif symbolizing unity and transcendence.
2. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot
   Similarity: Like Crane’s poem, Eliot’s work uses fragmented imagery and modernist techniques to address themes of urban alienation and spiritual longing.
3. “I Hear America Singing” by Walt Whitman
   Similarity: Whitman and Crane both celebrate industrial achievements and the collective spirit of America, though Crane’s tone is more reflective and mythic.
4. “Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey” by William Wordsworth
   Similarity: Both poems blend observation of a physical landmark with meditative reflections on time, memory, and transcendence.
5. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats
   Similarity: Like Crane, Keats employs rich imagery and symbolic depth to explore themes of beauty, impermanence, and connection to the sublime.

Representative Quotations of “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“How many dawns, chill from his rippling rest”	Opening line sets a contemplative tone, with the seagull symbolizing freedom and nature.	Romanticism: Emphasizes the beauty and harmony of nature.
“Over the chained bay waters Liberty—”	Contrasts the natural flow of water with the constraints of industrial progress.	Marxist Criticism: Highlights the tension between nature and industry.
“And Thee, across the harbor, silver paced”	Addresses the bridge as a divine, eternal presence, linking it to the divine.	Symbolism: The bridge as a mythic figure transcending material reality.
“Thy cables breathe the North Atlantic still”	Personifies the bridge, connecting it to the vitality of the natural world.	Modernism: Blurs boundaries between the man-made and the organic.
“O harp and altar, of the fury fused”	Elevates the bridge to a sacred and artistic symbol.	Structuralism: The bridge symbolizes human creativity and divinity.
“Only in darkness is thy shadow clear.”	Suggests understanding and clarity come through obscurity and reflection.	Phenomenology: Explores perception and insight through paradox.
“Terrific threshold of the prophet’s pledge”	Portrays the bridge as a liminal space of transformation and revelation.	Post-Structuralism: Explores the bridge as a site of multiple meanings.
“A bedlamite speeds to thy parapets”	Depicts an urban scene of madness and fleeting connection to the bridge.	Urbanism: Highlights modernity’s chaos and alienation.
“anonymity time cannot raise”	Presents the bridge as timeless, immune to the erosion of history.	New Criticism: Focuses on the enduring and intrinsic qualities of the text.
“Unto us lowliest sometime sweep, descend”	The bridge is portrayed as accessible to all, symbolizing unity and equality.	Democratic Idealism: Celebrates inclusivity and universal connection.

Suggested Readings: “To Brooklyn Bridge” by Hart Crane

1. Arpad, Joseph J. “Hart Crane’s Platonic Myth: The Brooklyn Bridge.” American Literature, vol. 39, no. 1, 1967, pp. 75–86. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2923050. Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.
2. Kuspit, D. B. “Some Images and Themes in Hart Crane’s ‘The Bridge.'” Jahrbuch Für Amerikastudien, vol. 5, 1960, pp. 164–74. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41154750. Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.
3. Winters, Yvor. “The Progress of Hart Crane.” Poetry, vol. 36, no. 3, 1930, pp. 153–65. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20577597. Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.
4. Nilsen, Helge Normann. “HART CRANE’S INDIAN POEM.” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, vol. 72, no. 1, 1971, pp. 127–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43342619. Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.
5. Schultz, Susan M. “The Success of Failure: Hart Crane’s Revisions of Whitman and Eliot in ‘The Bridge.'” South Atlantic Review, vol. 54, no. 1, 1989, pp. 55–70. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3200065. Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

“The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke first appeared in 1914 as part of his celebrated collection 1914 and Other Poems, capturing the patriotic fervor and idealism of the early stages of World War I. Its central ideas revolve around love for one’s country, the immortalization of national identity, and the sanctity of sacrifice. Brooke envisions death in war not as a tragic end but as a noble offering to England, portraying the soldier’s body as “a richer dust concealed,” made sacred by its association with the homeland. The poem’s enduring popularity as a textbook selection stems from its evocative imagery—such as “a corner of a foreign field / That is forever England”—and its idealized view of war, resonating with themes of duty, patriotism, and the eternal bond between individuals and their nation. With its harmonious rhythm and lyrical tone, the poem offers students an accessible yet profound exploration of themes like identity, sacrifice, and remembrance.

Text: “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Poetry Out Loud Note: This poem has had two titles: “The Soldier” and “Nineteen-Fourteen: The Soldier”. The student may give either title during the recitation.

Annotations: “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Line	Annotation
If I should die, think only this of me:	Introduces the soldier’s hypothetical death, emphasizing his wish for a specific remembrance focused on his identity as an Englishman.
That there’s some corner of a foreign field	Suggests that even in death, a part of England will be present on foreign soil, symbolizing the lasting impact of the soldier’s sacrifice.
That is for ever England. There shall be	Highlights the eternal and unyielding connection to England, portraying death as a way to immortalize the homeland.
In that rich earth a richer dust concealed;	The “richer dust” symbolizes the soldier’s body, now enriched by his sacrifice and deeply tied to his English identity and upbringing.
A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware,	Personifies England as a nurturing mother who gave the soldier life, education, and values, reinforcing his intrinsic bond with the country.
Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam;	Evokes the beauty and freedom of England, emphasizing the soldier’s gratitude for his experiences and upbringing.
A body of England’s, breathing English air,	Emphasizes the soldier’s physical and emotional connection to England, identifying himself as a product of his homeland.
Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home.	Uses natural imagery to celebrate the idyllic and nurturing environment of England, romanticizing the homeland’s influence.
And think, this heart, all evil shed away,	Suggests purification through sacrifice, with the soldier achieving moral and spiritual redemption through his devotion and ultimate sacrifice.
A pulse in the eternal mind, no less	Elevates the soldier’s sacrifice to a cosmic and eternal level, connecting his identity and actions to a greater universal purpose.
Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England given;	Highlights the reciprocity between the soldier and his homeland, with his sacrifice serving as a repayment for all that England has provided him.
Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her day;	Evokes sensory and emotional imagery to convey the soldier’s cherished memories of England’s beauty and harmony.
And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness,	Captures personal and intimate moments of joy and companionship, portraying the soldier’s deep attachment to English life.
In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.	Concludes with an idealized vision of peace and unity in death, presenting England as both a spiritual and eternal sanctuary.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“foreign field,” “blest by suns”	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words creates rhythm and emphasizes key phrases.
Personification	“England bore, shaped, made aware”	England is personified as a mother, attributing human qualities to the nation to highlight its nurturing role.
Imagery	“Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home”	Vivid sensory descriptions create a mental picture of England’s idyllic and nurturing landscape.
Symbolism	“foreign field”	Represents the battleground where the soldier dies, symbolizing both sacrifice and the spread of England’s values.
Pathetic Fallacy	“blest by suns of home”	Nature is attributed with human emotions, reinforcing the emotional connection to England’s beauty and warmth.
Metaphor	“A pulse in the eternal mind”	Compares the soldier’s contribution to the eternal consciousness, symbolizing his immortal impact.
Anaphora	“That there’s some… That is for ever…”	Repetition of “that” at the beginning of clauses emphasizes the certainty and permanence of England’s influence.
Enjambment	“Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam; / A body of England’s…”	The continuation of a sentence across lines enhances the poem’s natural flow and conversational tone.
Epistrophe	“English air… suns of home”	Repetition at the end of clauses emphasizes the sanctity of England’s influence.
Allusion	“eternal mind”	References philosophical or religious concepts, suggesting a divine or spiritual dimension to the soldier’s sacrifice.
Hyperbole	“That is for ever England”	Exaggeration conveys the poet’s deep patriotic sentiment and the eternal significance of the soldier’s sacrifice.
Tone	Patriotic and reverent	The tone reflects pride, reverence, and love for England, celebrating its enduring impact on identity and sacrifice.
Euphony	“dreams happy as her day”	The use of melodious words creates a pleasant, harmonious effect reflecting the poet’s love for England.
Connotation	“A richer dust concealed”	The word “dust” implies both the soldier’s remains and the sacred essence of his sacrifice.
Rhetorical Question	“If I should die, think only this of me”	Posed indirectly, it draws the reader into the contemplation of the soldier’s thoughts and legacy.
Juxtaposition	“evil shed away” vs. “gentleness”	Contrasts negative and positive qualities to highlight the purification achieved through sacrifice.
Caesura	“If I should die, think only this of me:”	A pause in the line creates emphasis and introduces the central idea of the poem.
Repetition	“England”	The frequent mention reinforces the soldier’s love and devotion to his homeland.
Assonance	“blest by suns of home”	Repetition of vowel sounds adds musicality and emphasizes the warmth associated with home.
Elegiac Style	Overall theme	The poem adopts a reflective and mournful tone, characteristic of elegies, to honor the dead and their sacrifice.

Themes: “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Literary Theories and “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Literary Theory	Application to “The Soldier”	References from the Poem
Patriotic and Nationalistic Criticism	This theory focuses on the glorification of one’s country and how national identity is idealized. Brooke idealizes England as a nurturing motherland, portraying death in war as a noble sacrifice for the nation.	“That there’s some corner of a foreign field / That is for ever England” – highlights the eternal sanctity of England’s influence.
Romanticism	Romantic ideals of nature, emotion, and idealization are central to this poem. The poem glorifies England’s natural beauty and emphasizes the emotional connection to the homeland.	“Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home” – evokes an idealized vision of England’s nurturing environment.
Postcolonial Criticism	The poem can be examined for its implicit colonial undertones, where England’s influence is portrayed as everlasting and superior, even extending to foreign lands.	“A body of England’s, breathing English air” – suggests that the soldier’s presence sanctifies foreign lands with English essence.
Reader-Response Theory	This theory focuses on the reader’s interpretation of the text. Readers might view the poem as either a genuine patriotic tribute or as idealistic propaganda, depending on their perspective on war.	“If I should die, think only this of me” – invites readers to interpret the soldier’s death through a lens of personal and national sacrifice.

Critical Questions about “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Literary Works Similar to “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen
   While Brooke glorifies war and sacrifice, Owen critiques it, providing a contrasting perspective on the patriotic ideals seen in “The Soldier.” Both address themes of war and national identity but from vastly different emotional angles.
2. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
   Like “The Soldier,” this poem honors the dead soldiers of war, emphasizing remembrance and sacrifice. Both works use nature imagery to evoke themes of legacy and patriotism.
3. “To Lucasta, Going to the Wars” by Richard Lovelace
   This poem shares “The Soldier” ‘s idealized view of duty and sacrifice, portraying the soldier’s loyalty to his country as paramount, even above personal relationships.
4. “The Call” by Jessie Pope
   Both poems share a patriotic tone, encouraging individuals to see participation in war as a noble act, though Pope’s work explicitly urges enlistment, while Brooke reflects on the legacy of sacrifice.

Representative Quotations of “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“If I should die, think only this of me:”	Introduces the soldier’s contemplation of his own death, setting a reflective and patriotic tone.	Patriotic and Nationalistic Criticism – Frames death as an act of service and eternal devotion to the nation.
“That there’s some corner of a foreign field”	Envisions the soldier’s death abroad, symbolizing the extension of England’s presence and values worldwide.	Postcolonial Criticism – Suggests imperial undertones, as England is metaphorically eternalized in foreign lands.
“That is for ever England.”	Emphasizes the soldier’s belief in the lasting impact of his sacrifice for his homeland.	Romanticism – Idealizes the nation, presenting it as timeless and omnipresent.
“In that rich earth a richer dust concealed;”	Depicts the soldier’s remains as “richer” due to their connection to England, sanctifying the foreign soil.	Metaphysical Perspective – Links physical death to spiritual transcendence and eternal unity with England.
“A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware,”	Highlights the soldier’s identity as deeply rooted in his English heritage and upbringing.	Cultural Criticism – Explores how national identity shapes individual consciousness and values.
“Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam;”	Romanticizes the beauty and freedom England provided to its citizens.	Romanticism – Emphasizes the idyllic bond between the individual and nature.
“Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home.”	Evokes images of England’s pastoral beauty, symbolizing purity and divine favor.	Ecocriticism – Examines the spiritual and emotional significance of natural elements tied to England.
“And think, this heart, all evil shed away,”	Suggests moral and spiritual cleansing through the act of sacrifice.	Religious Perspective – Views sacrifice as a path to redemption and spiritual purity.
“A pulse in the eternal mind, no less”	Elevates the soldier’s contribution to an everlasting spiritual dimension.	Metaphysical Perspective – Reflects on the transcendence of individual existence through patriotic sacrifice.
“In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.”	Concludes with an idealized vision of eternal rest, equating England to a heavenly paradise.	Idealist Philosophy – Suggests a utopian afterlife rooted in national identity and peace.

Suggested Readings: “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke

1. Ervine, St. John G. “The Poetry of Rupert Brooke.” The North American Review, vol. 202, no. 718, 1915, pp. 432–40. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25108586. Accessed 26 Dec. 2024.
2. BRISTOW, JOSEPH. “RUPERT BROOKE’S POETIC DEATHS.” ELH, vol. 81, no. 2, 2014, pp. 663–92. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24475637. Accessed 26 Dec. 2024.
3. STALLWORTHY, JON. “Who Was Rupert Brooke?” Critical Survey, vol. 2, no. 2, 1990, pp. 185–93. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41555527. Accessed 26 Dec. 2024.
4. Miller, Alisa. “The War Sonnets.” Rupert Brooke in the First World War, Liverpool University Press, 2017, pp. 71–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ps3279.10. Accessed 26 Dec. 2024.
5. Brooke, Rupert. “The Soldier by Rupert Brooke.” Poetry Foundation.

Introduction: “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

“The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key first appeared in 1814 as part of a Baltimore newspaper publication, following the British bombardment of Fort McHenry during the War of 1812. Later, it was included in collections of patriotic poetry and songs that highlighted themes of resilience, national pride, and the triumph of liberty. Its main ideas revolve around the perseverance of the American spirit, symbolized by the sight of the flag surviving the battle’s destruction, inspiring hope and unity among citizens. Its vivid imagery, historical significance, and emotional appeal contributed to its enduring popularity as a poem included in textbooks, serving as a powerful educational tool to teach both the events of the War of 1812 and the ideals of patriotism.

Text: “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light,
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming?
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,
O’er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming;
And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;
O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines on the stream;
’Tis the star-spangled banner; O long may it wave
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave!

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion
A home and a country should leave us no more?
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave,
From the terror of flight and the gloom of the grave;
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave!

O! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved homes and the war’s desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land,
Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just.
And this be our motto— “In God is our trust;”
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave.

Annotations: “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

Line	Annotation
O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light,	Reflects the speaker’s anticipation and hope as the dawn reveals whether the American flag is still flying after the night’s battle.
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming?	Refers to the flag seen during the previous evening, symbolizing pride in the nation’s resilience and freedom.
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,	Describes the flag as a symbol of American endurance during the dangerous and intense battle.
O’er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming;	Highlights the flag’s visible and bold presence above the fortifications, showcasing its role as a beacon of hope.
And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air,	Captures the chaos and intensity of the battle, where the bright explosions serve as temporary light to confirm the flag’s presence.
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;	Asserts the symbolic survival of the flag, representing the survival of the nation and its ideals.
O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave	Expresses a moment of uncertainty and hope about the flag’s continued presence and what it symbolizes.
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?	Celebrates the ideals of liberty and bravery that define the American identity.
On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,	Introduces a somber, reflective tone, describing the obscured view of the battle’s aftermath as dawn breaks.
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes,	Suggests that the enemy forces have been subdued, emphasizing American victory.
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep,	Reflects on the flag’s movement in the wind, symbolizing resilience and steadfastness.
As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses?	Describes the flag as alternately visible and hidden, creating suspense about its survival.
Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam,	The flag is illuminated by sunlight, representing hope and triumph.
In full glory reflected now shines on the stream;	Portrays the flag’s majestic and victorious presence, mirrored in the water, symbolizing unity and strength.
’Tis the star-spangled banner; O long may it wave	Reaffirms the flag as a symbol of enduring freedom and national pride.
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave!	Reiterates the ideals of liberty and courage that the flag represents.
And where is that band who so vauntingly swore	Critiques the arrogance of the enemy forces who underestimated American resilience.
That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion	Depicts the devastation and chaos of war, emphasizing its impact on both sides.
A home and a country should leave us no more?	Expresses defiance against the enemy’s intention to destroy the American homeland.
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution.	Asserts that the sacrifices of American soldiers have cleansed the land of enemy occupation and dishonor.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave,	Condemns mercenaries and those fighting without freedom, contrasting with the ideals of liberty upheld by Americans.
From the terror of flight and the gloom of the grave;	Illustrates the grim fate of the defeated enemy, emphasizing the justice of the American cause.
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave	Celebrates the victorious survival of the flag, symbolizing national perseverance and pride.
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave!	Reaffirms the theme of liberty and courage as central to American identity.
O! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand	Declares the enduring resolve of free people to defend their homeland against any threat.
Between their loved homes and the war’s desolation!	Highlights the personal and collective stakes of war, portraying the defense of home as noble and just.
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land,	Praises divine intervention and the blessings of peace and victory for the nation.
Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation.	Acknowledges the role of divine providence in the survival and success of the United States.
Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just.	Reinforces the righteousness of the American cause and the necessity of defending it.
And this be our motto— “In God is our trust;”	Establishes faith in divine support as central to national identity and resilience.
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave	Foretells the continued endurance and prominence of the flag as a symbol of freedom and victory.
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave.	Concludes with a powerful reiteration of the themes of liberty and bravery that define the nation and its ideals.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“broad stripes and bright stars”	Repetition of the “b” sound enhances the musical quality of the poem.
Allusion	“In God is our trust”	Refers to the nation’s reliance on divine providence, alluding to the United States’ values.
Anaphora	“O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave”	Repetition of “O say” at the beginning of lines emphasizes the speaker’s wonder and pride.
Antithesis	“the terror of flight and the gloom of the grave”	Contrasting ideas of terror and gloom underscore the seriousness of war.
Apostrophe	“O say, can you see”	Directly addresses the audience or an absent entity, adding dramatic effect.
Assonance	“by the dawn’s early light”	Repetition of vowel sounds (e.g., “a” in “dawn” and “light”) creates a melodious effect.
Consonance	“gave proof through the night that our flag was still there”	Repetition of consonant sounds (e.g., “t” and “f”) adds rhythm.
Couplet	“Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just. / And this be our motto— ‘In God is our trust.'”	Two successive rhyming lines convey a complete thought.
Diction	“vauntingly swore”	The choice of formal and vivid language reflects the era and solemnity of the subject.
Enjambment	“Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, / O’er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming;”	Continuation of a sentence without a pause between lines maintains fluidity.
Epistrophe	“O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave”	Repetition of the same phrase at the end of multiple stanzas reinforces patriotism.
Hyperbole	“Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution”	Exaggeration emphasizes the cleansing nature of sacrifice.
Imagery	“the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air”	Vivid descriptions evoke a mental image of the battlefield.
Metaphor	“their foul footsteps’ pollution”	Compares the enemy’s impact to pollution, symbolizing moral and physical defilement.
Personification	“the breeze, o’er the towering steep, / As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses”	The breeze is given human-like actions, enhancing the setting.
Refrain	“O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave”	Repeated throughout the poem, it emphasizes the central theme of national pride.
Rhetorical Question	“O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light?”	Invites reflection and engages the reader in a shared sense of wonder and pride.
Symbolism	“the star-spangled banner”	The flag symbolizes national identity, freedom, and resilience.
Tone	Patriotic and reverent	The choice of words and themes creates a tone of deep national pride and reverence for freedom.
Visual Imagery	“Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam”	Paints a visual picture of the flag shining in the light, signifying hope and triumph.

Themes: “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

• Patriotism and National Pride: The poem is a profound expression of national pride, celebrating the resilience of the American spirit and the flag as a symbol of the country’s endurance. The repeated refrain, “O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave,” emphasizes the ideals of freedom and bravery that define the United States. Key’s vivid imagery, such as “Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,” portrays the flag as a steadfast emblem of the nation’s values, even amidst the chaos of war.
• Resilience in the Face of Adversity: The theme of resilience is central to the poem, as it reflects on the survival of the flag during a night of intense battle. The line, “Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there,” highlights the perseverance of the American people and their symbols under attack. Despite the “rocket’s red glare” and “bombs bursting in air,” the flag remains a beacon of hope and victory, symbolizing the nation’s ability to endure and overcome challenges.
• Sacrifice and Honor: Key acknowledges the sacrifices made by those who fought to defend their country, portraying their efforts as noble and transformative. The line, “Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution,” honors the fallen soldiers whose sacrifices cleansed the nation of its enemies’ moral and physical stains. This theme underscores the high cost of freedom and the enduring gratitude owed to those who secure it.
• Divine Providence and Justice: The poem reflects a strong belief in divine intervention and moral righteousness. Lines like “Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land, / Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation,” suggest that the nation’s survival and triumph are the result of divine favor. The motto, “In God is our trust,” reinforces the idea that faith in God is integral to the nation’s identity and success, aligning the cause of the American people with justice and divine will.

Literary Theories and “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

Literary Theory	Application to “The Star-Spangled Banner”	References from the Poem
Historical Criticism	Examines the poem within the context of the War of 1812, reflecting American resilience and patriotism.	“The rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air,” captures the battle scene during the British attack.
Formalism	Focuses on the poem’s structure, language, and use of literary devices like imagery, alliteration, and rhyme.	“O’er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming;” showcases vivid imagery and rhyme scheme.
Patriotic Criticism	Interprets the poem as a celebration of American ideals of freedom, bravery, and national unity.	“O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave” symbolizes the nation’s core values and pride.
Religious Criticism	Analyzes the invocation of divine power and the role of faith in the nation’s identity and perseverance.	“Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land, / Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation.” emphasizes divine intervention.

Critical Questions about “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

• How does “The Star-Spangled Banner” reflect the values of American patriotism?
• “The Star-Spangled Banner” embodies American patriotism by celebrating resilience, freedom, and national pride. The flag becomes a symbol of these values, as expressed in the line, “Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,” representing unity amidst adversity. The refrain, “O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave,” reiterates the nation’s commitment to liberty and courage. The poem’s depiction of the flag’s survival during the bombardment highlights the nation’s indomitable spirit.
• What role does imagery play in shaping the narrative of the poem?
• Imagery is central to the narrative, vividly portraying the battle and the enduring presence of the flag. Lines such as “the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air” capture the chaos and danger of the battlefield, immersing the reader in the scene. Similarly, “Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam” conveys a moment of hope and triumph, symbolized by the flag gleaming in the dawn. This use of sensory details strengthens the emotional impact and patriotic fervor of the poem.
• How does Key portray the idea of sacrifice in the poem?
• Key acknowledges sacrifice as integral to the nation’s survival and triumph. The line, “Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution,” honors the soldiers who gave their lives to protect the nation. By emphasizing the cleansing nature of their sacrifice, Key connects their efforts to the moral purification of the nation. This theme underscores the high cost of freedom and pays tribute to the bravery of those who fought for it.
• How does the poem incorporate religious undertones to reinforce its message?
• Religion is woven throughout the poem to underscore the belief in divine guidance and justice. In the line, “Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land, / Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation,” Key attributes the nation’s triumph and survival to divine intervention. The motto, “In God is our trust,” encapsulates the reliance on faith as a foundation for national identity, suggesting that the cause of liberty is aligned with divine will.

Literary Works Similar to “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

1. “America” by Samuel Francis Smith
   Similar in patriotic fervor, this poem celebrates the ideals of freedom, unity, and national pride, much like “The Star-Spangled Banner”.
2. “Paul Revere’s Ride” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
   This poem mirrors Key’s work in its recounting of a historic American event, emphasizing themes of bravery and resilience.
3. “The Concord Hymn” by Ralph Waldo Emerson
   Both works honor moments of American history, with Emerson’s poem commemorating the battles of the Revolutionary War and the enduring spirit of liberty.
4. “The New Colossus” by Emma Lazarus
   While focusing on immigration, this poem shares themes of freedom and the enduring ideals of the American identity, akin to Key’s patriotic expressions.
5. “O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt Whitman
   This poem, like Key’s, uses strong imagery and reverent tone to celebrate national heroes and mourn sacrifices made for freedom and unity.

Representative Quotations of “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light”	Reflects the speaker’s hope and anticipation as the night battle ends, awaiting proof of survival.	Formalism: Examines the lyrical structure and its role in engaging the reader emotionally.
“Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight”	Celebrates the resilience of the flag as a symbol of national endurance during conflict.	Patriotic Criticism: Highlights the flag as an emblem of unity and resilience.
“The rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air”	Depicts the chaos of the battlefield with vivid sensory imagery.	Imagery Analysis: Explores how vivid descriptions immerse readers in the scene.
“Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there”	Emphasizes the flag’s endurance as a symbol of hope and survival amid adversity.	Historical Criticism: Links to the historical significance of the War of 1812.
“O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave”	Refrain celebrating the ideals of freedom and courage central to American identity.	Patriotic Criticism: Examines the repeated refrain as a reinforcement of American values.
“Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land”	Credits divine providence for the nation’s triumph and survival.	Religious Criticism: Analyzes the invocation of faith and its role in national identity.
“Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution”	Honors the sacrifices of soldiers, framing their deaths as a moral cleansing.	Sacrifice Theory: Reflects on the moral implications of sacrifice in war.
“And this be our motto— ‘In God is our trust'”	Reinforces faith as a cornerstone of national identity and perseverance.	Religious Criticism: Highlights the integration of spiritual beliefs into national ideology.
“Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam”	Describes the flag illuminated by morning light, symbolizing renewed hope and triumph.	Symbolism: Explores the flag as a powerful emblem of resilience and renewal.
“Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation”	Acknowledges divine intervention as integral to the nation’s survival and identity.	Theological Criticism: Examines the role of divine influence in shaping collective national destiny.

Suggested Readings: “The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key

1. Siegel, Eli, and Edward Green. “‘The Star-Spangled Banner’ as a Poem.” The Choral Journal, vol. 55, no. 4, 2014, pp. 28–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24335768. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.
2. Key, Francis Scott, and A. F. Geyser. “The Star-Spangled Banner / Vexillum Stellatum.” The Classical Weekly, vol. 11, no. 24, 1918, pp. 191–191. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/4387656. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.
3. Delaplaine, Edward S. “Francis Scott Key and the National Anthem.” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C., vol. 46/47, 1944, pp. 13–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40067621. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.
4. “‘THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER.’” The Journal of Education, vol. 80, no. 10 (1996), 1914, pp. 269–269. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42754769. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.
5. KEY-SMITH, FRANCIS SCOTT. “The Story of the Star-Spangled Banner.” Current History (1916-1940), vol. 32, no. 2, 1930, pp. 267–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45333287. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.
6. Peter W. Dykema. “Our National Anthem.” Music Educators Journal, vol. 32, no. 1, 1945, pp. 18–18. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3386784. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.