“Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden: A Critical Analysis

“Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden first appeared in 1936 within The Ascent of F6, a satirical play co-written by Auden and Christopher Isherwood.

"Funeral Blues" by W.H. Auden: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden

“Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden first appeared in 1936 within The Ascent of F6, a satirical play co-written by Auden and Christopher Isherwood. Later, Auden included a revised, standalone version of the poem in his 1940 anthology, Another Time, where it became widely known. The poem captures the depth of grief and despair following a profound loss, using stark imagery and a rhythm that mirrors the somber tone of mourning. Auden’s portrayal of love and loss resonates deeply as he evokes the feeling of emptiness that follows a loved one’s death, universalizing personal sorrow through vivid expressions like “Stop all the clocks” and “He was my North, my South, my East and West.” The poem’s popularity largely stems from its accessibility, emotional intensity, and the power with which it captures the desolation that accompanies loss, appealing to readers experiencing their own grief and establishing its place as one of Auden’s most cherished works.

Text: “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden

Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone,
Prevent the dog from barking with a juicy bone,
Silence the pianos and with muffled drum
Bring out the coffin, let the mourners come.

Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead
Scribbling on the sky the message ‘He is Dead’.
Put crepe bows round the white necks of the public doves,
Let the traffic policemen wear black cotton gloves.

He was my North, my South, my East and West,
My working week and my Sunday rest,
My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song;
I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong.

The stars are not wanted now; put out every one,
Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun,
Pour away the ocean and sweep up the wood;
For nothing now can ever come to any good.

Annotations: “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
LineAnnotation
Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephoneThe speaker wants to halt time and silence communication, emphasizing the impact of grief by suspending ordinary functions and suggesting that life has stopped with the death.
Prevent the dog from barking with a juicy boneThe silencing of even natural sounds, like a dog barking, illustrates the desire for complete stillness, reflecting how grief often demands silence and reverence.
Silence the pianos and with muffled drumThe speaker calls for muted sounds, as in a funeral procession, creating an atmosphere of solemnity and respect, conveying a world that has become quieter in mourning.
Bring out the coffin, let the mourners comeA direct statement acknowledging the presence of death and the need for a funeral ritual, inviting people to grieve openly.
Let aeroplanes circle moaning overheadAuden uses airplanes as a modern symbol of grief, suggesting the death’s impact is so profound that even the skies should mourn.
Scribbling on the sky the message ‘He is Dead’The message in the sky emphasizes the vastness of the loss, conveying that everyone should be aware of this profound personal tragedy.
Put crepe bows round the white necks of the public dovesTraditionally, doves represent peace and innocence; here, dressing them in mourning attire symbolizes the universality and solemnity of the occasion.
Let the traffic policemen wear black cotton glovesExtending grief to even small details, Auden uses the imagery of uniformed policemen in mourning attire to show societal recognition of the loss.
He was my North, my South, my East and WestThe deceased was central to the speaker’s life, representing every direction and providing guidance; his absence leaves the speaker lost and directionless.
My working week and my Sunday restThe speaker emphasizes how all aspects of life—both mundane and restful—were shaped by the presence of the loved one, intensifying the sense of void.
My noon, my midnight, my talk, my songEvery hour and every form of expression was entwined with the loved one, showcasing the profound emotional and existential dependence the speaker had on them.
I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong.The speaker expresses a poignant realization that, despite his belief in love’s permanence, it has ultimately been cut short by death.
The stars are not wanted now; put out every oneThe speaker’s devastation is so complete that even natural wonders like stars seem irrelevant, emphasizing the totality of their loss and sorrow.
Pack up the moon and dismantle the sunThese exaggerated requests reflect the speaker’s despair and desire to remove all sources of light and joy, symbolizing an overwhelming hopelessness in the absence of the loved one.
Pour away the ocean and sweep up the woodThe speaker’s grief is so profound that even vast, timeless aspects of nature should be erased, as nothing holds value without the deceased.
For nothing now can ever come to any good.The final line reflects a state of despair and nihilism, suggesting that the speaker believes life has lost all meaning and potential for goodness with the loved one’s passing.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone”Repetition of initial consonant sounds in “clocks” and “cut” and “telephone,” creating a rhythmic flow that emphasizes the speaker’s desire to stop all activity.
Allusion“Let the traffic policemen wear black cotton gloves”Implies a traditional mourning practice, where people wear black attire or gloves to signify respect for the deceased, connecting the personal loss to a larger social observance.
Anaphora“My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song”Repetition of “my” at the beginning of each phrase emphasizes the intimacy and centrality of the loved one in every aspect of the speaker’s life.
Assonance“Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead”The repetition of vowel sounds, particularly “o” in “moaning” and “overhead,” contributes to the mournful tone and the drone-like sound of the airplanes.
Caesura“He was my North, my South, my East and West”A pause in the middle of the line created by the comma allows the reader to absorb the depth of loss, adding a reflective moment to the poem’s rhythm.
Consonance“Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun”Repetition of consonant sounds, particularly “n” and “m,” creates a somber and resonant sound that reinforces the poem’s mood of desolation.
Diction“Scribbling on the sky the message ‘He is Dead'”Word choices like “scribbling” give a casual tone to something profound, amplifying the tragedy and creating a sense of hopelessness and irreversibility.
ElegyEntire poem“Funeral Blues” is an elegy, a poem that laments the dead, reflecting sorrow and personal loss in a structured, contemplative manner.
Enjambment“Prevent the dog from barking with a juicy bone”The line flows without pause into the next, symbolizing an unstoppable flow of emotions and adding to the rhythm of the speaker’s continuous, uninterrupted grief.
Epistrophe“My North, my South, my East and West”Repetition of “my” emphasizes the personal relationship with the deceased, making the loss feel more intimate and specific.
Hyperbole“Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun”An exaggeration to convey the speaker’s intense sorrow, suggesting that even cosmic elements lose their purpose without the deceased, showing the vastness of the loss.
Imagery“Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone”Evocative images of stopping time and silencing communication represent the disorienting effect of grief, helping readers feel the speaker’s desire to halt life itself.
Irony“I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong”The expectation that love is eternal is subverted by death, which ends the relationship, capturing the painful irony of life’s impermanence and love’s fragility.
Juxtaposition“My working week and my Sunday rest”The contrast between “working week” and “Sunday rest” highlights the completeness of the relationship, as the deceased was present in both labor and relaxation.
Metaphor“He was my North, my South, my East and West”The speaker compares the deceased to cardinal directions, symbolizing guidance, stability, and purpose, indicating that the deceased was the center of the speaker’s life.
MoodEntire poemThe mood of the poem is somber, reflecting profound grief and despair, amplified by the language, imagery, and structure, inviting the reader to share in the speaker’s sorrow.
Personification“Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead”The airplanes are given the human quality of “moaning,” expressing grief and amplifying the sense of communal mourning and sorrow.
Repetition“Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone”Repeated command structure at the beginning of lines reinforces the speaker’s need to control and halt the world to honor the deceased, reflecting intense grief.
Simile“Silence the pianos and with muffled drum”Comparison to a “muffled drum” evokes the image of a funeral procession, giving readers a sensory experience of the quiet and solemn atmosphere.
Symbolism“Pour away the ocean and sweep up the wood”The ocean and wood represent vastness and continuity; discarding them symbolizes the speaker’s view that life and nature now feel meaningless without the loved one.
Themes: “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
  1. Grief and Loss: The poem is a profound expression of grief, with the speaker confronting the all-encompassing pain of losing a loved one. Auden’s language reflects the depth of this sorrow, beginning with the command, “Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone,” indicating a desire to halt time and silence the world in recognition of the death. The loss is so immense that even natural elements, like stars, the moon, and the sun, are deemed unnecessary, as the speaker suggests to “Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun.” This line conveys a sense that nothing can continue or hold meaning without the deceased, underscoring how grief can render everything else in life meaningless.
  2. Love and Dependency: The poem depicts a love so powerful that it becomes the central point of the speaker’s life, a guiding force and source of stability. The lines “He was my North, my South, my East and West” show that the loved one represented every direction and grounding aspect for the speaker, embodying their sense of purpose and identity. This dependency is further emphasized with “My working week and my Sunday rest,” where the speaker suggests that the loved one was present in every facet of life, both in times of labor and in moments of peace. The theme of love here is not just a romantic attachment but a deep reliance on the presence of another for a sense of completeness.
  3. Isolation and Despair: Auden conveys the speaker’s sense of isolation after their loss, an emotional state where the world feels hollow and detached. This isolation is portrayed through the silencing of daily life: “Prevent the dog from barking with a juicy bone, / Silence the pianos and with muffled drum.” These lines suggest a longing to quiet the world entirely, to create a space that mirrors the emptiness the speaker feels inside. As the poem progresses, the speaker’s despair grows to a desire to eliminate natural forces, such as the ocean and the forest (“Pour away the ocean and sweep up the wood”), implying that even nature is undeserving of continuity without the loved one’s presence.
  4. The Futility of Life: Auden’s speaker experiences an overwhelming sense of futility following the loved one’s death, captured in the closing line, “For nothing now can ever come to any good.” This line reflects the nihilistic view that life holds no further purpose or possibility for joy without the deceased. The repetition of lines calling for the dismantling of the natural world, including the stars, moon, and sun, further reinforces this feeling. These cosmic elements, symbols of constancy and continuity, are now futile in the speaker’s eyes, as their personal world has collapsed, rendering life’s usual cycles and beauties meaningless.
Literary Theories and “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
Literary TheoryExplanationReferences from the Poem
Psychoanalytic TheoryThis theory, based on Freud’s ideas, examines the subconscious mind and emotional responses. “Funeral Blues” explores the speaker’s intense grief and psychological despair.The speaker’s call to “Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone” suggests a desire to freeze time, reflecting a subconscious struggle to process and accept the death.
Existentialist TheoryExistentialism focuses on life’s meaning (or lack thereof) and individual experience, especially in the face of death. Auden’s poem contemplates the futility of existence after loss.“For nothing now can ever come to any good” captures existential despair, as the speaker questions the value and purpose of life without the deceased.
New CriticismNew Criticism emphasizes close reading of the text itself, examining structure, language, and literary devices without considering the author’s biography.Devices like alliteration (“Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone”) and metaphor (“He was my North, my South…”) contribute to the poem’s cohesive expression of grief.
Critical Questions about “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
  • How does Auden use everyday objects and imagery to convey the depth of the speaker’s grief?
  • In “Funeral Blues,” Auden’s references to mundane objects—like clocks, telephones, and pianos—serve to ground the poem in the familiar, making the grief feel more immediate and relatable. The opening line, “Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone,” uses everyday objects to symbolize the speaker’s need to pause life itself in response to loss. By incorporating accessible images, Auden emphasizes that grief is not an abstract or remote experience; it affects every element of daily life. This approach invites readers to reflect on how grief interrupts the ordinary and reshapes one’s perception of the world, as all familiar objects now serve as painful reminders of the loved one’s absence.
  • In what ways does the speaker’s relationship with the deceased seem to define their own identity?
  • The speaker’s identity appears to be deeply intertwined with the deceased, as they describe the loved one with phrases like, “He was my North, my South, my East and West.” This expression suggests that the speaker relied on the deceased for guidance, stability, and purpose. By defining the loved one as “my working week and my Sunday rest,” the speaker further indicates that this person was central to every aspect of their life. Auden’s portrayal of such dependency raises questions about how personal identity can become entwined with others, and the destabilizing impact of loss on one’s sense of self when such a defining relationship is gone.
  • What role does irony play in shaping the theme of impermanence in the poem?
  • Auden introduces irony in the line, “I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong,” highlighting the contrast between the speaker’s belief in the permanence of love and the harsh reality of death. This irony underscores the theme of impermanence, suggesting that even the most powerful human experiences are subject to change and loss. By acknowledging the failure of love’s endurance, Auden emphasizes life’s fragility and unpredictability, calling into question the certainty of human attachments. This line challenges readers to consider how life’s impermanence can upend our deepest beliefs, casting love itself as tragically finite.
  • How does Auden’s use of hyperbolic language enhance the emotional intensity of the poem?
  • Auden employs hyperbole, particularly in the final stanza, to convey the overwhelming nature of the speaker’s grief. Phrases like “Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun” and “Pour away the ocean and sweep up the wood” reflect a desire to eliminate natural elements, as if nothing meaningful remains in a world without the deceased. This exaggerated language heightens the emotional intensity, communicating that the speaker’s sorrow is so profound it transcends the bounds of reality. By suggesting that even the cosmic elements should cease to exist, Auden reveals the speaker’s perception of a universe stripped of value, where personal loss feels apocalyptic. This raises questions about how grief can alter one.
Literary Works Similar to “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
  1. “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas
    This poem, like “Funeral Blues,” confronts death, but instead of despair, it calls for defiance and resistance against the end of life.
  2. “Because I Could Not Stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson
    Dickinson’s poem personifies death as a calm journey, sharing with Auden’s work a meditative approach to mortality, though in a less despairing tone.
  3. “When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats
    This poem reflects on lost love and inevitable aging, resonating with Auden’s themes of love’s fragility and the sorrow that accompanies time’s passage.
  4. “In Memoriam A.H.H.” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
    Tennyson’s elegy mourns a close friend, expressing profound loss and sorrow, similar to the grief and emptiness conveyed in “Funeral Blues.”
  5. “One Art” by Elizabeth Bishop
    Bishop’s poem explores loss through a resigned, almost instructional tone, paralleling Auden’s portrayal of the futility of life after a significant loss.
Representative Quotations of “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone”Opening line sets the tone for the poem, signaling the desire to halt time and communication to reflect the speaker’s deep grief.Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the subconscious urge to freeze time to avoid processing loss.
“Silence the pianos and with muffled drum”Indicates a traditional funeral setting, asking for quiet and solemnity as an acknowledgment of death’s presence.Cultural Criticism: Examines how death rituals across cultures symbolize collective respect and shared grief.
“Bring out the coffin, let the mourners come”Calls for a formal ritual, inviting people to mourn and recognize the loss collectively.Ritual Theory: Highlights how rituals provide closure and structure to the grieving process.
“Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead”Modern imagery of airplanes mourning, suggesting that even technology reflects the speaker’s sorrow.Modernism: Uses contemporary imagery to convey timeless emotions, showing grief in a modern context.
“He was my North, my South, my East and West”Metaphorically describes the deceased as the speaker’s guiding compass, central to their existence.Psychoanalytic Theory: Represents the projection of self-identity and emotional dependency on a loved one.
“My working week and my Sunday rest”Indicates that the loved one was integral to every aspect of the speaker’s life, from work to rest.Existentialist Theory: Reflects the existential void left when one’s entire structure of meaning is lost.
“I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong.”A painful realization that love, while deeply felt, cannot outlast death.Romanticism: Explores the transient nature of love, challenging romantic ideals of eternal union.
“The stars are not wanted now; put out every one”Suggests a wish to eliminate beauty and continuity, as they no longer bring comfort or meaning.Nihilism: Represents the rejection of meaning or value in existence after a profound loss.
“Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun”Hyperbolic language showing the desire to eliminate all sources of light and joy, as grief darkens all aspects of life.Symbolism: The sun and moon symbolize life’s continuity, now irrelevant in the face of death.
“For nothing now can ever come to any good.”Final line of the poem captures the speaker’s complete sense of hopelessness and despair, believing life is now purposeless.Existentialism: Reflects the existential crisis of finding life meaningless without a loved one’s presence.
Suggested Readings: “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
  1. Abdoul, Bérangère, et al. “HISTOIRE D’UNE TRADUCTION: ‘FUNERAL BLUES’ DE W. H. AUDEN.” La Linguistique, vol. 37, no. 2, 2001, pp. 135–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41307181. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.
  2. Antzoulis, Vasiliki. “Writing to Heal, Understand, and Cope.” The English Journal, vol. 93, no. 2, 2003, pp. 49–52. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3650495. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.
  3. Condé, Maryse, and Richard Philcox. “Tales from the Heart.” Callaloo, vol. 24, no. 4, 2001, pp. 973–82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3300302. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.
  4. Eva-Wood, Amy L. “Does Feeling Come First? How Poetry Can Help Readers Broaden Their Understanding of Metacognition.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, vol. 51, no. 7, 2008, pp. 564–76. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40012382. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.

“Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan: A Critical Analysis

“Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan first appeared in 1948 in his collection titled Der Sand aus den Urnen (The Sand from the Urns), originally written in German.

"Fugue of Death" by Paul Celan: A Critical Analysis

Introduction: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

“Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan first appeared in 1948 in his collection titled Der Sand aus den Urnen (The Sand from the Urns), originally written in German. The poem was later included in Celan’s 1952 collection Mohn und Gedächtnis (Poppy and Memory), where it gained wider acclaim. It was subsequently translated into English by Michael Hamburger, among others, which helped bring Celan’s haunting imagery and powerful language to a broader audience. The poem is one of the most striking literary responses to the Holocaust, capturing the brutal horror of Nazi concentration camps with a surreal and repetitive musicality, reminiscent of a fugue’s layered structure. The imagery of “black milk” and contrasting visions of life and death evoke the inescapable, cyclical nature of suffering. Its stark and ambiguous language, combined with powerful metaphors, has contributed to its lasting popularity, resonating with readers as both a memorial and a harrowing testament to the atrocities of genocide.

Text: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown
we drink it at noon in the morning we drink it at night
we drink it and drink it
we dig a grave in the breezes there one lies unconfined
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents
    he writes
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden
    hair Margarete
he writes it ans steps out of doors and the stars are
    flashing he whistles his pack out
he whistles his Jews out in earth has them dig for a
    grave
he commands us strike up for the dance

Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night
we drink you in the morning at noon we drink you at
    sundown
we drink and we drink you
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents
    he writes
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair
    Margarete
your ashen hair Sulamith we dig a grave in the breezes
    there one lies unconfined

He calls out jab deeper into the earth you lot you
    others sing now and play
he grabs at the iron in his belt he waves it his
    eyes are blue
jab deeper you lot with your spades you others play
    on for the dance

Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night
we drink you at at noon in the morning we drink you
    at sundown
we drink and we drink you
a man lives in the house your golden hair Margarete
your ashen hair Sulamith he plays with the serpents
He calls out more sweetly play death death is a master
    from Germany
he calls out more darkly now stroke your strings then
    as smoke you will rise into air
then a grave you will have in the clouds there one
    lies unconfined

Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night
we drink you at noon death is a master from Germany
we drink you at sundown and in the morning we drink
    and we drink you
death is a master from Germany his eyes are blue
he strikes you with leaden bullets his aim is true
a man lives in the house your golden hair Margarete
he sets his pack on to us he grants us a grave in
    the air
He plays with the serpents and daydreams death is
    a master from Germany

your golden hair Margarete
your ashen hair Shulamith

Translated by Michael Hamburger

Annotations: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
LineAnnotation
Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown“Black milk” is an oxymoronic metaphor combining nourishment (milk) with death or despair (black), suggesting the unnatural cycle of suffering endured by Holocaust victims. The repeated drinking highlights both ritual and compulsion.
we drink it at noon in the morning we drink it at nightThe cyclical structure, echoing a fugue, reflects the endless torment and hopeless routine experienced by those in concentration camps. The repetition underscores the inescapability of suffering.
we drink it and drink itThis repetition emphasizes the forced, ongoing consumption of suffering and hopelessness. The continuous nature reinforces a sense of despair.
we dig a grave in the breezes there one lies unconfinedThe image of an open, unconfined grave in the wind is haunting; it signifies the absence of a proper burial, the disposability of lives, and the lack of peace even in death.
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpentsThe “man” symbolizes a Nazi officer or SS guard, who exhibits cruelty and detachment, treating deadly “serpents” (possibly representing poisonous or evil acts) as playthings. This depiction of him as a serpent-handler reflects a person accustomed to wielding harm without empathy.
he writesThis moment signifies the guard documenting, perhaps administering records of executions or selections in a dispassionate, bureaucratic way, showing a chilling regularity.
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair Margarete“Golden hair Margarete” refers to a symbol of the idealized German Aryan woman from Goethe’s Faust, juxtaposed against the brutality of the camp, embodying German culture twisted into barbarity.
he writes it and steps out of doors and the stars are flashing he whistles his pack outThe action of stepping outside into the “flashing stars” implies a connection to the broader world beyond the camp, indifferent to the horrors. “Pack” refers to dogs or guards summoned to oversee the prisoners, a show of dominance.
he whistles his Jews out in earth has them dig for a graveThe phrase “his Jews” reflects the possessive, dehumanizing attitude of the oppressors, forcing them to dig their own graves, adding cruelty to their final acts.
he commands us strike up for the danceThis ironic command to “dance” highlights the sadistic mockery involved in forcing prisoners to perform futile acts, reducing life to a grotesque performance overseen by death.
Black milk of daybreak we drink you at nightThe phrase returns, signaling the unrelenting cycle of anguish, as they drink again, suggesting both literal and metaphorical consumption of pain and submission to their fate.
we drink you in the morning at noon we drink you at sundownRepetition of “we drink” intensifies the inescapable suffering experienced at all times, underscoring the endless trauma faced by the victims.
we drink and we drink youContinuous, compulsive drinking reflects a forced and perpetual state of misery, exhaustion, and despair, embodying the repetitive horror.
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpentsAgain, the man “playing with serpents” denotes his cruelty, reinforcing his dehumanized, almost mythical evil that toys with others’ suffering.
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair MargareteThe invocation of Margarete, a literary figure, in contrast to “ashen hair Sulamith” below, evokes the symbolic difference between Aryan ideals and Jewish suffering, casting them as opposing symbols within German society and culture.
your ashen hair Sulamith we dig a grave in the breezes there one lies unconfinedSulamith (or Shulamith) is a reference to a Jewish woman, creating an image of her with ashen hair, a symbol of death and loss. “Unconfined grave” in “breezes” again implies the ephemeral, unmarked fate of victims.
He calls out jab deeper into the earth you lot you others sing now and playThe guard’s order to “jab deeper” as he commands “others” to sing adds a sense of mockery and sadistic detachment, making the grave-digging a grotesque ritual. The “dance” and “play” commands reveal the chilling disconnect from human empathy.
he grabs at the iron in his belt he waves it his eyes are blueThe “iron” and “blue eyes” invoke the stereotypical Nazi appearance, symbolizing power, violence, and a twisted Aryan ideal in action. The iron represents a weapon, signifying control over life and death.
jab deeper you lot with your spades you others play on for the danceThe repetition of “jab deeper” and “play for the dance” heightens the sense of forced ritual. The prisoners are dehumanized, reduced to instruments of their own death.
Black milk of daybreak we drink you at nightThe stanza’s recurring “black milk” refrain continues to emphasize the forced consumption of suffering and despair, signaling an unbreakable pattern of violence.
we drink you at noon in the morning we drink you at sundownThe daily ritualized suffering endures through the days, each part of the day marked by renewed horror and relentless cycles of despair.
we drink and we drink youThis line reinforces the unending anguish and the forced submission to their tormentors, as if life itself has become a poison they must continually ingest.
a man lives in the house your golden hair MargareteThe stanza revisits the man and Margarete, evoking once more the twisted appropriation of cultural beauty and heroism against the backdrop of horror, contrasting the German ideal with suffering.
your ashen hair Sulamith he plays with the serpentsThe juxtaposition of “golden” and “ashen” hair, symbolizing Margarete (German culture) and Sulamith (Jewish culture), brings out the violent rift imposed by Nazi ideology.
He calls out more sweetly play death death is a master from GermanyThe “sweet” command “play death” is profoundly ironic, as it humanizes death as a “master,” suggesting that death, even cruelty, is crafted to perfection under Nazi ideology.
he calls out more darkly now stroke your strings then as smoke you will rise into airThe “darkly” toned “stroke your strings” speaks to the prisoners’ own death march, as “smoke” implies their imminent transformation into ash in the crematorium, an image of profound horror.
then a grave you will have in the clouds there one lies unconfinedTheir “grave in the clouds” poignantly reflects the crematorium’s ash, as well as the denied rest and respect for their remains, floating free but unremembered, untethered.
Black milk of daybreak we drink you at nightReiteration of the “black milk” line underscores the ongoing, ritualistic suffering, turning each day into a haunting cycle of consumption and torment.
we drink you at noon death is a master from GermanyThis line further personifies “death as a master,” linking Germany’s ideals to the Holocaust’s orchestrated violence and revealing the organized cruelty inflicted.
we drink you at sundown and in the morning we drink and we drink youThe refrain emphasizes the endless repetition, with suffering embedded in every part of the day, trapping the victims in a continuous loop of torment.
death is a master from Germany his eyes are blueThe repetition of “blue eyes” casts death as Aryan, embodying the Nazi ideal and reflecting a cold, detached execution of the Holocaust. The “master” title is both a mockery and a tragic testament.
he strikes you with leaden bullets his aim is trueThe precision of “true aim” shows the efficiency and calculated nature of Nazi brutality, where each act of killing is deliberate and systematic.
a man lives in the house your golden hair MargareteThe reference to Margarete as part of German culture stands in stark contrast to the dehumanization and suffering symbolized by Sulamith, highlighting cultural irony.
he sets his pack on to us he grants us a grave in the air“Grave in the air” suggests the crematoria and dispersal of ashes, stripping the victims of physical burial, instead reduced to smoke, reinforcing the grim irony of their unmarked fate.
He plays with the serpents and daydreams death is a master from GermanyThis line underscores the detachment and almost whimsical cruelty of the perpetrator, treating death as an art form, revealing the horror of Nazi ideology.
your golden hair MargareteThe haunting final image of “golden hair Margarete” signifies the Nazi ideal still standing, unscathed by the horrors inflicted.
your ashen hair ShulamithSulamith’s ashen hair symbolizes the burnt remains of Jewish victims, contrasting German ideals with the enduring loss of Jewish culture and life. The imagery leaves the reader with the irreversible outcome of genocide.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
Literary/Poetic DeviceExample(s)Explanation
Anaphora“we drink it at…”The repetition of “we drink it” at various points emphasizes the relentless and ritualistic nature of suffering, evoking the despairing routine of camp life.
Antithesis“Golden hair Margarete / your ashen hair Sulamith”The contrast between “golden” (purity, beauty) and “ashen” (death, destruction) symbolizes the difference between German idealized culture and Jewish suffering, reflecting the racial ideology behind the Holocaust.
Apostrophe“Death is a master from Germany”Death is personified and directly addressed as a master from Germany, transforming it into a sentient being with authority over life, heightening the sense of horror by humanizing death in the Nazi role.
Assonance“We drink you at noon”The repetition of vowel sounds, like the “o” in “noon” and “you,” contributes to the poem’s rhythmic flow and adds a haunting, chant-like quality.
Connotation“serpents,” “golden hair,” “ashen hair”Words like “serpents” (evil or sin) and “golden hair” (purity, Aryan ideal) carry cultural and symbolic meaning, adding depth by reflecting the Nazi’s moral corruption and racial ideals.
Diction“Master,” “milk,” “serpents,” “grave in the air”Celan’s choice of words blends everyday and mythic imagery, using simple language to convey the enormity of suffering, while terms like “serpents” and “master” evoke religious and mythological references.
EnjambmentLines continue without pause, e.g., “we drink it at noon / in the morning”Enjambment creates a sense of urgency, mirroring the frantic, inescapable progression of time for Holocaust victims and the relentless continuation of violence.
Epistrophe“we drink you,” “your golden hair Margarete,” “your ashen hair Sulamith”The repetition at the ends of lines or clauses reinforces key images, embedding the contrasting figures of Margarete and Sulamith in the reader’s mind and emphasizing the repetition of suffering.
Euphony“Golden hair Margarete”The smooth, harmonious sound of “golden hair Margarete” contrasts with the brutal content, highlighting the irony of beauty intertwined with horror.
Irony“death is a master from Germany”The description of death as a “master” ironically praises death as a leader, reflecting the Nazi ideology that considered their genocidal acts disciplined and righteous.
Juxtaposition“Golden hair Margarete / your ashen hair Sulamith”Placing Margarete and Sulamith side by side intensifies their symbolic contrast, emphasizing the victims’ suffering against the backdrop of Nazi ideals.
Metaphor“Black milk of daybreak”The oxymoronic metaphor “black milk” combines nourishment with darkness, suggesting that even life-giving substances are poisoned under Nazi rule.
Oxymoron“Black milk”The juxtaposition of “black” and “milk” creates an oxymoron, representing a perversion of sustenance and reflecting the Holocaust’s twisted reality.
Paradox“We dig a grave in the breezes”A grave in “breezes” implies burial in the intangible or in air, symbolizing the disposability of human life and the lack of proper resting places for victims, a paradox of burial without rest.
Personification“Death is a master from Germany”Death is personified as a commanding figure, giving it agency and suggesting that death was systematically orchestrated and revered under Nazi control.
Refrain“Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night”This recurring line serves as a haunting refrain, mirroring the endless repetition of suffering and the prisoners’ helpless cycle in the camps.
Symbolism“Golden hair Margarete” and “ashen hair Sulamith”Margarete represents Aryan ideals, and Sulamith the Jewish victims, embodying the ideological split and Nazi-imposed racial division that led to the Holocaust.
Synecdoche“his pack”Referring to guards or attack dogs as “pack” reduces them to animalistic components, symbolizing dehumanized cruelty and group compliance within the Nazi regime.
ToneSomber, haunting, accusatoryThe poem’s tone is dark and mournful, with an accusatory edge that directs the reader to confront the horrors inflicted by Nazi ideology. The tone’s bitterness and sadness also amplify the tragedy and moral gravity of the Holocaust’s impact.
Themes: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
  1. The Horror and Mechanization of Death
    Celan’s “Fugue of Death” conveys the systematic, industrial nature of death during the Holocaust, portraying it as both a ritual and a bureaucratic process. The line, “death is a master from Germany,” personifies death as a disciplined leader, a masterful figure who orchestrates death with precision and pride, reflecting the Nazi regime’s horrifying efficiency. The repeated references to “jab deeper into the earth” and the routine consumption of “black milk” illustrate the dehumanizing repetition and normalization of brutality, where life and death have become mechanized within an inescapable cycle. The poem’s rhythm-like structure mirrors this machine-like precision, reinforcing the theme of industrialized horror.
  2. Loss of Identity and Humanity
    Throughout “Fugue of Death”, Celan depicts the loss of identity and humanity that victims of the Holocaust endured, reduced to mere objects within the oppressors’ cruelty. This is conveyed through phrases like “we dig a grave in the breezes,” suggesting a faceless, nameless mass destined to vanish without remembrance or proper burial. Contrasting the “golden hair Margarete” with “your ashen hair Sulamith,” Celan presents Jewish victims as dehumanized symbols rather than individuals, opposing them to idealized Aryan attributes. This juxtaposition strips the victims of personal identity, reducing them to markers of suffering, while German ideals remain untouched, highlighting a systematic erasure of Jewish humanity.
  3. Cultural Irony and Contradiction
    The poem juxtaposes German cultural ideals with the Nazi brutality of the Holocaust, creating a profound irony in the pairing of “Margarete” and “Sulamith.” Margarete, a symbol of Aryan purity and German culture, is invoked alongside Sulamith, a traditional figure in Jewish culture, representing an unbearable contradiction. While Germany held a proud intellectual and artistic heritage, these ideals coexisted with—or even justified—the atrocities inflicted on Jewish people. The line “he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair Margarete” underscores this bitter irony, suggesting that while one heritage is idealized and preserved, the other is systematically destroyed, exposing the hollow morality within this cultural contradiction.
  4. The Inescapability of Trauma and Memory
    “Fugue of Death” reflects the lasting impact of trauma, which cannot be confined or erased. The poem’s refrain of “we drink and we drink you” alludes to a haunting, continuous consumption of pain and loss that endures across time, as if these experiences cannot be forgotten. The circular, fugue-like structure of the poem mirrors the endless nature of this trauma, with the prisoners’ suffering seeming to continue indefinitely. This idea of cyclical, unending sorrow is embodied in phrases like “a grave in the air,” where death is not a release but a lingering state, suspended in memory and haunting those who survive. Celan’s poem, thus, is a testament to the inescapable weight of memory for Holocaust survivors and humanity alike.
Literary Theories and “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
Literary TheoryApplication to “Fugue of Death”References from the Poem
Post-StructuralismThis theory, which explores the instability of language and meaning, aligns with Celan’s complex imagery and paradoxes, suggesting that language struggles to fully capture the horrors of the Holocaust. The fragmented structure and the repeated phrases challenge fixed interpretations, inviting multiple readings.The recurring paradox in “black milk of daybreak” destabilizes traditional associations, as “milk” (typically pure) becomes dark and poisonous. The refrain “we drink and we drink you” further destabilizes meaning, transforming an act of nourishment into one of despair.
Trauma TheoryTrauma theory examines how extreme suffering affects individuals and their ability to articulate experiences. In Celan’s poem, fragmented images and repetitive language reflect the haunting, inescapable memory of the Holocaust. This disjointed style represents a struggle to make sense of trauma and is itself a form of testimony.The refrain “death is a master from Germany” illustrates how the trauma of genocide disrupts normalcy, turning death into an authority figure. Phrases like “your golden hair Margarete / your ashen hair Sulamith” suggest fractured identities, symbolizing the trauma of cultural loss.
Reader-Response TheoryReader-response theory posits that meaning arises through the reader’s interaction with the text. Fugue of Death relies heavily on the reader’s personal and cultural context, especially in recognizing references to Holocaust imagery. The poem’s unsettling tone and allusions evoke an emotional response that varies by reader background.The lines “he calls out jab deeper into the earth” and “a grave in the air” provoke visceral reactions, as readers confront the horrors of genocide. Similarly, “death is a master from Germany” invites readers to interpret the poem as both a historical witness and a moral indictment.
Critical Questions about “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
  • How does Celan use paradoxical imagery to convey the unnatural horror of the Holocaust?
  • Celan’s “Fugue of Death” is marked by paradoxical imagery, with phrases such as “black milk of daybreak” suggesting an unnatural reversal where sustenance is tainted and life-giving elements are instead poisonous. “Milk” typically symbolizes purity and nurturing, yet the color “black” corrupts this association, turning nourishment into despair. This paradox reflects the perversion of life and humanity under Nazi oppression, where ordinary acts (like drinking milk) become contaminated. Such contradictions also highlight the limitations of language to fully capture the Holocaust’s horror, as everyday images are forced to bear impossible meanings in the wake of extreme trauma.
  • What role does repetition play in conveying the psychological impact of the Holocaust on its victims?
  • The poem’s relentless repetition, particularly with the line “we drink and we drink you,” mirrors the cyclical, inescapable experience of suffering endured by Holocaust victims. This repetition embodies both the physical and psychological toll of relentless trauma, forcing readers to experience a fragment of the victims’ trapped existence. The structure itself reflects a musical fugue, where themes repeat and interweave, reinforcing a sense of oppressive inevitability. By immersing the reader in this cycle of repetition, Celan effectively conveys the psychological impact of trauma as an endless loop of anguish, memory, and loss.
  • How does Celan portray the dehumanizing effects of Nazi ideology through references to “Margarete” and “Sulamith”?
  • In “Fugue of Death,” Celan contrasts “your golden hair Margarete” with “your ashen hair Sulamith,” juxtaposing the German ideal of beauty (Margarete) with the suffering of Jewish identity (Sulamith). This contrast starkly reveals the dehumanizing effects of Nazi ideology, which revered Aryan qualities while systematically destroying Jewish culture and lives. Margarete represents Germany’s cultural heritage, while Sulamith’s “ashen hair” signifies death and mourning. This pairing intensifies the tragedy of the Holocaust, as one culture is idealized and preserved, while the other is condemned to ashes, illustrating the devastating consequences of racial ideology on human lives.
  • How does the personification of death as a “master from Germany” deepen the poem’s critique of systematic violence?
  • Celan’s choice in “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan to describe death as “a master from Germany” personifies it with both agency and nationality, transforming death into a calculated, almost revered figure that commands respect and obedience. This depiction critiques the systematic nature of Nazi violence, where killing became an organized, normalized process under the guise of state authority. Phrases like “he whistles his pack out” suggest death’s subordinates (guards or soldiers) act upon his orders, underscoring the orchestrated cruelty inflicted on Holocaust victims. By elevating death to a “master,” Celan highlights the chilling control of Nazi ideology over life, ultimately condemning the obedience and loyalty it demanded to carry out acts of unimaginable horror.
Literary Works Similar to “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
  1. “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas
    Though not explicitly about war, this poem’s fierce resistance against death and its repetitive structure echo Celan’s rhythmic struggle against the inescapable presence of death.
  2. “The Dead” by Siegfried Sassoon
    Sassoon’s poem on the senselessness of death in World War I parallels Celan’s themes of dehumanization, presenting death as an inevitable, haunting force amidst wartime suffering.
  3. “September Song” by Geoffrey Hill
    This poem mourns a child lost in the Holocaust, employing minimalist language and painful brevity akin to Celan’s to evoke the scale of loss and tragedy.
  4. “Yom Kippur 1984” by Adrienne Rich
    Rich’s work reflects on the collective memory of trauma, using fragmented images and historical allusions that resonate with Celan’s exploration of loss and memory in a broken world.
Representative Quotations of “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown”Repeated throughout the poem, this line introduces the paradox of “black milk,” symbolizing tainted nourishment.Post-Structuralism: The contradictory “black milk” disrupts meaning, suggesting language’s inadequacy to convey the Holocaust’s horror.
“we drink it and drink it”Describes the endless, forced consumption of suffering, symbolizing repetitive trauma.Trauma Theory: Repetition represents the cyclical, inescapable nature of trauma, reflecting the prisoners’ lack of agency in their suffering.
“A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents”Introduces the figure of a Nazi officer, dehumanized and associated with evil (“serpents”).Psychoanalytic Theory: The officer embodies the monstrous “Other,” whose cruelty reflects suppressed human capacity for dehumanization.
“he writes when dusk falls to Germany”The Nazi officer writes letters, symbolizing the ordinary routine within a context of horror.Historical Materialism: Shows the bureaucratic, organized nature of Nazi operations, where cruelty is enacted through everyday actions.
“your golden hair Margarete”Refers to Margarete, an idealized German figure from Goethe, contrasting with the poem’s Jewish victims.Cultural Criticism: Margarete symbolizes Aryan purity, juxtaposing German cultural ideals with the reality of genocide.
“your ashen hair Sulamith”Sulamith, with “ashen hair,” symbolizes Jewish suffering and mourning.Post-Colonial Theory: Represents the marginalized Other, oppressed and destroyed by the dominant Aryan ideal.
“death is a master from Germany”Death personified as an authoritarian figure, associating Nazi Germany with systematic death.Critical Theory: Highlights the destructive ideology of Nazism, turning death into a methodical process controlled by the state.
“he calls out jab deeper into the earth you lot”The guard orders prisoners to dig, dehumanizing them and mocking their impending death.Existentialism: Emphasizes the loss of human agency, reducing prisoners to objects within a nihilistic system.
“then as smoke you will rise into air”Depicts victims rising as smoke, a chilling reference to the crematoria.Ecocriticism: The transformation of human remains into air and ash reflects a violation of nature, as bodies are denied peaceful rest.
“a grave in the air”Suggests a surreal, unmarked burial without dignity, symbolizing the fate of Holocaust victims.Deconstruction: Challenges traditional concepts of burial, life, and death, symbolizing the fragmented reality of those lost in the Holocaust.
Suggested Readings: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan
  1. Weimar, Karl S. “Paul Celan’s ‘Todesfuge’: Translation and Interpretation.” PMLA, vol. 89, no. 1, 1974, pp. 85–96. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/461671. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  2. Glenn, Jerry. “Nightmares, Dreams and Intellectualization in the Poetry of Paul Celan.” World Literature Today, vol. 51, no. 4, 1977, pp. 522–25. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40131608. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  3. Friedlander, Albert Hoschander. “Paul Celan.” European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe, vol. 5, no. 1, 1970, pp. 19–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41442278. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  4. Exner, Richard. “Some Reflections on Holocaust and Post-Holocaust Writing.” World Literature Today, vol. 60, no. 3, 1986, pp. 402–06. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40142204. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.

“Follower” by Seamus Heaney: A Critical Analysis

“Follower” by Seamus Heaney first appeared in 1966 as part of his debut collection, Death of a Naturalist, which explores themes of rural life.

"Follower" by Seamus Heaney: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Follower” by Seamus Heaney

“Follower” by Seamus Heaney first appeared in 1966 as part of his debut collection, Death of a Naturalist, which explores themes of rural life, family, and identity with a profound attachment to the Irish landscape. In this poem, Heaney reflects on his relationship with his father, a skilled and powerful farmer, capturing the admiration, respect, and sense of legacy that defined their bond. Through vivid imagery and rhythmic language, Heaney contrasts the physical prowess of his father with his own childhood clumsiness and later role reversal, as he must ultimately support his aging parent. The poem resonates widely due to its universal themes of family, generational shifts, and the nostalgia for a simpler, labor-intensive life, establishing Heaney as a beloved voice in contemporary poetry.

Text: “Follower” by Seamus Heaney

My father worked with a horse-plough,

His shoulders globed like a full sail strung

Between the shafts and the furrow.

The horses strained at his clicking tongue.

An expert. He would set the wing

And fit the bright steel-pointed sock.

The sod rolled over without breaking.

At the headrig, with a single pluck

Of reins, the sweating team turned round

And back into the land. His eye

Narrowed and angled at the ground,

Mapping the furrow exactly.

I stumbled in his hobnailed wake,

Fell sometimes on the polished sod;

Sometimes he rode me on his back

Dipping and rising to his plod.

I wanted to grow up and plough,

To close one eye, stiffen my arm.

All I ever did was follow

In his broad shadow round the farm.

I was a nuisance, tripping, falling,

Yapping always. But today

It is my father who keeps stumbling

Behind me, and will not go away

Annotations: “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
LineAnnotation
“My father worked with a horse-plough,”Establishes the father’s occupation in traditional, rural farming; hints at the son’s admiration.
“His shoulders globed like a full sail strung”Simile comparing father’s broad shoulders to a sail, emphasizing his strength and suggesting the father as a guiding force.
“Between the shafts and the furrow.”Symbolizes the father’s skill and balance in guiding the plough, grounded between land and equipment.
“The horses strained at his clicking tongue.”Personification of horses responding to the father’s command; highlights his control and skill.
“An expert. He would set the wing”Direct statement of admiration; “expert” signals high regard and respect for his father’s craft.
“And fit the bright steel-pointed sock.”Describes the precise, almost reverent setting of the plough part, showing the father’s attention to detail.
“The sod rolled over without breaking.”Imagery of seamless work and perfection in farming, reflecting father’s mastery.
“At the headrig, with a single pluck”“Headrig” (edge of the field) shows technical knowledge; father’s deftness shown by “single pluck.”
“Of reins, the sweating team turned round”Father’s control over the team of horses, with “sweating” implying hard work and effort.
“And back into the land. His eye”Reiteration of dedication, with “back into the land” signifying continuity and skill.
“Narrowed and angled at the ground,”Father’s focused and analytical gaze, suggesting precision and expertise.
“Mapping the furrow exactly.”“Mapping” likens father to an artist or surveyor, highlighting his attention to detail.
“I stumbled in his hobnailed wake,”Contrast between son’s clumsiness and father’s skill; “hobnailed wake” suggests the lasting impact of father’s footsteps.
“Fell sometimes on the polished sod;”The son’s inexperience compared to father’s steadiness; “polished sod” emphasizes his efforts to follow.
“Sometimes he rode me on his back”Bond between father and son; father’s strength as he carries his child, reflecting affection.
“Dipping and rising to his plod.”Describes movement, suggesting both comfort and the labor of farming life.
“I wanted to grow up and plough,”Son’s desire to emulate father, showing admiration and desire for continuity of tradition.
“To close one eye, stiffen my arm.”Childlike imitation of father’s technique, emphasizing the child’s admiration and idealization of his father.
“All I ever did was follow”Expression of frustration or self-doubt; suggests inability to measure up.
“In his broad shadow round the farm.”“Broad shadow” indicates father’s influence and dominance, both physically and figuratively.
“I was a nuisance, tripping, falling,”Child’s self-perception as annoying or inadequate in the face of father’s skill.
“Yapping always. But today”Transition to present; past tense “yapping” highlights his former immaturity.
“It is my father who keeps stumbling”Reversal of roles; now the father is struggling, showing the effects of age and time.
“Behind me, and will not go away”Ambivalence: son feels burdened by his father’s dependence yet bound by familial duty.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“Full sail strung”Repetition of the “s” sound creates rhythm and emphasizes the father’s strength.
Ambiguity“And will not go away”Ambiguity here implies complex emotions toward the father’s presence in the speaker’s life.
Assonance“Plough,” “round,” “broad”Repeated “ou” sound mimics the steady movement of the plough.
Caesura“An expert. He would set the wing”The pause after “expert” adds emphasis to the father’s skill and knowledge.
Contrast“I stumbled…he rode me”Contrast between the son’s clumsiness and the father’s strength underlines the speaker’s awe.
Enjambment“The sod rolled over without breaking / At the headrig”Continuation of a sentence without a pause creates fluidity, mirroring the plough’s smooth motion.
Foreshadowing“I wanted to grow up and plough”Hints at the speaker’s later realization that he could not live up to his father’s legacy.
Hyperbole“His shoulders globed like a full sail”Exaggeration of the father’s strength; “globed” amplifies his physical power.
Imagery“The sweating team turned round”Vivid description appeals to the senses, depicting the hard labor and dedication of farm work.
Irony“But today / It is my father who keeps stumbling”Ironic role reversal: the strong father now stumbles, while the son leads.
Metaphor“His shoulders globed like a full sail”Father’s shoulders compared to a “sail,” symbolizing power and command over nature.
Onomatopoeia“Clicking tongue”“Clicking” mimics the sound used to command the horses, emphasizing control.
Oxymoron“Polished sod”“Polished” and “sod” juxtapose cleanliness with earthy labor, highlighting pride in the father’s work.
Personification“The horses strained”Assigning human qualities to the horses, suggesting their shared effort in labor.
Repetition“I stumbled…I tripped…falling”Repeated words emphasize the son’s clumsiness in contrast to the father’s expertise.
Rhyme SchemeABAB throughoutConsistent rhyme reflects stability and the traditional, steady life of farming.
Role Reversal“It is my father who keeps stumbling”Reversal of roles as the son becomes the caretaker, illustrating the passage of time.
Simile“His shoulders globed like a full sail”Compares the father’s shoulders to a sail, symbolizing strength and resilience.
Symbolism“Plough”Represents tradition, continuity, and the weight of familial expectations.
ToneRespectful yet reflectiveThe tone conveys admiration for the father but also introspection about the speaker’s own path.
Themes: “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
  1. Admiration and Legacy: Heaney’s speaker deeply admires his father’s skill and strength as a farmer, seeing him as an “expert” who could command both horses and land with precision. Phrases like “His shoulders globed like a full sail strung” illustrate the father’s impressive physique and his powerful presence in the son’s life. This admiration forms the backbone of the poem, as the son expresses his desire to emulate his father’s abilities: “I wanted to grow up and plough.” Heaney captures the awe that children often feel towards their parents, especially when they witness their parents’ mastery over a craft or skill.
  2. Generational Roles and Reversal: The poem underscores the inevitability of generational change and role reversal as time progresses. Initially, the son follows his father, stumbling and struggling to keep up with him—”I was a nuisance, tripping, falling”—and feeling dwarfed by the father’s presence. However, by the poem’s end, there is a stark shift, as the speaker notes, “But today / It is my father who keeps stumbling / Behind me, and will not go away.” This reversal emphasizes the passage of time and the son’s reluctant acceptance of his father’s aging and vulnerability.
  3. Identity and Self-Realization: As the speaker reflects on his younger self, he grapples with his own sense of identity and purpose. Although he once aspired to “grow up and plough” like his father, he comes to recognize that “All I ever did was follow.” This realization suggests a sense of inadequacy or failure to meet familial expectations, highlighting a universal struggle with self-identity and the burden of legacy. The speaker’s admission that he merely followed rather than led reveals his complex feelings about his place within his family and his own limitations.
  4. The Impact of Rural Life: Through its vivid imagery, Follower emphasizes the physicality and respect inherent in rural life and farming. The father’s labor is described in rich detail, from “the bright steel-pointed sock” of the plough to “the sod rolled over without breaking.” These images evoke a life deeply connected to the land, where precision and physical labor are valued. The poem reflects the pride and dignity associated with traditional farming, yet also suggests the hardship and responsibility that come with such a life, as seen in the father’s weathered movements and steadfastness in the field.
Literary Theories and “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
Literary TheoryExplanationReferences from Follower
Psychoanalytic TheoryThis theory focuses on the underlying emotions, desires, and unconscious conflicts of the speaker. In Follower, the speaker’s complex feelings about his father reveal admiration and perhaps some feelings of inadequacy. The repeated line “I wanted to grow up and plough” reflects the speaker’s desire to emulate his father but also his subconscious realization of falling short. The final lines, “It is my father who keeps stumbling / Behind me, and will not go away,” suggest unresolved feelings, possibly guilt or a sense of responsibility for his aging father.“I was a nuisance, tripping, falling” reflects a sense of inadequacy, while “It is my father who keeps stumbling” hints at the speaker’s conflicted emotions about the role reversal.
Marxist TheoryMarxist criticism examines class struggle, labor, and the social structure of a text. Follower reflects the dignity and value of manual labor, with the father’s mastery over the plough symbolizing the working class’s pride. Lines like “His shoulders globed like a full sail strung” and “Mapping the furrow exactly” portray the father’s strength and skill, embodying the physical demands and respect for labor that defines rural working-class life. The poem, therefore, highlights the social value placed on physical labor and family legacy in a working-class setting.The father’s labor is detailed in “His shoulders globed like a full sail strung,” showing physical prowess, and “Mapping the furrow exactly” demonstrates the precision in his work.
Postcolonial TheoryPostcolonial analysis often explores themes of identity, tradition, and cultural influence. As an Irish poet, Heaney frequently reflects on Irish rural life, which is linked to Ireland’s colonial history and cultural identity. Follower emphasizes traditional Irish farming practices, connecting the speaker to his heritage through the land and manual labor. This reverence for rural life can be seen as a reclamation of Irish identity, with phrases like “I stumbled in his hobnailed wake” and “the polished sod” depicting the connection to land and family. This lens shows how Heaney celebrates Irish identity against a backdrop of colonial history.“His shoulders globed like a full sail” may symbolize Irish resilience, and “Mapping the furrow exactly” illustrates a cultural connection to the land and tradition.
Critical Questions about “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
  • How does Heaney portray the theme of admiration and self-doubt in the relationship between father and son?
  • Heaney’s speaker holds deep admiration for his father’s physical strength and skill, referring to him as “An expert” and painting his figure as one of great power with shoulders “globed like a full sail strung.” This admiration, however, is juxtaposed with the speaker’s own feelings of inadequacy, as he describes himself as “a nuisance, tripping, falling.” Heaney’s choice of words highlights the awe he feels toward his father but also reveals the speaker’s internal struggle with self-doubt as he fails to match his father’s prowess, leaving him “in his broad shadow.”
  • What role does the concept of role reversal play in shaping the poem’s conclusion?
  • The ending of “Follower”presents a poignant shift in the father-son dynamic, as the speaker notes that “today / It is my father who keeps stumbling / Behind me, and will not go away.” This role reversal illustrates the passage of time and the inevitable process of aging, where the once-strong father now depends on the son. This transition reflects a shift in responsibility and evokes the speaker’s complex feelings, caught between nostalgia for his father’s former strength and the burden of his present dependence.
  • How does Heaney use imagery to emphasize the bond between the speaker and the land?
  • Through vivid descriptions of farming, Heaney connects the speaker’s identity to the Irish rural landscape. The father’s actions, like setting “the bright steel-pointed sock” and “mapping the furrow exactly,” show his deep bond with the land, a bond the son both admires and attempts to inherit. The speaker’s reference to the “polished sod” and the careful movements of the father’s “sweating team” convey a deep respect for the physical labor and cultural legacy rooted in the land, encapsulating the centrality of the rural landscape in their lives.
  • In what ways does the poem explore the limitations of familial expectations and legacy?
  • While the speaker’s desire to emulate his father’s farming skill is clear, he ultimately realizes that he “ever did was follow.” This acknowledgment reveals the struggle of living up to an idealized image and the weight of familial expectations, particularly in traditional rural life. The poem illustrates how the father’s legacy, though powerful, becomes a burden for the son, as he cannot achieve the same expertise. Heaney captures this emotional tension, reflecting the complex nature of heritage, where pride in one’s lineage coexists with feelings of inadequacy.
Literary Works Similar to “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
  1. “Digging” by Seamus Heaney
    Like Follower, this poem explores Heaney’s respect for his father’s and grandfather’s manual labor and his own struggle to carve a different path as a writer.
  2. “My Papa’s Waltz” by Theodore Roethke
    This poem shares Follower‘s exploration of father-son relationships, using vivid imagery and rhythm to depict a complex bond filled with admiration and tension.
  3. “Those Winter Sundays” by Robert Hayden
    Hayden’s poem, like Heaney’s, reflects on a father’s unspoken sacrifices and the speaker’s retrospective appreciation and guilt for his past misunderstandings of his father’s efforts.
  4. “The Gift” by Li-Young Lee
    This poem, similar to Follower, captures the intimacy of a father-son relationship, focusing on small moments that define the speaker’s respect and lasting influence from his father.
  5. Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
    Although Duffy’s poem is about a mother-daughter relationship, it shares Follower‘s themes of generational admiration, regret, and the shifting roles within familial bonds over time.
Representative Quotations of “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“My father worked with a horse-plough,”Introduces the father’s rural labor and the traditional, manual methods he uses, establishing his role as a skilled farmer.Marxist Theory: Highlights the working-class values and dignity of manual labor in rural life.
“His shoulders globed like a full sail strung”The son admires his father’s physical strength, using a simile to compare him to a powerful sail.Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the speaker’s idealized image of his father and his deep admiration.
“The horses strained at his clicking tongue.”Illustrates the father’s control and skill with animals, demonstrating his mastery over the task.Postcolonial Theory: Symbolizes the connection between Irish rural life and a cultural identity linked to the land.
“An expert. He would set the wing”Declares the father’s expertise, underscoring the son’s admiration and sense of awe.Psychoanalytic Theory: Reveals the son’s view of his father as a figure of authority and skill.
“The sod rolled over without breaking.”The father’s seamless work with the plough highlights his proficiency and careful technique.Ecocriticism: Suggests harmony with nature, portraying farming as an art form in tune with the land.
“I stumbled in his hobnailed wake”Conveys the son’s clumsiness and difficulty in keeping up with his father’s powerful footsteps.Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the son’s feelings of inadequacy and desire to emulate his father.
“I wanted to grow up and plough”Expresses the son’s childhood aspiration to become like his father and share in his work.Identity Theory: Highlights the son’s struggle with self-identity and his desire to belong to his father’s world.
“All I ever did was follow / In his broad shadow”The son realizes he was always behind his father, unable to achieve the same greatness.Existentialism: Emphasizes the speaker’s awareness of his limitations and search for individual purpose.
“But today / It is my father who keeps stumbling”Marks a poignant role reversal, as the father now follows the son, reflecting his aging.Feminist/Gender Theory: Demonstrates changing family roles and the son’s new role as the caretaker.
“And will not go away.”The poem ends with a complex, lingering image of the father’s presence in the son’s life, perhaps as a memory or burden.Psychoanalytic Theory: Suggests unresolved emotions, as the father remains an enduring influence on the son’s psyche.
Suggested Readings: “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
  1. McDONALD, PETER. “Heaney’s Implications.” The Irish Review (1986-), no. 49/50, 2014, pp. 71–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44473881. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  2. O’Grady, Thomas B. “‘At a Potato Digging’: Seamus Heaney’s Great Hunger.” The Canadian Journal of Irish Studies, vol. 16, no. 1, 1990, pp. 48–58. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25512808. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  3. Russell, Richard Rankin. “Prose, Drama, and Translations.” Seamus Heaney: An Introduction, Edinburgh University Press, 2016, pp. 233–59. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g04zp7.11. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  4. Boly, John. “Following Seamus Heaney’s ‘Follower’: Toward a Performative Criticism.” Twentieth Century Literature, vol. 46, no. 3, 2000, pp. 269–84. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/441938. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.

“Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy: A Critical Analysis

“Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy, first appeared in her 1993 poetry collection Mean Time, explores themes of memory, maternal love, identity, and the passage of time.

"Before You Were Mine" by Carol Ann Duffy: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy

“Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy, first appeared in her 1993 poetry collection Mean Time, explores themes of memory, maternal love, identity, and the passage of time. Through reflective and sometimes bittersweet language, Duffy imagines her mother’s life before she was born, portraying her as a carefree, youthful woman. The poem’s tone is tender yet possessive, hinting at the complexities in parent-child relationships, especially in how children view their parents’ past lives. The vivid imagery and personal voice contribute to the poem’s popularity, as it resonates with readers by illuminating universal experiences of nostalgia, familial bonds, and the inevitable changes wrought by time. This balance of intimacy and universality makes “Before You Were Mine” a celebrated piece in contemporary poetry.

Text: “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy

I’m ten years away from the corner you laugh on

with your pals, Maggie McGeeney and Jean Duff.

The three of you bend from the waist, holding

each other, or your knees, and shriek at the pavement.

Your polka-dot dress blows round your legs. Marilyn.

I’m not here yet. The thought of me doesn’t occur

in the ballroom with the thousand eyes, the fizzy, movie tomorrows

the right walk home could bring. I knew you would dance

like that. Before you were mine, your Ma stands at the close

with a hiding for the late one. You reckon it’s worth it.

The decade ahead of my loud, possessive yell was the best one, eh?

I remember my hands in those high-heeled red shoes, relics,

and now your ghost clatters toward me over George Square

till I see you, clear as scent, under the tree,

with its lights, and whose small bites on your neck, sweetheart?

Cha cha cha! You’d teach me the steps on the way home from Mass, stamping stars from the wrong pavement. Even then

I wanted the bold girl winking in Portobello, somewhere

in Scotland, before I was born. That glamorous love lasts

where you sparkle and waltz and laugh before you were mine.

Annotations: “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
LineAnnotation
I’m ten years away from the corner you laugh onThe speaker, Duffy as a child, reflects on her mother’s life before her birth. She imagines herself observing from a temporal distance.
with your pals, Maggie McGeeney and Jean Duff.Duffy mentions her mother’s friends, creating a sense of familiarity and emphasizing her mother’s social life and individuality before motherhood.
The three of you bend from the waist, holdingThe image captures youthful joy and a carefree moment among friends. It suggests unity and support in friendship.
each other, or your knees, and shriek at the pavement.“Shriek” implies laughter and freedom, a spontaneous and joyous moment. The focus on “pavement” hints at the ordinary setting elevated by happiness.
Your polka-dot dress blows round your legs. Marilyn.The polka-dot dress and “Marilyn” evoke Marilyn Monroe, highlighting the glamour of the mother’s past self, perhaps an icon the speaker admires.
I’m not here yet. The thought of me doesn’t occurThe speaker acknowledges her absence, focusing solely on her mother’s life before she was born.
in the ballroom with the thousand eyes, the fizzy, movie tomorrowsDescriptions of “ballroom” and “thousand eyes” create a glamorous, dreamlike scene; “movie tomorrows” suggest a sense of possibility and excitement.
the right walk home could bring. I knew you would danceThere’s a sense of destiny in how the speaker “knew” this side of her mother, as though their connection transcends time.
like that. Before you were mine, your Ma stands at the closeThe speaker imagines her mother’s life under her own mother’s watchful eye, suggesting generational cycles of maternal care and discipline.
with a hiding for the late one. You reckon it’s worth it.Her mother faces potential punishment for staying out late but values her freedom and enjoyment, hinting at a rebellious or carefree spirit.
The decade ahead of my loud, possessive yell was the best one, eh?The speaker reflects on how her mother’s life might have changed after her birth, implying her mother’s youthful freedom was her happiest period.
I remember my hands in those high-heeled red shoes, relics,Childhood memory of playing with her mother’s shoes, symbolizing a tangible link to her mother’s past self. “Relics” suggests reverence for this past.
and now your ghost clatters toward me over George SquareThe mother’s former self is almost ghostly, coming to the speaker from the past, evoking a haunting, nostalgic feel in a familiar place.
till I see you, clear as scent, under the tree,Memory becomes vivid and sensory, “clear as scent” implying that the past self is close, almost tangible.
with its lights, and whose small bites on your neck, sweetheart?Suggests intimacy and romance in her mother’s youth, the speaker wonders about this past lover.
Cha cha cha! You’d teach me the steps on the way home from Mass, stamping stars from the wrong pavement.The dance represents the continuity between mother and daughter, passing on joy and traditions. “Wrong pavement” might imply independence, freedom from norms.
Even then I wanted the bold girl winking in Portobello, somewhereThe speaker desires to connect with her mother’s bold, youthful self, admiring her rebelliousness.
in Scotland, before I was born. That glamorous love lasts“Glamorous love” may refer to the mother’s past life, full of beauty and excitement, which endures in the speaker’s memory.
where you sparkle and waltz and laugh before you were mine.The poem concludes with a nostalgic celebration of the mother’s life before becoming a mother, cherishing her independence and joy.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“polka-dot dress”Repetition of consonant sounds, “d,” creating rhythm and emphasizing imagery.
Anaphora“I am not” (repeated phrase)Repeated at the beginning of lines or stanzas, it stresses the theme of time and possession.
Assonance“your Ma stands at the close with a hiding for the late one”Repetition of vowel sounds, “a” and “o,” creating a melodious effect that enhances the emotional tone.
Caesura“Marilyn.”The period after “Marilyn” breaks the line abruptly, adding emphasis to the comparison with Monroe, a symbol of glamour.
Colloquial Language“reckon it’s worth it”The use of informal language brings a conversational, relatable tone, reflecting everyday speech.
Direct Address“You”The poem addresses the mother directly, creating intimacy and immediacy.
Enjambment“The three of you bend from the waist, holding / each other”Continuation of lines without a pause reflects the flowing nature of memories and connection.
FlashbackEntire poem, describing mother’s pastThe poem itself is a flashback, as the speaker imagines her mother’s life before she was born.
Hyperbole“the ballroom with the thousand eyes”Exaggeration to emphasize the intensity of the mother’s experiences and her allure in her youth.
Imagery“Your polka-dot dress blows round your legs”Vivid description evokes a clear image, allowing readers to visualize the mother’s youthful joy and freedom.
Juxtaposition“ghost clatters toward me over George Square”Juxtaposes the liveliness of the mother’s ghostly figure against the present, highlighting the contrast between past and present.
Metaphor“Your ghost clatters toward me”The “ghost” metaphor represents the mother’s past self, suggesting nostalgia and the lingering presence of memories.
Metonymy“the corner you laugh on”The “corner” represents the mother’s youthful social life and independence, symbolizing freedom and joy.
Onomatopoeia“Cha cha cha!”The words mimic the sounds of dancing, bringing energy to the poem and a sense of lively movement.
Personification“stamping stars from the wrong pavement”The stars seem to come alive as she stamps on the pavement, adding a magical, dreamlike quality to the memory.
Refrain“Before you were mine”Repeated at various points, it reinforces the theme of time, ownership, and reflection on the mother’s past.
Simile“clear as scent”Comparison suggests how memories of the mother are vivid yet ephemeral, akin to a lingering scent.
Symbolism“high-heeled red shoes”The shoes symbolize the mother’s youth and glamour, linking the past with the present as the speaker plays with them.
ToneNostalgic and reflectiveThe tone reflects admiration, wistfulness, and a possessive fondness for the mother’s past self.
Visual Imagery“polka-dot dress blows round your legs. Marilyn.”Evokes strong visuals of style and glamour, symbolizing the mother’s carefree youth and appeal.
Themes: “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
  1. Nostalgia and Memory: Duffy’s poem is deeply rooted in nostalgia, as the speaker reminisces about her mother’s life before she was born. This nostalgia is illustrated by the vivid imagery in lines like, “Your polka-dot dress blows round your legs. Marilyn,” where the speaker imagines her mother’s youth as glamorous and carefree, akin to the style and allure of Marilyn Monroe. The reference to “George Square” and the “corner you laugh on” also evokes specific memories tied to places, grounding her mother’s youth in real locations that add depth to the speaker’s sense of loss and yearning for a time she never personally experienced.
  2. The Passage of Time: Duffy emphasizes the inevitable passage of time, especially as it affects personal identity and family dynamics. The speaker reflects on how her mother’s life has transformed from a youthful, carefree existence to one shaped by the responsibilities of motherhood. Lines like, “The decade ahead of my loud, possessive yell was the best one, eh?” suggest that the speaker views her own birth as a turning point in her mother’s life, marking the end of her mother’s freedom. This acknowledgment of time’s effects on identity and lifestyle highlights the sacrifices that often accompany parenthood.
  3. Maternal Love and Bonding: The poem is infused with a sense of love and admiration for the speaker’s mother, mixed with an intimate possessiveness that underpins their relationship. Duffy writes, “Even then I wanted the bold girl winking in Portobello,” showing the speaker’s longing for her mother’s past self and hinting at a strong, almost childlike desire to know her mother in all facets of her identity. The refrain “Before you were mine” serves as a declaration of the speaker’s strong bond with her mother, suggesting that, despite the changes brought by time and family, the love and connection between mother and child remain.
  4. Identity and Transformation: Duffy explores the evolution of personal identity, particularly how it changes with age and responsibility. The speaker acknowledges her mother’s youthful, daring persona in lines like, “You reckon it’s worth it,” as her mother disregards potential punishment for staying out late. This carefree spirit contrasts sharply with the later image of the mother as a figure bound to her role in the family. The “high-heeled red shoes” serve as symbols of her mother’s former self, which the speaker reveres as relics of a past life. Through this juxtaposition, Duffy poignantly captures how motherhood often reshapes a person’s identity, making past selves into memories rather than present realities.
Literary Theories and “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
Literary TheoryExplanation and ApplicationReferences from the Poem
Feminist TheoryFeminist theory examines how gender roles and societal expectations influence individual identities. In “Before You Were Mine,” Duffy explores the mother’s life before motherhood, capturing her carefree, independent spirit that contrasts with the expected sacrifices and identity shifts that come with motherhood. The poem highlights the tension between personal freedom and societal expectations for women as caregivers, reflecting on how motherhood can obscure aspects of a woman’s former self.“The decade ahead of my loud, possessive yell was the best one, eh?” alludes to the freedom the mother had before the demands of motherhood changed her life, underscoring themes of feminine sacrifice and lost identity.
Psychoanalytic TheoryThrough the lens of psychoanalytic theory, particularly concepts of the subconscious and family dynamics, the speaker’s possessive tone reveals a latent desire to connect with her mother’s former, youthful self. The repeated phrase “Before you were mine” hints at an Oedipal-like desire to “own” her mother’s past self, expressing a subconscious yearning for exclusivity in their bond. The speaker’s longing for the mother’s pre-maternal identity reveals complex feelings of admiration, jealousy, and identification.The line “I remember my hands in those high-heeled red shoes, relics,” implies a connection between the speaker and her mother’s former self, with the shoes symbolizing her mother’s pre-maternal identity that the speaker wishes to understand or emulate.
New HistoricismNew Historicism explores literature within its social and historical contexts. Duffy’s poem, set against the backdrop of post-war Britain, suggests societal constraints on women, particularly regarding expected behaviors for young women and mothers. The poem’s references to a youthful, liberated life before motherhood evoke a time when women were beginning to challenge traditional roles, providing insight into the cultural pressures on women in the mid-20th century.“Cha cha cha! You’d teach me the steps on the way home from Mass,” reflects a blend of traditional and modern elements, where the mother’s “cha cha cha” suggests a lively independence that contrasts with societal expectations from a religiously conservative period.
Critical Questions about “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
  • How does Duffy portray the mother’s identity before and after motherhood?
  • Duffy’s poem deeply reflects on how motherhood alters a woman’s identity, suggesting a duality between the mother’s youthful past and her present as a parent. The speaker idealizes her mother’s carefree self, seen in the vivid image of her “polka-dot dress” blowing around her legs, associating her with the glamour of Marilyn Monroe. This nostalgic portrayal emphasizes the freedom her mother enjoyed before the “loud, possessive yell” of her child shifted her life. The child’s perspective introduces the notion that motherhood transforms the mother’s identity, prompting readers to consider the sacrifices women make and how past selves are often reimagined through the eyes of their children.
  • What role does memory play in shaping the speaker’s understanding of her mother?
  • Memory serves as a bridge that connects the speaker to her mother’s past, a time before she was born. The speaker pieces together an imagined version of her mother’s life based on fragments and observations, which enhances her understanding of her mother as an individual beyond her parental role. Lines like “I remember my hands in those high-heeled red shoes, relics,” suggest a tactile, almost spiritual link to her mother’s past self. These memories and symbols become sacred artifacts through which the speaker constructs a version of her mother that is more relatable and cherished, highlighting the role of memory in shaping family bonds.
  • How does Duffy’s use of possessive language influence the tone and themes of the poem?
  • The possessive tone in “Before You Were Mine” creates an intimate yet complex dynamic between the speaker and her mother. The repeated phrase “before you were mine” encapsulates the child’s desire to lay claim to her mother’s past, suggesting a sense of ownership over her identity that predates their relationship. This possessive language underlines the speaker’s desire to understand her mother fully and implies a subtle jealousy toward her mother’s life and relationships before motherhood. The use of “mine” also reflects the transformative bond of parenthood, suggesting that children, in a way, claim their parents’ lives and identities, altering them forever.
  • In what ways does Duffy address generational differences and societal expectations in the poem?
  • Duffy subtly addresses generational shifts and societal expectations of women through her mother’s youth, a time marked by freedom and rebellion. The mother’s spirited actions, like “shriek[ing] at the pavement” with her friends and disregarding her own mother’s disapproval (“Your Ma stands at the close with a hiding for the late one”), reflect a life of risk and excitement in a conservative era. The speaker admires this boldness, possibly recognizing how societal expectations for women’s behavior differ across generations. Through this juxtaposition, Duffy critiques the pressures imposed on women, highlighting the generational shift toward a more constrained life as her mother transitions into motherhood.
Literary Works Similar to “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
  1. “Mother, Any Distance” by Simon Armitage
    This poem explores the bond between mother and child, delving into themes of attachment and independence, similar to Duffy’s exploration of maternal relationships and change over time.
  2. “Follower” by Seamus Heaney
    Heaney’s poem reflects on a child’s admiration for a parent’s past, mirroring Duffy’s reflection on her mother’s life before she became a parent.
  3. “Eden Rock” by Charles Causley
    Causley’s poem nostalgically recreates a family scene, blending memory and idealization of parents in a way that echoes Duffy’s admiration and imaginative connection to her mother’s past.
  4. “The Railway Children” by Seamus Heaney
    Heaney’s piece looks at childhood and memory, with themes of familial bonds and the power of youthful perceptions, aligning with Duffy’s reflection on her mother’s identity before she was born.
  5. “Before She Died” by Karen Chase
    This poem examines the lingering influence of a parent’s past life on a child, focusing on memory and loss, akin to Duffy’s nostalgic portrayal of her mother’s life before motherhood.
Representative Quotations of “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“I’m ten years away from the corner you laugh on”The speaker imagines a scene from her mother’s life a decade before her birth, setting the reflective, nostalgic tone of the poem.Psychoanalytic Theory: The speaker’s attempt to understand her mother’s past shows a desire for psychological connection, exploring the identity of her mother separate from motherhood.
“Your polka-dot dress blows round your legs. Marilyn.”Duffy likens her mother to Marilyn Monroe, using glamour as a symbol of youthful freedom.Feminist Theory: The comparison highlights the mother’s independence and individuality, challenging the traditional image of a mother bound solely to domestic roles.
“I’m not here yet. The thought of me doesn’t occur”The speaker acknowledges her absence, emphasizing the mother’s life untouched by the responsibilities of parenting.New Historicism: Reflects post-war societal norms, where young women were beginning to explore identities outside of marriage and motherhood.
“Before you were mine, your Ma stands at the close with a hiding for the late one.”The mother’s youth includes a rebellious spirit, seen as she risks punishment for staying out late.Psychoanalytic Theory: The reference to the mother’s own mother suggests a cycle of familial expectations and the formation of identity through generational dynamics.
“The decade ahead of my loud, possessive yell was the best one, eh?”The speaker humorously suggests that her birth changed her mother’s life, reflecting a possessive tone.Psychoanalytic Theory: The speaker’s possessiveness over her mother’s past implies an Oedipal desire for exclusivity, revealing latent feelings of jealousy toward her mother’s former independence.
“I remember my hands in those high-heeled red shoes, relics,”The speaker recalls playing with her mother’s shoes, which symbolize her mother’s former self and life.Feminist Theory: The shoes are artifacts of the mother’s glamorous past, representing lost individuality and the sacrifices of motherhood.
“and now your ghost clatters toward me over George Square”The mother’s past self is depicted as a ghostly presence, haunting the speaker with memories.Psychoanalytic Theory: This haunting image suggests the unresolved desire of the speaker to fully understand her mother’s complex identity.
“Cha cha cha! You’d teach me the steps on the way home from Mass, stamping stars from the wrong pavement.”The speaker recalls her mother teaching her dance steps, blending sacred and secular imagery.New Historicism: The contrast between dancing and religious norms reflects the cultural expectations and potential for rebellion in post-war Britain.
“Even then I wanted the bold girl winking in Portobello”The speaker longs to know her mother’s confident, youthful self, before motherhood.Feminist Theory: This line showcases the speaker’s admiration for her mother’s rebellious spirit, challenging gender norms around female propriety and independence.
“That glamorous love lasts where you sparkle and waltz and laugh before you were mine.”The speaker’s final reflection on her mother’s past encapsulates admiration and nostalgia.Psychoanalytic Theory: The idealized image of the mother embodies the speaker’s deep-seated attachment and desire to “possess” her mother’s pre-maternal identity, making it part of her own understanding of family.
Suggested Readings: “Before You Were Mine” by Carol Ann Duffy
  1. DIMARCO, DANETTE. “Exposing Nude Art: Carol Ann Duffy’s Response to Robert Browning.” Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal, vol. 31, no. 3, 1998, pp. 25–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44029809. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.
  2. POPP, VALERIE L. “Improper Identification Required: Passports, Papers, and Identity Formation in Jackie Kay’s ‘The Adoption Papers.'” Contemporary Literature, vol. 53, no. 2, 2012, pp. 292–318. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23256720. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.
  3. Duffy, Carol Ann. “Poet on Poet: Carol Ann Duffy on Henry Graham.” Ambit, no. 88, 1982, pp. 44–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44339000. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.
  4. Scannell, Vernon. Ambit, no. 159, 2000, pp. 69–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44342000. Accessed 31 Oct. 2024.

“Father” by Edgar Albert Guest: Critical Analysis

“Father” by Edgar Albert Guest, first appeared in his 1916 poetry collection A Heap o’ Livin’, like much of Guest’s work, emphasizes themes of family, responsibility, and the quiet heroism of ordinary life.

"Father" by Edgar Albert Guestvx: Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest

“Father” by Edgar Albert Guest, first appeared in his 1916 poetry collection A Heap o’ Livin’, like much of Guest’s work, emphasizes themes of family, responsibility, and the quiet heroism of ordinary life. In “Father,” Guest paints a vivid portrait of a hardworking, self-sacrificing father who toils not for recognition but out of love and duty to his family. The poem resonated widely with audiences for its accessible language and its celebration of the everyday person’s dignity—a hallmark of Guest’s poetry that earned him the title “The People’s Poet.” Its popularity endures because it captures universal experiences and values, giving voice to the silent efforts and sacrifices often made by family members, particularly fathers, in a way that is relatable and warmly evocative.

Text: “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest

My father knows the proper way

The nation should be run;

He tells us children every day

Just what should now be done.

He knows the way to fix the trusts,

He has a simple plan;

But if the furnace needs repairs,

We have to hire a man.

My father, in a day or two

Could land big thieves in jail;

There’s nothing that he cannot do,

He knows no word like “fail.”

“Our confidence” he would restore,

Of that there is no doubt;

But if there is a chair to mend,

We have to send it out.

All public questions that arise,

He settles on the spot;

He waits not till the tumult dies,

But grabs it while it’s hot.

In matters of finance he can

Tell Congress what to do;

But, O, he finds it hard to meet

His bills as they fall due.

It almost makes him sick to read

The things law-makers say;

Why, father’s just the man they need,

He never goes astray.

All wars he’d very quickly end,

As fast as I can write it;

But when a neighbor starts a fuss,

’Tis mother has to fight it.

In conversation father can

Do many wondrous things;

He’s built upon a wiser plan

Than presidents or kings.

He knows the ins and outs of each

And every deep transaction;

We look to him for theories,

But look to ma for action.

Annotations: “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
LineAnnotation
My father knows the proper way the nation should be run;The speaker’s father is portrayed as opinionated and knowledgeable about national issues.
He tells us children every day just what should now be done.The father often shares his opinions and solutions with his children.
He knows the way to fix the trusts, he has a simple plan;The father claims to know solutions for complex issues, like the “trusts” (referring to monopolies).
But if the furnace needs repairs, we have to hire a man.Despite his grand ideas, the father can’t handle practical household repairs, highlighting a humorous irony.
My father, in a day or two, could land big thieves in jail;The speaker exaggerates the father’s abilities, suggesting he could quickly fix major societal issues like crime.
There’s nothing that he cannot do, he knows no word like “fail.”The father is depicted as confident and determined, almost to the point of arrogance.
“Our confidence” he would restore, of that there is no doubt;The speaker claims the father could restore public confidence, suggesting he has bold ideas about leadership.
But if there is a chair to mend, we have to send it out.Again, there’s irony as the father is helpless with practical tasks despite his lofty ambitions.
All public questions that arise, he settles on the spot;The father is quick to offer solutions for any societal problem, displaying his self-assured nature.
He waits not till the tumult dies, but grabs it while it’s hot.He’s proactive in his opinions, addressing issues immediately rather than waiting.
In matters of finance he can tell Congress what to do;The father believes he understands economics well enough to advise Congress, reflecting his self-importance.
But, O, he finds it hard to meet his bills as they fall due.Irony is present again, as the father has personal financial struggles despite claiming expertise in finance.
It almost makes him sick to read the things lawmakers say;The father is critical of politicians, indicating his belief that he could do better.
Why, father’s just the man they need, he never goes astray.The speaker humorously suggests that lawmakers need someone like his father, who thinks he is always right.
All wars he’d very quickly end, as fast as I can write it;Exaggeration of the father’s abilities, humorously claiming he could resolve wars effortlessly.
But when a neighbor starts a fuss, ’tis mother has to fight it.Contrasts the father’s bold claims with reality, where his wife handles real conflicts.
In conversation father can do many wondrous things;Emphasizes that the father talks impressively but lacks practical abilities.
He’s built upon a wiser plan than presidents or kings.The speaker mocks the father’s inflated self-image, suggesting he views himself as superior to leaders.
He knows the ins and outs of each and every deep transaction;The father claims a deep understanding of complex matters, enhancing his self-assured persona.
We look to him for theories, but look to ma for action.The final line encapsulates the poem’s irony: the father is full of ideas, but practical action comes from the mother.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
Literary DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“father… furnace,” “father… fails”The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words creates a rhythmic effect, drawing attention to the father’s supposed failures and expertise.
Antithesis“He knows the way to fix the trusts, / But if the furnace needs repairs”The contrast between the father’s grand ambitions and his practical ineptitude highlights his ironic character.
Assonance“He knows no word like ‘fail.'”The repetition of vowel sounds within words, like “know” and “no,” enhances the musicality of the line.
CaricatureEntire portrayal of the fatherThe father is exaggerated into a caricature of someone with big ideas but no practical skills, for humorous effect.
Characterization“My father knows the proper way the nation should be run”Through his actions and words, the father is characterized as opinionated and self-important, revealing much about his personality.
Contrast“He knows the ins and outs of each… / But look to ma for action”The poet contrasts the father’s theories with the mother’s practical actions, emphasizing his lack of real-world efficacy.
Dramatic IronyFather is knowledgeable but helpless with practical tasksThe audience sees the humor in the father’s disconnect between his grandiose ideas and his inability to handle basic tasks.
End Rhyme“run” and “done,” “plan” and “man”Rhyme at the ends of lines adds to the sing-song quality of the poem, creating a lighthearted tone that underscores the humor.
Enjambment“He knows the ins and outs of each / And every deep transaction”The continuation of a sentence without pause beyond the end of a line creates a flowing effect, giving the father’s statements a sense of endlessness.
Hyperbole“All wars he’d very quickly end”The poet exaggerates the father’s confidence in his abilities, making his statements seem absurd and humorous.
Imagery“if the furnace needs repairs, / We have to hire a man”Visual imagery paints a picture of the father’s helplessness in everyday tasks, creating humor and relatability.
IronyFather can solve national issues but can’t fix a chairThe poem’s humor arises from the irony that the father can supposedly solve complex issues but fails at simple household repairs.
JuxtapositionFather’s grand ideas vs. his lack of practical skillsThe poet juxtaposes the father’s lofty theories with his inability to manage basic tasks, enhancing the irony and humor.
Metaphor“He’s built upon a wiser plan than presidents or kings”The father compares himself to leaders, using this metaphor to reveal his inflated self-image, with humorous intent.
Narrative VoiceFirst-person narrator (“My father knows…”)The narrator’s perspective is personal, offering insight into how the family perceives the father’s peculiar personality.
Parallelism“He knows… / He tells us… / He knows…”The repetition of sentence structure emphasizes the father’s constant claims and creates a rhythmic flow in the poem.
Personification“He knows no word like ‘fail'”Giving “fail” the human attribute of speech personifies it, reinforcing the father’s view of himself as infallible.
Repetition“He knows” throughout the poemThe repeated phrase underscores the father’s certainty in his own opinions, making his character appear overly self-assured.
SatireExaggeration of the father’s political and social knowledgeGuest uses satire to humorously critique those who have big opinions but no practical skills, targeting armchair experts.
ToneLighthearted and humorousThe tone throughout is playful and satirical, making the poem a gentle, humorous critique rather than a harsh attack on the father’s character.
Themes: “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
  1. The Irony of Armchair Expertise: A central theme in “Father” is the irony of armchair expertise, as the father is depicted as a man brimming with opinions on national and international matters but unable to handle simple household tasks. This contrast is highlighted when the speaker says, “He knows the way to fix the trusts, / He has a simple plan; / But if the furnace needs repairs, / We have to hire a man.” The humor lies in the father’s confidence in solving complex issues, juxtaposed with his lack of practical skills, embodying the theme that talking about solutions is easier than implementing them.
  2. Critique of Hypocrisy: The poem gently critiques hypocrisy, as the father holds grand ideals but fails to act on them within his own home. He claims he could “land big thieves in jail” and restore public “confidence,” yet he struggles with his own bills and household issues. This theme is underscored by lines such as, “In matters of finance he can / Tell Congress what to do; / But, O, he finds it hard to meet / His bills as they fall due,” highlighting the gap between the father’s ideals and his reality.
  3. Reliance on Practicality over Theory: Another theme is the value of practicality over grand theories, exemplified through the contrasting roles of the mother and father. The father’s endless theories are contrasted with the mother’s actions, as the speaker remarks, “We look to him for theories, / But look to ma for action.” This theme suggests that while ideas are important, they must be balanced with practical, hands-on contributions—a role the mother fulfills.
  4. Family Dynamics and Respect: Despite the humor, the poem reveals a loving family dynamic in which the father is respected, albeit with some gentle mocking. The children listen to his views daily, even though they don’t expect him to resolve everyday issues. Lines like “He’s built upon a wiser plan / Than presidents or kings” show admiration, mixed with irony, as they look up to his character while recognizing his limits. This theme underscores the complex mix of respect, love, and gentle ridicule present in family relationships.
Literary Theories and “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
Literary TheoryApplication to “Father”References from the Poem
Marxist TheoryExamines social class and the father’s views on authority and public issues, highlighting the contrast between his ideals and reality. This analysis reveals a critique of the working class’s disconnect between societal ideals and domestic responsibilities.Lines like “He knows the way to fix the trusts, / He has a simple plan; / But if the furnace needs repairs, / We have to hire a man” reflect his disconnect between lofty ideas and practical actions.
Psychoanalytic TheoryAnalyzes the father’s inflated sense of self and ego, possibly stemming from a need for validation. His constant opinions on grand issues but inability to act within the family hints at a complex, possibly defensive personality.The lines “There’s nothing that he cannot do, / He knows no word like ‘fail’” reflect his inflated self-esteem, indicating he might be overcompensating for his inability to handle practical tasks.
Feminist TheoryHighlights gender roles, with the father holding theoretical authority and the mother taking practical responsibility. The poem subtly critiques traditional male dominance by showing the father’s ineffectiveness.“We look to him for theories, / But look to ma for action” emphasizes the mother’s practical role and critiques the father’s detached authority, underscoring a commentary on gendered responsibilities.
Critical Questions about “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
  • What does the poem suggest about the gap between theory and practice in everyday life?
  • The poem raises the question of how much value theoretical knowledge holds when it isn’t matched by practical skills. The father is depicted as someone with strong opinions on national matters but unable to handle simple household tasks, as seen in the lines, “He knows the way to fix the trusts, / He has a simple plan; / But if the furnace needs repairs, / We have to hire a man.” This contrast critiques those who offer opinions on large issues but cannot address immediate, practical needs, reflecting on the value of practical skills in daily life.
  • How does the poem use humor to critique self-assured authority figures?
  • The humor in “Father” comes from the father’s confident yet ironic portrayal as someone who believes he knows better than lawmakers and leaders, as shown in “In matters of finance he can / Tell Congress what to do.” However, this self-assuredness is humorous and ironic because, despite his confidence, he struggles with his own finances. Through this humor, Guest critiques individuals who assume they have all the answers, highlighting the disconnect between their confidence and actual capabilities.
  • What commentary does the poem make on traditional gender roles within the family?
  • The poem presents a subtle commentary on traditional gender roles, where the father is seen as the authority figure but only in theory, while the mother takes on the practical responsibilities. Lines like “We look to him for theories, / But look to ma for action” illustrate this division, suggesting a critique of the father’s lack of practical involvement. The poem questions the effectiveness of traditional male authority when it is not backed by action, hinting at the necessity of shared responsibility in a family.
  • Does the poem suggest admiration or critique toward the father’s character, and how is this achieved?
  • The tone of “Father” combines both admiration and critique, presenting the father as both wise and absurdly ineffectual. Lines such as “He’s built upon a wiser plan / Than presidents or kings” reveal an affectionate exaggeration of the father’s character, suggesting the children’s respect, albeit humorously. However, the consistent irony in his inability to handle practical tasks signals a gentle critique. This nuanced tone creates a complex view, where the father’s intellectual confidence is admired yet his practical ineptitude is gently mocked, questioning the nature of wisdom in the family context.
Literary Works Similar to “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
  1. “Those Winter Sundays” by Robert Hayden – This poem, like “Father,” explores the father’s role in the family, contrasting love and duty with an underlying sense of unspoken appreciation and sacrifice.
  2. “This Be the Verse” by Philip Larkin – Similar in its ironic tone, this poem critiques family dynamics and generational flaws, reflecting the humor and bluntness seen in Guest’s portrayal of familial roles.
  3. “The Old Man’s Complaints and How He Gained Them” by Robert Southey – This humorous poem satirizes the quirks and complaints of aging, mirroring Guest’s use of irony to highlight the gap between self-perception and reality.
  4. “My Papa’s Waltz” by Theodore Roethke – Through a child’s perspective, this poem reflects on a father’s impact, blending affection with a critical, sometimes humorous, look at familial relationships.
  5. “Daddy” by Sylvia Plath – Though darker in tone, this poem similarly explores complex emotions toward a father figure, combining admiration with critique in a way that resonates with Guest’s mixed portrayal.
Representative Quotations of “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“My father knows the proper way the nation should be run.”The father is introduced as someone with strong opinions on national issues, portraying his confidence.Psychoanalytic Theory – Reflects the father’s inflated ego and need for authority.
“He tells us children every day just what should now be done.”The father frequently shares his opinions, showing his need to assert knowledge.Gender Studies – Emphasizes patriarchal authority and traditional male roles.
“But if the furnace needs repairs, we have to hire a man.”Despite his grand ideas, the father lacks practical skills for household tasks, creating irony.Marxist Theory – Highlights the father’s separation between ideals and domestic labor.
“There’s nothing that he cannot do, he knows no word like ‘fail.’”Exaggerates the father’s self-confidence, depicting him as almost infallible in his mind.Psychoanalytic Theory – Shows a possible overcompensation to maintain self-worth.
“All public questions that arise, he settles on the spot.”He quickly addresses societal issues with his own solutions, showing his perceived wisdom.Structuralism – Examines how the father’s character represents common social archetypes.
“In matters of finance he can tell Congress what to do.”The father believes he understands complex issues, presenting himself as more capable than officials.Marxist Theory – Highlights class dynamics and the father’s critique of government roles.
“But, O, he finds it hard to meet his bills as they fall due.”His financial struggles contrast his claims of expertise, creating humor.Irony Theory – Emphasizes situational irony as he fails in areas he claims expertise.
“Why, father’s just the man they need, he never goes astray.”The speaker sarcastically implies that lawmakers could use the father’s certainty and moral standing.Satire Theory – Uses irony to critique misplaced confidence in personal expertise.
“But when a neighbor starts a fuss, ’tis mother has to fight it.”While the father discusses big issues, the mother handles real conflicts, revealing gender roles.Feminist Theory – Highlights traditional gender roles with the mother as the practical enforcer.
“We look to him for theories, but look to ma for action.”Summarizes the ironic role division in the family, with the father for ideas and the mother for deeds.Gender Studies – Contrasts theory and action in traditional male and female roles.
Suggested Readings: “Father” by Edgar Albert Guest
  1. Andrews, Clarence. Michigan in Literature. Wayne State University Press, 1992.
  2. Broadcasting. Land O’Lakes Series. 13 January 1941.
  3. Hendrickson, Clara. “Michigan names first state poet laureate since 1950s.” Detroit Free Press. 19 August 2024. https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2024/08/19/michigan-names-first-state-poet-laureate-since-1950s/story.html
  4. Hyatt, Wesley. The Encyclopedia of Daytime Television. Watson-Guptill Publications, 1997.
  5. McKeown, Trevor W. “Edgar Albert Guest.” freemasonry.bcy.ca. 13 January 2017. http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/guest.html
  6. Poetry Foundation. “Edgar Albert Guest.” Poetry Foundation. 19 March 2021. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/edgar-albert-guest

“Father and Son” by Mary Nagy: A Critical Analysis

“Father and Son” by Mary Nagy, first appeared in her poetry collection published in 2002, explores themes of familial relationships, emotional distance, and the generational gap between a father and his son.

"Father and Son" by Mary Nagy: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy

“Father and Son” by Mary Nagy, first appeared in her poetry collection published in 2002, explores themes of familial relationships, emotional distance, and the generational gap between a father and his son, highlighting the struggle for connection amidst unspoken expectations and misunderstandings. Nagy’s powerful use of language and poignant depiction of common familial tensions make the poem widely relatable, resonating with readers who have experienced similar dynamics within their own families. Its popularity stems from its universal themes and Nagy’s ability to evoke empathy and reflection, capturing the complexities of love and estrangement in familial bonds.

Text: “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy

You’re standing in the doorway.
Your workday is all done.
He waits to see you everyday,
this boy that is your son.

He hopes you will go fishing.
He hopes you’ll shoot the gun.
He just wants to be with you,
this boy that is your son.

He is your spitting image.
To him you are ”The One”.
He hopes to be just like you,
this boy that is your son.

You show him what a man is.
You teach as you have fun.
You are admired as well as loved
by this boy that is your son.

You’ve got a friend forever.
Until the world is done.
Then, still you will be holding
this man that is your son.

Annotations: “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
LineAnnotation
“You’re standing in the doorway.”The poem opens with a physical and symbolic image of the father standing in the doorway, possibly implying a distance or threshold between him and his son.
“Your workday is all done.”This line suggests the father’s return home from work, a daily routine that defines much of his identity and sets the context for his relationship with his son.
“He waits to see you everyday,”The son eagerly anticipates his father’s arrival, showing his longing for connection and time spent together.
“this boy that is your son.”This line emphasizes the son’s identity in relation to his father, highlighting both familial pride and expectation.
“He hopes you will go fishing.”Fishing symbolizes a traditional father-son bonding activity, one that the son desires as a means of connection.
“He hopes you’ll shoot the gun.”This line introduces an activity associated with masculinity and adventure, reflecting the son’s admiration and desire to share his father’s interests.
“He just wants to be with you,”Shows the son’s simple, unconditional wish to spend time with his father, indicating a yearning for presence over activity.
“this boy that is your son.”The repetition underscores the boy’s innocence and his profound emotional attachment to his father.
“He is your spitting image.”Suggests that the son resembles his father physically, reinforcing a legacy or continuation of the father’s identity in the son.
“To him you are ‘The One’.”The father is depicted as a hero or ideal figure in the son’s eyes, highlighting the son’s admiration and idolization.
“He hopes to be just like you,”Reflects the son’s aspiration to emulate his father, embodying a desire for approval and identity shaped by paternal influence.
“this boy that is your son.”Repeating this line again emphasizes the son’s role in the father’s life and his aspiration to belong to his father’s world.
“You show him what a man is.”The father is portrayed as a role model, consciously or unconsciously setting an example of masculinity and adulthood.
“You teach as you have fun.”Suggests that lessons are imparted informally through shared activities, blending teaching with bonding and enjoyment.
“You are admired as well as loved”Indicates a dual layer of affection, where the son’s love is enhanced by respect and admiration for his father’s qualities.
“by this boy that is your son.”Reiteration reinforces the father-son bond and the son’s admiration, emphasizing his deep regard for his father.
“You’ve got a friend forever.”This line shifts to a future outlook, suggesting a lasting friendship and loyalty that transcends time.
“Until the world is done.”Implies an eternal, unconditional bond between father and son, extending beyond the limits of worldly existence.
“Then, still you will be holding”Evokes an image of a protective and supportive relationship that continues beyond the son’s childhood and into his adulthood.
“this man that is your son.”The son is now referred to as a “man,” signaling growth and continuity, yet his connection to his father remains deeply rooted.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
Literary DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“boy that is your son”Repetition of the initial “b” sound creates rhythm and emphasizes the connection between father and son.
Anaphora“He hopes… He hopes…”Repetition of phrases at the beginning of successive lines emphasizes the son’s desires and longing.
Assonance“day” and “waits”The repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words creates a sense of harmony and flow within the line.
Caesura“Until the world is done.”The pause in this line adds gravity to the concept of a timeless, unbreakable bond.
Connotation“spitting image”Implies that the son not only looks like his father but also embodies similar qualities and characteristics.
End Rhyme“done” and “son”Rhyming words at the end of lines create a lyrical quality and unity within the stanzas.
Epiphora“this boy that is your son” (repeated line)Repetition at the end of multiple lines emphasizes the son’s identity in relation to the father.
Hyperbole“You’ve got a friend forever”Exaggerates the strength of the bond, suggesting it is eternal and unbreakable.
Imagery“You’re standing in the doorway”Creates a vivid image of the father arriving home, setting the scene for the father-son interaction.
Irony“spitting image” but father is distantThe son may look like his father, but the relationship hints at an emotional distance between them.
Metaphor“You show him what a man is”The father represents an idealized version of masculinity for the son, symbolizing role modeling.
MeterGenerally consistent iambic patternThe poem’s rhythmic pattern mirrors traditional songs, reinforcing the bond as enduring and ritualistic.
MoodWarm and nostalgicThe poem evokes warmth and sentimentality, reflecting the cherished bond between father and son.
Parallelism“He hopes… He hopes…”Repeated sentence structures highlight the son’s expectations and create rhythm within the stanzas.
Personification“Until the world is done”Giving the world a lifespan implies that even time itself cannot end the father-son bond.
Refrain“this boy that is your son”The recurring line reinforces the theme of familial pride and the father’s constant place in the son’s life.
Repetition“boy that is your son” throughoutReinforces the son’s identity and connection to his father, adding to the poem’s rhythmic and thematic unity.
Rhyme SchemeAABB in each stanzaThe simple rhyme scheme gives the poem a song-like quality, reflecting the innocence and purity of the son’s love.
Symbolism“fishing” and “shoot the gun”These traditional father-son activities symbolize bonding and passing down masculine traits.
ToneLoving and admiringThe tone reflects the son’s admiration for his father and the sense of a sacred, unspoken love.
Themes: “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
  1. Admiration and Hero Worship: The poem emphasizes the son’s admiration for his father, portraying him as a heroic figure. Lines like “To him you are ‘The One'” reflect the son’s idolization, suggesting he views his father as a role model. This admiration is further illustrated as the son desires to emulate his father, with phrases like “He hopes to be just like you”. The son’s reverence and deep respect underpin the poem’s emotional core, showing how a child can view a parent as their ultimate figure of greatness.
  2. Bonding and Legacy: The poem underscores the significance of bonding activities, which allow the father to impart life lessons and values to his son. The line “He hopes you will go fishing. He hopes you’ll shoot the gun” symbolizes traditional father-son activities that help build memories and reinforce their connection. Through these shared moments, the father passes down a legacy, teaching his son what it means to be a man while creating a lasting emotional imprint on him.
  3. Unconditional Love and Connection: The poem highlights the profound, unconditional love that exists between father and son. The line “You’ve got a friend forever” shows the son’s unwavering loyalty and affection, suggesting that the bond transcends time and circumstances. Even as the son grows older, the connection remains strong, symbolized by “Then, still you will be holding this man that is your son”. This conveys a love that endures beyond childhood, showcasing a bond unbroken by age or change.
  4. Role Modeling and Masculinity: The father’s role as a guide and teacher to his son is a prominent theme, as he models what it means to be a man. In the line “You show him what a man is”, the father’s actions and demeanor serve as a template for his son’s understanding of masculinity. As the father naturally “teaches as he has fun”, he imparts values and qualities that will shape the boy’s identity, instilling in him the qualities he admires. This theme underscores the role of fathers in shaping their sons’ character and ideals.
Literary Theories and “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
Literary TheoryApplication to “Father and Son”References from the Poem
Psychoanalytic TheoryExamines the subconscious desires, admiration, and identity formation in the relationship between the father and son. The son’s idolization of his father suggests he views him as a primary figure in his development, representing an idealized masculine identity.Lines like “He hopes to be just like you” reveal the son’s desire to mirror his father, indicating the son’s subconscious wish to form his identity based on his father’s image.
StructuralismAnalyzes the repetitive structures and symbolic meaning in the poem, particularly focusing on the refrain “this boy that is your son” to reinforce the central relationship. Structuralism also highlights binary oppositions, such as admiration versus distance, which can reflect unspoken complexities.The line “this boy that is your son” is a recurring refrain that provides a structural framework, emphasizing the father-son bond. The opposition between closeness and potential emotional distance also reveals layers in the relationship.
Gender StudiesExplores the portrayal of masculinity and fatherhood, analyzing how traditional male roles and bonding activities like “fishing” and “shoot the gun” are used to define and convey masculine ideals. This theory questions societal expectations and the father’s influence on the son’s understanding of gender roles.Lines like “He hopes you will go fishing” and “He hopes you’ll shoot the gun” represent masculine-coded activities, suggesting the father’s influence on the son’s perception of manhood and gendered expectations.
Critical Questions about “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
  • How does the son’s admiration for his father shape his identity and perception of masculinity?
  • The son’s admiration for his father plays a crucial role in shaping his sense of self and understanding of masculinity. The line “He hopes to be just like you” suggests the son’s desire to mirror his father’s behavior and values, indicating that he sees his father as an ideal model for manhood. This desire for imitation shows that the father’s actions are not only observed but are internalized by the son, who associates these actions with what it means to be a man. Through the son’s consistent efforts to emulate his father, the poem conveys how a child’s identity and perception of gender roles are heavily influenced by parental figures.
  • What does the poem suggest about the impact of shared activities on familial bonds?
  • The poem implies that shared activities, especially those associated with traditional masculine roles, serve as vital touchpoints in strengthening the father-son bond. Lines such as “He hopes you will go fishing. He hopes you’ll shoot the gun” highlight the son’s anticipation for activities that not only entertain but also foster closeness and understanding between him and his father. These activities are presented as more than pastimes; they symbolize a father’s guidance and the shared experiences that underpin familial connection. By spending time together in these moments, the poem suggests, the father is not only creating memories but also building a foundation of trust and admiration in his son.
  • How does the poem address the theme of unconditional love within family relationships?
  • Unconditional love is portrayed as an enduring and unbreakable bond that transcends time, depicted by the line “You’ve got a friend forever. Until the world is done.” This expression of lasting affection emphasizes that the son’s love and loyalty are constant, enduring beyond childhood and remaining strong into adulthood. The closing lines, “Then, still you will be holding this man that is your son,” show that the relationship has matured, yet the love between father and son remains unchanged. The son’s steadfast affection suggests a bond rooted not only in shared experiences but in a fundamental, lifelong connection.
  • In what ways does the poem explore the influence of a father as a role model?
  • The poem explores the father’s influence as a role model by depicting him as both admired and emulated by his son. The line “You show him what a man is” reflects the father’s role as an unwitting teacher, with his behaviors and attitudes serving as a guide for the son’s understanding of masculinity. Through activities and everyday interactions, the father’s example shapes the son’s perception of strength, character, and what it means to be a “man.” This modeling, often subtle and embedded in routine actions, underscores the idea that a parent’s influence extends beyond words, shaping a child’s values and self-perception through example and presence.

Literary Works Similar to “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy

  1. “Those Winter Sundays” by Robert Hayden – Explores the unspoken love and sacrifices of a father, highlighting themes of familial admiration and duty.
  2. “My Papa’s Waltz” by Theodore Roethke – Depicts the complex and intimate bond between father and son through a shared activity, blending admiration with subtle tension.
  3. “The Gift” by Li-Young Lee – Reflects on the memories of a father’s nurturing presence, capturing the tenderness and legacy passed from parent to child.
  4. “Follower” by Seamus Heaney – Illustrates a son’s admiration for his father’s work and strength, underscoring themes of emulation and the passage of time.
  5. “Digging” by Seamus Heaney – Highlights a son’s reverence for his father’s labor, using metaphor to explore familial pride and the desire to follow in his father’s footsteps.
Representative Quotations of “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“You’re standing in the doorway.”The poem opens with the image of the father arriving home, setting up the father-son dynamic.Psychoanalytic – Represents a boundary between father and son, hinting at closeness and potential emotional distance.
“He waits to see you everyday, this boy that is your son.”The son eagerly awaits his father’s return, highlighting his admiration and yearning.Attachment Theory – Shows the son’s dependence on his father for emotional security and identity.
“He hopes you will go fishing. He hopes you’ll shoot the gun.”The son desires to bond with his father through traditional activities.Gender Studies – Reflects societal symbols of masculinity, which the son seeks to emulate with his father.
“He just wants to be with you, this boy that is your son.”Emphasizes the son’s simple, unconditional wish for his father’s presence.Humanistic Perspective – Captures the son’s innate need for connection, central to meaningful relationships.
“He is your spitting image.”Highlights the physical and perhaps behavioral resemblance between father and son.Structuralism – Symbolizes legacy and continuity, with the father’s identity reflected in the son.
“To him you are ‘The One’.”The son idolizes his father, seeing him as a heroic figure.Psychoanalytic Theory – Shows the son’s idealization of his father as an authority figure in early development.
“You show him what a man is.”The father embodies masculinity, teaching by example.Gender Studies – Demonstrates how traditional gender roles and ideals of masculinity are passed down.
“You teach as you have fun.”Emphasizes that the father imparts lessons informally during shared activities.Educational Theory – Reflects the value of experiential learning, where informal interactions are part of moral education.
“You’ve got a friend forever.”Suggests an enduring loyalty and friendship between father and son.Existentialism – Expresses a lifelong bond transcending roles, reflecting a shared existential connection.
“Then, still you will be holding this man that is your son.”The bond continues into adulthood, even as the son matures.Developmental Psychology – Shows an evolving relationship, where the nurturing bond remains strong despite the son’s independence.
Suggested Readings: “Father and Son” by Mary Nagy
  1. Nagy, Mary. Poems. Poem Hunter, [n.d.]. Web. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024. https://www.poemhunter.com/mary-nagy/
  2. Nagy, Mary. The Place I Search For. Mary Nagy, 2006. Print.

“A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe: A Critical Analysis

“A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe first appeared in 1592 as part of the larger work Summer’s Last Will and Testament, a play published during the devastating London plague outbreak.

"A Litany in Time of Plague" by Thomas Nashe: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe

“A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe first appeared in 1592 as part of the larger work Summer’s Last Will and Testament, a play published during the devastating London plague outbreak. This piece is renowned for its somber tone and vivid portrayal of mortality, reflecting the widespread fear and suffering caused by the plague. Nashe’s poem explores themes of human frailty, the inevitability of death, and the fleeting nature of earthly pleasures, encapsulated in the haunting refrain, “Lord, have mercy on us.” The simplicity of the verse paired with its deeply introspective content contributed to its popularity, resonating with audiences who faced the ever-present threat of death. The work remains notable for its poignant reminder of mortality and for capturing the collective despair and resignation of a society ravaged by epidemic, making it a timeless reflection on human vulnerability.

Text: “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe

Adieu, farewell, earth’s bliss;

This world uncertain is;

Fond are life’s lustful joys;

Death proves them all but toys;

None from his darts can fly;

I am sick, I must die.

    Lord, have mercy on us!

Rich men, trust not in wealth,

Gold cannot buy you health;

Physic himself must fade.

All things to end are made,

The plague full swift goes by;

I am sick, I must die.

    Lord, have mercy on us!

Beauty is but a flower

Which wrinkles will devour;

Brightness falls from the air;

Queens have died young and fair;

Dust hath closed Helen’s eye.

I am sick, I must die.

    Lord, have mercy on us!

Strength stoops unto the grave,

Worms feed on Hector brave;

Swords may not fight with fate,

Earth still holds open her gate.

“Come, come!” the bells do cry.

I am sick, I must die.

    Lord, have mercy on us!

Wit with his wantonness

Tasteth death’s bitterness;

Hell’s executioner

Hath no ears for to hear

What vain art can reply.

I am sick, I must die.

    Lord, have mercy on us!

Haste, therefore, each degree,

To welcome destiny;

Heaven is our heritage,

Earth but a player’s stage;

Mount we unto the sky.

I am sick, I must die.

    Lord, have mercy on us!

Annotations: “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
LineAnnotation
Adieu, farewell, earth’s bliss;Nashe bids farewell to the pleasures of life on earth, indicating the sorrow of leaving behind worldly joys due to the plague. “Bliss” refers to earthly pleasures that he now considers fleeting.
This world uncertain is;He highlights the unpredictability of life, acknowledging that the world is filled with unforeseen events, with mortality being the ultimate uncertainty.
Fond are life’s lustful joys;Earthly desires and pleasures are described as foolish (“fond”), suggesting that they are shallow and transitory in the face of death.
Death proves them all but toys;Death renders these pleasures meaningless, reducing life’s joys to mere “toys,” or trivial pursuits that have no lasting significance.
None from his darts can fly;No one can escape death’s “darts,” an allusion to the inescapable and inevitable nature of mortality.
I am sick, I must die.Nashe’s direct acknowledgment of his own impending death, adding a personal and immediate sense of vulnerability.
Lord, have mercy on us!A plea to God for mercy, reflecting the prayerful tone of the poem as the speaker faces death.
Rich men, trust not in wealth,Wealth is cautioned against as it cannot provide protection from death; even the affluent are powerless in the face of plague.
Gold cannot buy you health;Gold (wealth) is useless in securing health, reinforcing the idea that death is the great equalizer, unaffected by material wealth.
Physic himself must fade.Even medicine (referred to as “physic”) is powerless; doctors and treatments are ultimately ineffective against the plague.
All things to end are made,An assertion of the universal mortality of all things; everything in life has a definitive end.
The plague full swift goes by;The plague moves swiftly, claiming lives quickly and without discrimination, amplifying the urgency and fear.
I am sick, I must die.Reiteration of personal mortality, reinforcing the speaker’s acknowledgment of his own imminent death.
Lord, have mercy on us!Another appeal to divine mercy, reflecting communal fear and the hope for spiritual salvation in light of physical suffering.
Beauty is but a flowerBeauty is described as transient like a flower, fragile and quickly withered by time, underscoring its impermanence.
Which wrinkles will devour;Aging (“wrinkles”) inevitably takes away beauty, emphasizing that physical appearance cannot endure the ravages of time or death.
Brightness falls from the air;Likely metaphorical, suggesting that life’s energy and joy fade away, much like light fades at dusk, symbolizing the end of life.
Queens have died young and fair;Even the most beautiful and powerful (like queens) are not spared from death, reinforcing the inevitability of mortality.
Dust hath closed Helen’s eye.A reference to Helen of Troy, a symbol of beauty, now reduced to dust, reminding readers that even legendary beauty succumbs to death.
I am sick, I must die.Nashe’s refrain, reiterating his acceptance of death’s approach and his vulnerability to it.
Lord, have mercy on us!Another communal prayer for mercy, emphasizing the speaker’s hope for divine compassion as death looms.
Strength stoops unto the grave,Strength, a quality often idolized, is powerless in the face of death and “stoops” (submits) to the inevitability of the grave.
Worms feed on Hector brave;Refers to Hector of Troy, a symbol of heroism, whose body eventually succumbs to decay, illustrating the helplessness of even the strong against mortality.
Swords may not fight with fate,No weapon or power can contest “fate,” emphasizing that death is inevitable and beyond human control.
Earth still holds open her gate.The earth is always ready to receive the dead, reinforcing the idea that death is ever-present and that the grave awaits all.
“Come, come!” the bells do cry.Funeral bells symbolize the constant calling of death, inviting people to their inevitable end.
I am sick, I must die.Continues the refrain, underscoring the speaker’s resignation to his fate.
Lord, have mercy on us!Repeated plea for mercy, conveying a sense of collective vulnerability and a final appeal to God.
Wit with his wantonnessEven wit and intelligence (“wantonness” implies clever indulgence) are futile in the face of death; intellectual prowess offers no protection.
Tasteth death’s bitterness;Wit, like all things, ultimately succumbs to the “bitterness” of death, which spares no one.
Hell’s executionerA metaphor for death or the plague, described as an executioner who takes lives mercilessly, evoking dread and fear.
Hath no ears for to hearDeath is indifferent and does not listen to any pleas or arguments, symbolizing its impartial and inevitable nature.
What vain art can reply.No art, skill, or talent can answer or combat death’s power, showing the futility of human efforts against mortality.
I am sick, I must die.The refrain returns, with the speaker reiterating his impending death and the futility of resisting it.
Lord, have mercy on us!Another prayerful appeal for divine mercy in the face of the inevitable.
Haste, therefore, each degree,A call to all social ranks (“each degree”) to prepare for death and accept it as a shared destiny.
To welcome destiny;Encourages an acceptance of death as part of human destiny, urging readiness rather than fear.
Heaven is our heritage,Heaven is presented as the ultimate inheritance, suggesting that true reward lies beyond earthly life.
Earth but a player’s stage;Life on earth is compared to a stage where people merely play roles, emphasizing life’s transitory and performative nature.
Mount we unto the sky.A hopeful line suggesting the ascent of the soul to heaven, reinforcing the idea of a spiritual journey beyond death.
I am sick, I must die.Final reiteration of the speaker’s acknowledgment of his fate, bringing the recurring theme to a close.
Lord, have mercy on us!Concludes with a prayer for mercy, uniting the collective plea of humanity for divine compassion in the face of suffering and mortality.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“Strength stoops,” “Dust hath closed”Repetition of consonant sounds (e.g., “s” in “strength stoops”) creates rhythm and emphasizes key themes like decay and inevitability.
Allusion“Helen’s eye,” “Hector brave”References to Helen of Troy and Hector bring in figures of beauty and bravery, suggesting that even the greatest cannot escape death.
Anaphora“I am sick, I must die.”Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of successive lines reinforces the inevitability of death and the speaker’s resignation.
Assonance“Earth’s bliss; This world uncertain is”Repetition of vowel sounds (e.g., “i” in “bliss” and “is”) creates musicality, reflecting the solemn mood of the poem.
Caesura“Swords may not fight with fate,”A pause in the middle of a line adds emphasis to the hopelessness of resisting fate.
Consonance“Come, come! the bells do cry.”Repetition of consonant sounds within words (e.g., “m” in “come”) adds rhythm and reinforces the ominous sound of funeral bells.
Elegiac ToneEntire poemThe mournful, reflective tone embodies themes of death, loss, and the fleeting nature of life, typical of elegy.
End-Stopped Lines“Beauty is but a flower / Which wrinkles will devour;”Each line concludes with a pause, reinforcing a measured pace that echoes the inevitability of death’s approach.
Epizeuxis“Come, come!”Immediate repetition of a word (epizeuxis) mimics the sound of tolling funeral bells, emphasizing the urgency and presence of death.
Hyperbole“Hell’s executioner Hath no ears”Exaggeration in describing death as an executioner with no compassion or “ears” to hear pleas, intensifies the despair and finality.
Imagery“Worms feed on Hector brave”Evokes a visual of physical decay, symbolizing how even heroes succumb to death, adding a visceral sense to the idea of mortality.
Irony“Gold cannot buy you health”Suggests the irony that wealth, often seen as a source of power, is useless against death, highlighting the limits of human control.
Metaphor“Earth but a player’s stage”Earth is compared to a stage, suggesting life is a temporary performance, aligning with the theme of transience.
Metonymy“Hell’s executioner”“Hell’s executioner” stands for death or the plague itself, adding a sinister personification to mortality.
Parallelism“Lord, have mercy on us!”Repetition of structure in successive lines creates a prayer-like rhythm, uniting the verses in a shared plea for divine mercy.
Personification“Brightness falls from the air”Light is personified as if it “falls,” enhancing the poem’s somber tone and the inevitability of life’s decline.
Refrain“Lord, have mercy on us!”Repeated line at the end of each stanza, serving as a prayer for divine intervention, which emphasizes the communal fear and desperation.
Simile“Beauty is but a flower”Comparison of beauty to a flower, suggesting its delicate and temporary nature, easily withered by time or death.
Symbolism“The plague full swift goes by;”The plague symbolizes the uncontrollable force of death, swiftly claiming lives without warning, reinforcing the poem’s dark themes.
ToneEntire poemThe solemn, resigned tone reflects the despair and fear of death during a plague, aligning with the themes of mortality and divine supplication.
Themes: “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
ThemeExplanation with References
Mortality and Inevitability of DeathNashe’s poem repeatedly underscores the inescapable nature of death, a fate that no one, regardless of status, can avoid. Lines like “None from his darts can fly” and “I am sick, I must die” capture this inevitability, as death is personified as a relentless force. The refrain, “Lord, have mercy on us,” serves as a continual reminder of death’s approach, resonating as both a prayer and an acceptance of mortality.
Futility of Worldly PleasuresThe poem also critiques the fleeting nature of earthly pleasures, suggesting that life’s joys are trivial in the face of death. This is illustrated in lines like “Fond are life’s lustful joys; / Death proves them all but toys,” where worldly desires are compared to meaningless toys, rendered insignificant by the reality of mortality. Beauty, wealth, and strength—represented by “Gold cannot buy you health” and “Beauty is but a flower”—are shown to be powerless and transient.
Equality in DeathDeath’s impartiality is emphasized through references to figures of wealth, beauty, and power, all of whom are equally vulnerable. Nashe highlights this in lines like “Rich men, trust not in wealth” and “Queens have died young and fair,” illustrating that death disregards rank or beauty. Even heroes, represented by “Worms feed on Hector brave,” cannot escape mortality, underscoring the idea that death equalizes all.
Spiritual Reflection and Divine MercyThroughout the poem, there is a strong plea for divine mercy, particularly evident in the repeated refrain “Lord, have mercy on us.” This refrain reflects a communal prayer, seeking solace and redemption in the face of inevitable suffering. In the final stanza, Nashe points towards the spiritual realm with “Heaven is our heritage,” suggesting that while earthly life is fragile, the hope of heaven offers a form of enduring comfort.
Literary Theories and “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
  • Memento Mori in Moral Philosophy and Literature
    • “A Litany in Time of Plague” exemplifies the memento mori theme, reminding readers of the inevitability of death and the transience of life. The repeated line, “I am sick, I must die,” serves as a direct reminder of human mortality. Additionally, lines such as “Dust hath closed Helen’s eye” emphasize that even beauty and greatness ultimately succumb to decay, reinforcing the message that all earthly accomplishments are temporary.
  • Psychoanalytic Theory: Thanatos and Death Drive
    • The poem’s recurring contemplation of death aligns with Freud’s concept of the death drive, or thanatos, a desire for the return to an inorganic state. The speaker’s repeated reflections on death, as seen in “None from his darts can fly” and “Swords may not fight with fate,” express a surrender to the inevitable, suggesting an unconscious acceptance or even gravitation toward death, rather than fear or resistance.
  • Marxist Criticism: Class and Inequality in Death
    • From a Marxist perspective, Nashe’s poem reveals how death acts as an equalizer, disregarding the societal distinctions of wealth and power. Lines like “Rich men, trust not in wealth” and “Queens have died young and fair” critique the futility of wealth and privilege when faced with mortality. This universal susceptibility to death can be seen as a subversion of class-based distinctions, challenging the notion that societal power holds meaning in the face of natural forces like plague.
Critical Questions about “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
  • How does Nashe portray the inevitability of death in the poem, and what effect does this portrayal have on the reader?
  • Nashe conveys death as an inescapable force that ultimately claims everyone, regardless of status or strength. Phrases like “None from his darts can fly” personify death as a relentless pursuer, while the repeated line “I am sick, I must die” serves as a resigned acknowledgment of fate. By addressing mortality so directly, Nashe creates a somber, introspective effect, urging readers to confront their own vulnerability. This approach compels the reader to recognize life’s fragility, especially in the face of something as indiscriminate and overwhelming as the plague, leading to an enhanced awareness of mortality’s universality.
  • In what ways does Nashe’s poem critique the value of wealth and beauty?
  • Nashe sharply criticizes the ephemeral nature of wealth and beauty, dismissing them as powerless in the face of death. “Rich men, trust not in wealth” warns that money cannot shield anyone from mortality, while “Beauty is but a flower / Which wrinkles will devour” underscores beauty’s fragility. By juxtaposing the allure of wealth and beauty with the reality of decay, Nashe questions society’s attachment to material and physical ideals, suggesting that these values are ultimately superficial. This critique encourages readers to reevaluate the importance they place on such transient aspects of life, particularly when confronted with existential crises.
  • How does Nashe use imagery related to decay and decomposition to reinforce the poem’s themes?
  • Nashe employs vivid, unsettling imagery to underscore the physical consequences of mortality. In “Worms feed on Hector brave,” he evokes a strong image of decay, showing that even the most revered heroes are not spared the indignities of death. The line “Dust hath closed Helen’s eye” is another powerful example, portraying beauty’s inevitable transformation to dust. These images of decomposition emphasize the body’s vulnerability, enhancing the poem’s themes of mortality and transience. Through such visceral imagery, Nashe reinforces the notion that death erases all distinctions, leveling the playing field by reducing all to dust and decay.
  • What role does the refrain “Lord, have mercy on us!” play in the poem, and how does it shape the reader’s understanding of the speaker’s state of mind?
  • The repeated refrain, “Lord, have mercy on us!” serves as both a communal plea and a personal expression of desperation. This prayerful appeal to God for mercy reflects a blend of fear, humility, and resignation in the face of death. The refrain’s repetition throughout the poem also amplifies a sense of inevitability and collective suffering, suggesting that the speaker sees death as an all-encompassing fate that requires divine intervention. For the reader, this refrain provides insight into the speaker’s psychological state: he is both vulnerable and repentant, looking toward faith as a final solace. The recurring appeal thus reinforces the poem’s spiritual dimension, suggesting that in times of crisis, humanity seeks comfort in the hope of divine compassion.
Literary Works Similar to “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
  1. “Death, Be Not Proud” by John Donne: This poem addresses death directly, challenging its power and expressing a defiant belief in the soul’s endurance beyond physical demise, similar to Nashe’s exploration of death’s limitations.
  2. “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Shelley’s poem meditates on the impermanence of power and the inevitability of decay, akin to Nashe’s portrayal of death as a force that reduces all human achievements to insignificance.
  3. “Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson: Dickinson’s portrayal of death as a calm, inevitable journey shares a contemplative tone with Nashe’s acceptance of mortality, both exploring death as an unavoidable and natural process.”A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” by John Donne: This poem explores the idea of leaving earthly attachments with a serene acceptance, reflecting Nashe’s own acknowledgment of life’s transience and the soul’s elevation beyond worldly concerns.
  4. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe: Poe’s exploration of grief and despair in the face of loss mirrors Nashe’s somber tone, as both poets delve into the haunting, inevitable nature of death and the longing for reprieve or mercy.
Representative Quotations of “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“Adieu, farewell, earth’s bliss;”The opening line where Nashe bids goodbye to worldly pleasures, setting a somber tone as he accepts the fleeting nature of earthly life.Existentialism – Emphasizes the futility and impermanence of earthly joys, questioning the meaning of life in the face of inevitable death.
“This world uncertain is;”Nashe reflects on the unpredictability of life, especially in times of plague, where survival is not guaranteed.Absurdism – Highlights the inherent uncertainty and lack of stability in life, an idea that echoes the absurdist belief in life’s unpredictable and often irrational nature.
“None from his darts can fly;”This line refers to death’s inescapable power, personifying it as a hunter whose “darts” inevitably find their mark.Memento Mori – Reinforces the theme of mortality, reminding readers that no one can escape death’s reach, a perspective common in memento mori literature which urges reflection on life’s brevity.
“I am sick, I must die.”Nashe’s acknowledgment of his own mortality, repeated throughout the poem as a refrain, highlighting his acceptance of impending death.Psychoanalytic Theory: Thanatos – Represents the death drive (thanatos), where Nashe contemplates and accepts his mortality, resonating with the psychoanalytic view of an unconscious acceptance of death’s inevitability.
“Lord, have mercy on us!”A repeated prayer in the poem, seeking divine mercy as he and others face the reality of death and plague.Religious Humanism – Reflects a reliance on faith and spiritual solace, seeking compassion in the face of existential fear, which aligns with religious humanism’s emphasis on spiritual introspection.
“Gold cannot buy you health;”Nashe highlights the impotence of wealth against disease, suggesting that money holds no value when facing death.Marxist Criticism – Points to the limits of wealth in ensuring survival, critiquing the superficial security that material possessions offer in times of crisis, a perspective aligned with Marxist views on wealth’s ultimate futility against natural forces.
“Beauty is but a flower / Which wrinkles will devour;”Beauty is compared to a fragile flower that eventually fades, illustrating the temporary nature of physical appearance.Aestheticism – Questions the value of physical beauty by emphasizing its transience, highlighting aestheticism’s awareness of beauty’s impermanence and the fleeting nature of external appearances.
“The plague full swift goes by;”Nashe references the rapid spread of the plague, emphasizing its merciless approach as it claims lives indiscriminately.Historicism – Reflects the historical context of the poem, written during the time of the plague, offering insight into societal fears and the overwhelming force of disease.
“Worms feed on Hector brave;”Nashe evokes Hector of Troy, symbolizing how even the heroic are ultimately consumed by death and decay.Classical Allusion – By alluding to classical figures, Nashe places death as a universal equalizer, reducing even heroes to dust, in line with classical reflections on the fleeting nature of life and the inevitability of decay.
“Heaven is our heritage, / Earth but a player’s stage;”Nashe contrasts earthly life with the promise of heaven, implying that life on earth is merely a temporary role in a larger spiritual journey.Metaphysical Perspective – Reflects metaphysical poetry’s tendency to see earthly existence as ephemeral and to focus on the soul’s journey, suggesting that true purpose and meaning are found beyond the material world.
Suggested Readings: “A Litany in Time of Plague” by Thomas Nashe
  1. Sacks, Peter. “Where Words Prevail Not: Grief, Revenge, and Language in Kyd and Shakespeare.” ELH, vol. 49, no. 3, 1982, pp. 576–601. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2872756. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  2. BLY, ROBERT. “When Literary Life Was Still Piled Up in a Few Places.” A Community of Writers: Paul Engle and the Iowa Writers’ Workshop, edited by ROBERT DANA, University of Iowa Press, 1999, pp. 37–44. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt20q2027.10. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  3. New, Melvyn. “‘The Life of a Wit Is a Warfare upon Earth’: Sterne, Joyce, and Their Portraits of the Artist.” Textual and Critical Intersections: Conversations with Laurence Sterne and Others, 1st ed., University Press of Florida, 2023, pp. 314–44. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.8362597.17. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
  4. McKinstry, Jamie. “The Poetics of Anatomy: John Donne’s Dissection of the Male Body.” The Male Body in Medicine and Literature, edited by ANDREW MANGHAM and DANIEL LEA, Liverpool University Press, 2018, pp. 17–33. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvgd281.6. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.

“Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin: A Critical Analysis

“Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin first appeared in his 1955 collection, The Less Deceived, marking a moment in post-war British poetry that resonated for its frank, bleak view of ordinary life.

"Mr. Bleaney" by Philip Larkin: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin

“Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin first appeared in his 1955 collection, The Less Deceived, marking a moment in post-war British poetry that resonated for its frank, bleak view of ordinary life. The poem delves into themes of isolation, monotony, and the existential emptiness experienced by the titular character, Mr. Bleaney, whose modest, transient life is reflected in the impersonal and sparse room he rents. Larkin’s straightforward yet evocative style captures a shared societal disillusionment of the time, as Britain grappled with its post-war identity and the erosion of traditional social structures. Its presence in literature textbooks is due to its accessibility and Larkin’s unique ability to combine everyday realism with a subtle, haunting exploration of mortality and purpose. The poem’s popularity endures because it opens a window into universal human concerns—questions of fulfillment, legacy, and whether our lives have meaning beyond the physical spaces we inhabit.

Text: “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin

‘This was Mr Bleaney’s room. He stayed
The whole time he was at the Bodies, till
They moved him.’ Flowered curtains, thin and frayed,
Fall to within five inches of the sill,

Whose window shows a strip of building land,
Tussocky, littered. ‘Mr Bleaney took
My bit of garden properly in hand.’
Bed, upright chair, sixty-watt bulb, no hook

Behind the door, no room for books or bags –
‘I’ll take it.’ So it happens that I lie
Where Mr Bleaney lay, and stub my fags
On the same saucer-souvenir, and try

Stuffing my ears with cotton-wool, to drown
The jabbering set he egged her on to buy.
I know his habits – what time he came down,
His preference for sauce to gravy, why

He kept on plugging at the four aways –
Likewise their yearly frame: the Frinton folk
Who put him up for summer holidays,
And Christmas at his sister’s house in Stoke.

But if he stood and watched the frigid wind
Tousling the clouds, lay on the fusty bed
Telling himself that this was home, and grinned,
And shivered, without shaking off the dread

That how we live measures our own nature,
And at his age having no more to show
Than one hired box should make him pretty sure
He warranted no better, I don’t know.

Annotations: “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
LineAnnotation
“This was Mr Bleaney’s room. He stayed”The poem opens with a third-party perspective, describing a room formerly occupied by Mr. Bleaney. It establishes the transient nature of Mr. Bleaney’s existence, which is defined by a single room.
“The whole time he was at the Bodies, till”“Bodies” likely refers to a factory or a company, a place where he worked. This term adds to the mundane, industrial setting, implying Mr. Bleaney’s low-status job and limited prospects.
“They moved him.”The phrase suggests Mr. Bleaney’s lack of agency, as he is shifted like an object from one place to another, hinting at his insignificance in both life and work.
“Flowered curtains, thin and frayed,”Descriptive imagery that conveys neglect and frugality; the room’s worn-down state reflects Mr. Bleaney’s own life—modest and deteriorating.
“Fall to within five inches of the sill,”The incomplete coverage of the curtains hints at an unfinished or neglected life, suggesting Mr. Bleaney’s inability to fully “cover” or fulfill his existence.
“Whose window shows a strip of building land,”The view is limited and uninspiring, portraying a bare landscape that reflects Mr. Bleaney’s life—a small world with little beauty or excitement.
“Tussocky, littered.”The untended nature of the land mirrors the untended aspects of Mr. Bleaney’s own life. The word choice suggests a lack of care or improvement.
“‘Mr Bleaney took my bit of garden properly in hand.'”Despite his modest means, Mr. Bleaney made efforts to maintain order, showing pride or perhaps a desire to leave a mark, however small, on his surroundings.
“Bed, upright chair, sixty-watt bulb, no hook”Larkin lists basic, impersonal items that lack warmth or personalization, symbolizing Mr. Bleaney’s minimalistic, monotonous life.
“Behind the door, no room for books or bags -“The lack of room for books or bags implies a life without intellectual pursuits or significant personal belongings, pointing to Mr. Bleaney’s unadorned existence.
“‘I’ll take it.’ So it happens that I lie”The speaker’s decision to take the room implies that he, too, may be subject to the same fate as Mr. Bleaney, mirroring a life of similar transience and lack of fulfillment.
“Where Mr Bleaney lay, and stub my fags”The act of lying where Mr. Bleaney once lay and stubbing out cigarettes (“fags”) symbolizes an acceptance or continuation of his lifestyle, emphasizing the room as a cycle of routine and insignificance.
“On the same saucer-souvenir, and try”A “saucer-souvenir” is a cheap memento, highlighting the banality and meager joy in Mr. Bleaney’s life, now continued by the speaker.
“Stuffing my ears with cotton-wool, to drown”The speaker’s attempt to block out noise implies discomfort and a desire for isolation or escape, suggesting a dissatisfaction with the space and the life it represents.
“The jabbering set he egged her on to buy.”The “jabbering set” (likely a radio or television) emphasizes the mundane, shallow interests of Mr. Bleaney and possibly his efforts to fill the silence or loneliness of his life.
“I know his habits – what time he came down,”The speaker’s familiarity with Mr. Bleaney’s routines reflects the monotony and predictability of his life, almost as if these habits are all that define him.
“His preference for sauce to gravy, why”This trivial detail underscores the insignificance of Mr. Bleaney’s preferences, hinting at how little impact he had on the world around him.
“He kept on plugging at the four aways -““Four aways” likely refers to betting on horse races, suggesting Mr. Bleaney’s attempts to add excitement or hope to his life, yet ultimately remaining unfulfilled.
“Likewise their yearly frame: the Frinton folk”Mr. Bleaney’s life is marked by a predictable routine, such as annual visits with “the Frinton folk,” emphasizing the cyclical and somewhat stagnant nature of his existence.
“Who put him up for summer holidays,”His holidays are spent visiting others, implying a lack of a personal life or home of his own, highlighting a sense of dependence or lack of belonging.
“And Christmas at his sister’s house in Stoke.”Spending Christmas with his sister suggests that family ties are his only connection, but even these are modest and distant.
“But if he stood and watched the frigid wind”This line introduces a moment of introspection, where Mr. Bleaney may have contemplated his life, symbolized by the “frigid wind,” which suggests a harsh, cold reality.
“Tousling the clouds, lay on the fusty bed”The “fusty bed” symbolizes the decayed or stagnant state of Mr. Bleaney’s life, which is filled with thoughts but little action or change.
“Telling himself that this was home, and grinned,”Mr. Bleaney’s grim acceptance or forced contentment reflects a life of resignation. His “grin” could imply a bitter recognition of his situation or an attempt to reassure himself of a false comfort.
“And shivered, without shaking off the dread”Despite his efforts to feel content, a “dread” lingers, suggesting an underlying awareness of his unfulfilled life, highlighting his existential fear.
“That how we live measures our own nature,”This line introduces the idea that one’s lifestyle reflects one’s inner essence, implying that Mr. Bleaney’s life may be self-determined, shaped by his own lack of ambition or courage.
“And at his age having no more to show”Mr. Bleaney’s life is summed up as having little to show for it, pointing to the fear that life may ultimately be empty or unremarkable.
“Than one hired box should make him pretty sure”“One hired box” could refer to both the rented room and, metaphorically, a coffin, symbolizing a life that ends in a confined, insignificant space.
“He warranted no better, I don’t know.”The speaker is uncertain, contemplating whether Mr. Bleaney’s modest life was deserved. This line captures Larkin’s ambivalence and the theme of existential doubt that pervades the poem.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration“On the same saucer-souvenir, and try”The repetition of the initial “f” sound draws attention to the harshness of Mr. Bleaney’s life and the cold, uninviting atmosphere surrounding him, adding to the bleak tone.
Ambiguity“He warranted no better, I don’t know.”The uncertain ending leaves room for multiple interpretations about whether Mr. Bleaney’s life was indeed the best he could have achieved or if it was self-inflicted.
Assonance“plugging at the four aways”The repetition of the “a” sound in “aways” and “at” creates a rhythmic quality that mirrors Mr. Bleaney’s repetitive and mundane habits, like gambling.
Caesura“He warranted no better, I don’t know.”The pause created by the comma slows the line, giving readers a moment to reflect on the speaker’s uncertainty about Mr. Bleaney’s life choices.
Connotation“fusty bed”The term “fusty” suggests not only an old, musty smell but also a life that has become stale and neglected, adding a negative connotation to Mr. Bleaney’s existence.
Contrast“Christmas at his sister’s house in Stoke”Contrast is present between expected holiday warmth and the unremarkable setting (“Stoke”), underscoring the ordinariness of Mr. Bleaney’s life, even during typically festive times.
Dialogue“‘This was Mr Bleaney’s room. He stayed…”The poem begins with dialogue from the landlord, grounding the reader in the reality of the rented room and emphasizing the impersonal nature of Mr. Bleaney’s existence.
Diction“jabbering set”Larkin’s choice of the word “jabbering” implies mindless noise, suggesting the lack of meaningful engagement or conversation in Mr. Bleaney’s life.
End-stop“And Christmas at his sister’s house in Stoke.”The line ends decisively, marking the finality and limitation of Mr. Bleaney’s life, punctuated by this yearly ritual with his family.
Enjambment“no room for books or bags – / ‘I’ll take it.'”The lack of pause between these lines conveys the speaker’s immediate acceptance of the room, mirroring his resignation and quick adaptation to Mr. Bleaney’s lifestyle.
Imagery“Flowered curtains, thin and frayed”Vivid imagery paints the room as worn and neglected, setting a tone of decay and poverty that reflects Mr. Bleaney’s life.
Irony“telling himself that this was home, and grinned”There’s an irony in Mr. Bleaney’s attempt to find comfort in a drab, uninviting room, showing his forced contentment in a life lacking genuine fulfillment.
Metaphor“one hired box”“Hired box” metaphorically represents both the rented room and, potentially, a coffin, symbolizing the emptiness and confinement of Mr. Bleaney’s life and foreshadowing its inevitable end.
MotifRepetition of “Mr. Bleaney”The repeated mention of Mr. Bleaney’s name emphasizes his identity as bound to this single, unimpressive room and life, underscoring his lack of individuality and accomplishment.
Personification“jabbering set”The “jabbering set” (likely a radio) is given human-like qualities, implying that it talks incessantly, symbolizing Mr. Bleaney’s dependency on artificial company to fill the silence of his life.
Point of ViewFirst-person narrationThe speaker narrates from a first-person perspective, providing an intimate view into his thoughts about Mr. Bleaney and the unsettling realization that he may share Mr. Bleaney’s fate.
Repetition“Mr Bleaney”Repeating Mr. Bleaney’s name makes it memorable and reinforces his identity as linked solely to his mundane, isolated existence.
Rhyme SchemeABABThe consistent rhyme scheme mirrors the routine and predictability of Mr. Bleaney’s life, contributing to the poem’s tone of monotony and inevitability.
Simile“like sauce to gravy”This simile highlights trivial aspects of Mr. Bleaney’s life, pointing to the lack of meaningful choices and underscoring his mundane, limited existence.
Symbolism“saucer-souvenir”The souvenir represents Mr. Bleaney’s small, insignificant possessions and hints at his desire to hold on to memories, despite the transient nature of his life.
Themes: “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
  1. Isolation and Alienation: The poem paints a picture of Mr. Bleaney as a lonely, isolated figure, embodied in his meager living space. Details like “no room for books or bags” and the “sixty-watt bulb” that barely lights his room suggest a life stripped of warmth, connection, and personal significance. His world is confined to a rented, impersonal room that lacks even basic amenities or space to store personal items, underscoring his limited, alienated existence. Larkin uses the setting as an extension of Mr. Bleaney’s life, which seems devoid of close relationships or community, save for his occasional visits to family or the “Frinton folk” who host him once a year. This alienation reflects the broader theme of societal detachment, where individuals become lost in their own isolated worlds.
  2. Monotony and Routine: Mr. Bleaney’s life is characterized by predictable, mundane routines that reveal the monotony he endured. The speaker notes, “I know his habits,” listing small, repetitive details such as his preference for “sauce to gravy” and his persistent “plugging at the four aways” (likely referring to gambling). These routines create a sense of stasis, reflecting a life lived in repetitive cycles with little to no progression. Even the physical environment of Mr. Bleaney’s room—plain, functional, and devoid of personality—mirrors this repetitive existence. This monotonous pattern suggests that his life, like many others, is marked by stagnation, lacking excitement or ambition, trapped in a cycle that offers little variety or fulfillment.
  3. Mortality and Existential Dread: Larkin subtly weaves a contemplation of mortality and the fear of a life without purpose through Mr. Bleaney’s story. The poem’s closing lines capture this existential anxiety: “how we live measures our own nature,” implying that Mr. Bleaney’s limited life reflects a fundamental truth about his character. The line “one hired box” functions as a metaphor for both the rented room and a coffin, suggesting that his life, devoid of achievement or legacy, will end as unremarkably as it was lived. This theme highlights a fear shared by many—that a life passed in obscurity and insignificance may lead to a death just as unnoticed, with little evidence of one’s existence.
  4. Identity and Self-Worth: The poem raises questions about how a person’s identity is shaped by their environment and lifestyle. The speaker finds himself occupying the same room as Mr. Bleaney, adopting his routines, and even beginning to see himself as a continuation of Mr. Bleaney’s life. This blending of identities implies that one’s environment can heavily influence or even erase individual identity. The speaker’s attempt to empathize with Mr. Bleaney, yet ending on an uncertain note—”He warranted no better, I don’t know”—suggests that the boundaries of identity are fragile, easily molded by external circumstances. It also reflects the fear that one’s self-worth might be defined by their achievements or lack thereof, as symbolized by the room, a microcosm of Mr. Bleaney’s limited and uneventful existence.
Literary Theories and “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
Literary TheoryExplanationReferences from “Mr. Bleaney”
ExistentialismThis theory focuses on the meaning of human existence, the inevitability of death, and the isolation of the individual. Existentialist literature often explores themes of alienation, dread, and the search for purpose, all evident in “Mr. Bleaney.”The line, “how we live measures our own nature,” suggests an existential view that one’s life is self-determined, implying that Mr. Bleaney’s lack of meaning is a reflection of his choices. The speaker’s final line, “I don’t know,” reflects existential doubt and the anxiety surrounding a life perceived as insignificant.
Marxist CriticismMarxist theory examines class structures, social inequality, and how economic conditions shape human lives. Larkin’s portrayal of Mr. Bleaney highlights the impact of working-class limitations on one’s lifestyle, choices, and identity.Mr. Bleaney’s rented room, with “flowered curtains, thin and frayed” and a single “sixty-watt bulb,” reflects a lack of resources and limited opportunities often associated with working-class life. His inability to own a home or accumulate wealth marks him as part of the economically marginalized.
New HistoricismNew Historicism examines a text within its historical and cultural context, looking at how societal norms influence its themes and characters. Post-war Britain, with its socioeconomic issues, influenced Larkin’s portrayal of Mr. Bleaney’s life.The post-war setting of “Mr. Bleaney” reflects the cultural and economic realities of 1950s Britain, where many lived in rented rooms, limited by economic recovery and class structure. The “frigid wind” and bleak view from the window suggest a cold, uninviting world reflective of post-war disillusionment.
Critical Questions about “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
  • How does Larkin portray the concept of home in “Mr. Bleaney”?
  • Larkin portrays “home” in “Mr. Bleaney” as a transient, impersonal space that lacks warmth and identity, contrasting with traditional notions of comfort and belonging. Mr. Bleaney’s room is described with details like “flowered curtains, thin and frayed” and “a sixty-watt bulb,” highlighting its meager and impersonal nature. The speaker lies “where Mr. Bleaney lay” and uses the same items, even stubbing his cigarettes on the same “saucer-souvenir,” creating a sense of continuity but also of emptiness, as if the space itself absorbs and defines the occupants’ lives without offering genuine comfort. This portrayal suggests that, for individuals like Mr. Bleaney, home is not a place of refuge or self-expression but rather a space of resigned existence.
  • What role does monotony play in shaping the poem’s themes?
  • Monotony in “Mr. Bleaney” underscores themes of existential emptiness and the limitations of working-class life. The speaker describes Mr. Bleaney’s routine, noting that he spent holidays with “the Frinton folk” and had Christmas “at his sister’s house in Stoke.” This yearly repetition, along with details of his “preference for sauce to gravy” and his habit of “plugging at the four aways,” paints a life driven by habit rather than passion. The predictability of these routines emphasizes the lack of progression or fulfillment, suggesting a life that is as worn and neglected as the room he occupied.
  • How does the speaker’s perspective influence the portrayal of Mr. Bleaney?
  • The speaker’s perspective in “Mr. Bleaney” is crucial in shaping our view of the titular character, as it combines observation with judgment and speculation. While the speaker shares facts about Mr. Bleaney’s routines and preferences, he also projects his own existential doubts, wondering if “how we live measures our own nature.” This statement reflects the speaker’s internal conflict and suggests that he may see parts of himself in Mr. Bleaney, creating an ambivalent tone. His final words, “I don’t know,” reveal an unsettling uncertainty about whether Mr. Bleaney’s life was all he could expect, leaving readers to question if we’re all destined for similar obscurity.
  • What does the poem suggest about identity and personal worth?
  • “Mr. Bleaney” suggests that identity and personal worth can be limited by external circumstances, leading individuals to adopt a life of resignation. Mr. Bleaney’s identity is tied entirely to his room, and his habits are mundane, including his annual holiday routine and his betting habit. The speaker adopts these habits, reflecting on whether this lack of distinction or legacy defines one’s worth. The line “one hired box” symbolizes Mr. Bleaney’s lack of ownership, suggesting that he left little behind. The poem implies that identity can be shaped by one’s environment and societal position, where even self-worth is influenced by the narrow confines of one’s circumstances.
Literary Works Similar to “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
  • “The Unknown Citizen” by W.H. Auden
    Like “Mr. Bleaney”, this poem explores themes of anonymity and the mundane life of an individual defined solely by social statistics and trivial facts. Both poems delve into the idea of a life lived without true individuality or fulfillment, leaving readers questioning the worth of such a life.
  • “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot
    Although more expansive, “The Waste Land” presents a similarly fragmented view of life filled with disillusionment and existential despair. Larkin’s bleak portrayal of Mr. Bleaney’s room and his repetitive routines echo the desolate tone and themes of cultural and personal decay found in Eliot’s poem.
  • “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
    While “Richard Cory” portrays a seemingly successful man, it ultimately reveals a deeper despair and loneliness, resonating with “Mr. Bleaney”‘s exploration of unfulfilled lives. Both poems probe beneath the surface to expose the existential emptiness that individuals may hide or ignore.
  • “Aubade” by Philip Larkin
    Another of Larkin’s own works, “Aubade” directly addresses themes of mortality and the fear of an unremarkable life, much like “Mr. Bleaney”. It explores the inevitability of death and the resulting dread, reflecting the existential doubts about purpose and meaning expressed in Mr. Bleaney’s sparse existence.
Representative Quotations of “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“This was Mr Bleaney’s room. He stayed / The whole time he was at the Bodies, till / They moved him.”The poem opens by emphasizing Mr. Bleaney’s transient and impersonal existence, defined solely by his rented room and job.Existentialism – This line sets a tone of alienation, portraying Mr. Bleaney as defined by his circumstances rather than fulfillment.
“Flowered curtains, thin and frayed, / Fall to within five inches of the sill.”The description of the worn curtains reflects Mr. Bleaney’s modest, somewhat neglected living environment.Marxist Criticism – The frayed curtains suggest economic limitations, hinting at the restricted life of the working class.
“Bed, upright chair, sixty-watt bulb, no hook / Behind the door, no room for books or bags -“The sparse furnishings convey a lack of comfort or luxury in Mr. Bleaney’s life.Minimalism – The minimalistic room represents a life stripped of personal identity, mirroring the emptiness of modern existence.
“‘I’ll take it.’ So it happens that I lie / Where Mr Bleaney lay, and stub my fags / On the same saucer-souvenir…”The speaker, now occupying the room, begins to replicate Mr. Bleaney’s habits, hinting at a continuity of emptiness.Psychoanalytic Criticism – The speaker’s merging of habits reflects a subconscious fear of inheriting Mr. Bleaney’s bleak life.
“I know his habits – what time he came down, / His preference for sauce to gravy…”The speaker lists Mr. Bleaney’s small routines, underscoring a life governed by habit rather than meaning.Structuralism – The repetitive details of Mr. Bleaney’s life show how mundane patterns come to define personal identity.
“Likewise their yearly frame: the Frinton folk / Who put him up for summer holidays…”Mr. Bleaney’s reliance on predictable annual visits underscores the monotony of his life.New Historicism – The reference to yearly rituals reflects the socio-economic restrictions of post-war Britain.
“But if he stood and watched the frigid wind / Tousling the clouds…”Mr. Bleaney’s contemplation of the bleak landscape hints at introspection and loneliness.Romanticism – The natural imagery provides a rare moment of reflection, as if the cold setting mirrors his inner emptiness.
“And shivered, without shaking off the dread / That how we live measures our own nature…”This line suggests that Mr. Bleaney’s limited life might reflect deeper personal limitations.Existentialism – The idea that life reflects “nature” echoes existentialist views on personal responsibility and self-definition.
“And at his age having no more to show / Than one hired box should make him pretty sure / He warranted no better…”The description of Mr. Bleaney’s sparse existence suggests he has little to show for his life.Marxist Criticism – The “hired box” represents his economic constraints, suggesting that his circumstances reflect a working-class fate.
“I don’t know.”The poem concludes with the speaker’s uncertainty about Mr. Bleaney’s life, leaving the meaning ambiguous.Postmodernism – The unresolved ending reflects postmodern themes of uncertainty, questioning whether life has any inherent value.
Suggested Readings: “Mr. Bleaney” by Philip Larkin
  1. Scofield, Martin. “The Poetry of Philip Larkin.” The Massachusetts Review, vol. 17, no. 2, 1976, pp. 370–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25088642. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  2. Longino, Victoria. “THE ALIEN MOMENT: PHILIP LARKIN AND GENDER.” Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies (HJEAS), vol. 9, no. 2, 2003, pp. 91–104. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41274239. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  3. ROWLAND, ANTONY. “‘All Is Not Dead’: Philip Larkin, Humanism and Class.” Critical Survey, vol. 10, no. 2, 1998, pp. 1–14. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41556757. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  4. Banerjee, A. “Larkin Reconsidered.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 116, no. 3, 2008, pp. 428–41. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27507700. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  5. SNOWDON, PETER. “Larkin’s Conceit.” Critical Survey, vol. 3, no. 1, 1991, pp. 61–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41555555. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  6. WATSON, J. R. “Clichés and Common Speech in Philip Larkin’s Poetry.” Critical Survey, vol. 1, no. 2, 1989, pp. 149–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41556488. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.

“Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti: A Critical Analysis

“Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti first appeared in 1862 as part of her poetry collection titled Goblin Market and Other Poems.

"Goblin Market" by Christina Rossetti: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti

“Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti first appeared in 1862 as part of her poetry collection titled Goblin Market and Other Poems. This narrative poem delves into themes of temptation, sacrifice, and sisterly devotion, following two sisters, Laura and Lizzie, who encounter mysterious goblin merchants offering enticing but forbidden fruit. Rossetti crafts a richly symbolic allegory that has been variously interpreted as a critique of Victorian consumerism, a moral tale on purity, and an exploration of female solidarity and resilience. The poem’s popularity has endured due to its vibrant language, rhythmic cadence, and multilayered meanings, inviting readers to examine it through diverse symbolic perspectives, making it a lasting subject of literary analysis and feminist study.

Text: “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti

Morning and evening

Maids heard the goblins cry:

“Come buy our orchard fruits,

Come buy, come buy:

Apples and quinces,

Lemons and oranges,

Plump unpeck’d cherries,

Melons and raspberries,

Bloom-down-cheek’d peaches,

Swart-headed mulberries,

Wild free-born cranberries,

Crab-apples, dewberries,

Pine-apples, blackberries,

Apricots, strawberries;—

All ripe together

In summer weather,—

Morns that pass by,

Fair eves that fly;

Come buy, come buy:

Our grapes fresh from the vine,

Pomegranates full and fine,

Dates and sharp bullaces,

Rare pears and greengages,

Damsons and bilberries,

Taste them and try:

Currants and gooseberries,

Bright-fire-like barberries,

Figs to fill your mouth,

Citrons from the South,

Sweet to tongue and sound to eye;

Come buy, come buy.”

Evening by evening

Among the brookside rushes,

Laura bow’d her head to hear,

Lizzie veil’d her blushes:

Crouching close together

In the cooling weather,

With clasping arms and cautioning lips,

With tingling cheeks and finger tips.

“Lie close,” Laura said,

Pricking up her golden head:

“We must not look at goblin men,

We must not buy their fruits:

Who knows upon what soil they fed

Their hungry thirsty roots?”

“Come buy,” call the goblins

Hobbling down the glen.

“Oh,” cried Lizzie, “Laura, Laura,

You should not peep at goblin men.”

Lizzie cover’d up her eyes,

Cover’d close lest they should look;

Laura rear’d her glossy head,

And whisper’d like the restless brook:

“Look, Lizzie, look, Lizzie,

Down the glen tramp little men.

One hauls a basket,

One bears a plate,

One lugs a golden dish

Of many pounds weight.

How fair the vine must grow

Whose grapes are so luscious;

How warm the wind must blow

Through those fruit bushes.”

“No,” said Lizzie, “No, no, no;

Their offers should not charm us,

Their evil gifts would harm us.”

She thrust a dimpled finger

In each ear, shut eyes and ran:

Curious Laura chose to linger

Wondering at each merchant man.

One had a cat’s face,

One whisk’d a tail,

One tramp’d at a rat’s pace,

One crawl’d like a snail,

One like a wombat prowl’d obtuse and furry,

One like a ratel tumbled hurry skurry.

She heard a voice like voice of doves

Cooing all together:

They sounded kind and full of loves

In the pleasant weather.

Laura stretch’d her gleaming neck

Like a rush-imbedded swan,

Like a lily from the beck,

Like a moonlit poplar branch,

Like a vessel at the launch

When its last restraint is gone.

Backwards up the mossy glen

Turn’d and troop’d the goblin men,

With their shrill repeated cry,

“Come buy, come buy.”

When they reach’d where Laura was

They stood stock still upon the moss,

Leering at each other,

Brother with queer brother;

Signalling each other,

Brother with sly brother.

One set his basket down,

One rear’d his plate;

One began to weave a crown

Of tendrils, leaves, and rough nuts brown

(Men sell not such in any town);

One heav’d the golden weight

Of dish and fruit to offer her:

“Come buy, come buy,” was still their cry.

Laura stared but did not stir,

Long’d but had no money:

The whisk-tail’d merchant bade her taste

In tones as smooth as honey,

The cat-faced purr’d,

The rat-faced spoke a word

Of welcome, and the snail-paced even was heard;

One parrot-voiced and jolly

Cried “Pretty Goblin” still for “Pretty Polly;”—

One whistled like a bird.

But sweet-tooth Laura spoke in haste:

“Good folk, I have no coin;

To take were to purloin:

I have no copper in my purse,

I have no silver either,

And all my gold is on the furze

That shakes in windy weather

Above the rusty heather.”

“You have much gold upon your head,”

They answer’d all together:

“Buy from us with a golden curl.”

She clipp’d a precious golden lock,

She dropp’d a tear more rare than pearl,

Then suck’d their fruit globes fair or red:

Sweeter than honey from the rock,

Stronger than man-rejoicing wine,

Clearer than water flow’d that juice;

She never tasted such before,

How should it cloy with length of use?

She suck’d and suck’d and suck’d the more

Fruits which that unknown orchard bore;

She suck’d until her lips were sore;

Then flung the emptied rinds away

But gather’d up one kernel stone,

And knew not was it night or day

As she turn’d home alone.

Lizzie met her at the gate

Full of wise upbraidings:

“Dear, you should not stay so late,

Twilight is not good for maidens;

Should not loiter in the glen

In the haunts of goblin men.

Do you not remember Jeanie,

How she met them in the moonlight,

Took their gifts both choice and many,

Ate their fruits and wore their flowers

Pluck’d from bowers

Where summer ripens at all hours?

But ever in the noonlight

She pined and pined away;

Sought them by night and day,

Found them no more, but dwindled and grew grey;

Then fell with the first snow,

While to this day no grass will grow

Where she lies low:

I planted daisies there a year ago

That never blow.

You should not loiter so.”

“Nay, hush,” said Laura:

“Nay, hush, my sister:

I ate and ate my fill,

Yet my mouth waters still;

To-morrow night I will

Buy more;” and kiss’d her:

“Have done with sorrow;

I’ll bring you plums to-morrow

Fresh on their mother twigs,

Cherries worth getting;

You cannot think what figs

My teeth have met in,

What melons icy-cold

Piled on a dish of gold

Too huge for me to hold,

What peaches with a velvet nap,

Pellucid grapes without one seed:

Odorous indeed must be the mead

Whereon they grow, and pure the wave they drink

With lilies at the brink,

And sugar-sweet their sap.”

Golden head by golden head,

Like two pigeons in one nest

Folded in each other’s wings,

They lay down in their curtain’d bed:

Like two blossoms on one stem,

Like two flakes of new-fall’n snow,

Like two wands of ivory

Tipp’d with gold for awful kings.

Moon and stars gaz’d in at them,

Wind sang to them lullaby,

Lumbering owls forbore to fly,

Not a bat flapp’d to and fro

Round their rest:

Cheek to cheek and breast to breast

Lock’d together in one nest.

Early in the morning

When the first cock crow’d his warning,

Neat like bees, as sweet and busy,

Laura rose with Lizzie:

Fetch’d in honey, milk’d the cows,

Air’d and set to rights the house,

Kneaded cakes of whitest wheat,

Cakes for dainty mouths to eat,

Next churn’d butter, whipp’d up cream,

Fed their poultry, sat and sew’d;

Talk’d as modest maidens should:

Lizzie with an open heart,

Laura in an absent dream,

One content, one sick in part;

One warbling for the mere bright day’s delight,

One longing for the night.

At length slow evening came:

They went with pitchers to the reedy brook;

Lizzie most placid in her look,

Laura most like a leaping flame.

They drew the gurgling water from its deep;

Lizzie pluck’d purple and rich golden flags,

Then turning homeward said: “The sunset flushes

Those furthest loftiest crags;

Come, Laura, not another maiden lags.

No wilful squirrel wags,

The beasts and birds are fast asleep.”

But Laura loiter’d still among the rushes

And said the bank was steep.

And said the hour was early still

The dew not fall’n, the wind not chill;

Listening ever, but not catching

The customary cry,

“Come buy, come buy,”

With its iterated jingle

Of sugar-baited words:

Not for all her watching

Once discerning even one goblin

Racing, whisking, tumbling, hobbling;

Let alone the herds

That used to tramp along the glen,

In groups or single,

Of brisk fruit-merchant men.

Till Lizzie urged, “O Laura, come;

I hear the fruit-call but I dare not look:

You should not loiter longer at this brook:

Come with me home.

The stars rise, the moon bends her arc,

Each glowworm winks her spark,

Let us get home before the night grows dark:

For clouds may gather

Though this is summer weather,

Put out the lights and drench us through;

Then if we lost our way what should we do?”

Laura turn’d cold as stone

To find her sister heard that cry alone,

That goblin cry,

“Come buy our fruits, come buy.”

Must she then buy no more such dainty fruit?

Must she no more such succous pasture find,

Gone deaf and blind?

Her tree of life droop’d from the root:

She said not one word in her heart’s sore ache;

But peering thro’ the dimness, nought discerning,

Trudg’d home, her pitcher dripping all the way;

So crept to bed, and lay

Silent till Lizzie slept;

Then sat up in a passionate yearning,

And gnash’d her teeth for baulk’d desire, and wept

As if her heart would break.

Day after day, night after night,

Laura kept watch in vain

In sullen silence of exceeding pain.

She never caught again the goblin cry:

“Come buy, come buy;”—

She never spied the goblin men

Hawking their fruits along the glen:

But when the noon wax’d bright

Her hair grew thin and grey;

She dwindled, as the fair full moon doth turn

To swift decay and burn

Her fire away.

One day remembering her kernel-stone

She set it by a wall that faced the south;

Dew’d it with tears, hoped for a root,

Watch’d for a waxing shoot,

But there came none;

It never saw the sun,

It never felt the trickling moisture run:

While with sunk eyes and faded mouth

She dream’d of melons, as a traveller sees

False waves in desert drouth

With shade of leaf-crown’d trees,

And burns the thirstier in the sandful breeze.

She no more swept the house,

Tended the fowls or cows,

Fetch’d honey, kneaded cakes of wheat,

Brought water from the brook:

But sat down listless in the chimney-nook

And would not eat.

Tender Lizzie could not bear

To watch her sister’s cankerous care

Yet not to share.

She night and morning

Caught the goblins’ cry:

“Come buy our orchard fruits,

Come buy, come buy;”—

Beside the brook, along the glen,

She heard the tramp of goblin men,

The yoke and stir

Poor Laura could not hear;

Long’d to buy fruit to comfort her,

But fear’d to pay too dear.

She thought of Jeanie in her grave,

Who should have been a bride;

But who for joys brides hope to have

Fell sick and died

In her gay prime,

In earliest winter time

With the first glazing rime,

With the first snow-fall of crisp winter time.

Till Laura dwindling

Seem’d knocking at Death’s door:

Then Lizzie weigh’d no more

Better and worse;

But put a silver penny in her purse,

Kiss’d Laura, cross’d the heath with clumps of furze

At twilight, halted by the brook:

And for the first time in her life

Began to listen and look.

Laugh’d every goblin

When they spied her peeping:

Came towards her hobbling,

Flying, running, leaping,

Puffing and blowing,

Chuckling, clapping, crowing,

Clucking and gobbling,

Mopping and mowing,

Full of airs and graces,

Pulling wry faces,

Demure grimaces,

Cat-like and rat-like,

Ratel- and wombat-like,

Snail-paced in a hurry,

Parrot-voiced and whistler,

Helter skelter, hurry skurry,

Chattering like magpies,

Fluttering like pigeons,

Gliding like fishes,—

Hugg’d her and kiss’d her:

Squeez’d and caress’d her:

Stretch’d up their dishes,

Panniers, and plates:

“Look at our apples

Russet and dun,

Bob at our cherries,

Bite at our peaches,

Citrons and dates,

Grapes for the asking,

Pears red with basking

Out in the sun,

Plums on their twigs;

Pluck them and suck them,

Pomegranates, figs.”—

“Good folk,” said Lizzie,

Mindful of Jeanie:

“Give me much and many: —

Held out her apron,

Toss’d them her penny.

“Nay, take a seat with us,

Honour and eat with us,”

They answer’d grinning:

“Our feast is but beginning.

Night yet is early,

Warm and dew-pearly,

Wakeful and starry:

Such fruits as these

No man can carry:

Half their bloom would fly,

Half their dew would dry,

Half their flavour would pass by.

Sit down and feast with us,

Be welcome guest with us,

Cheer you and rest with us.”—

“Thank you,” said Lizzie: “But one waits

At home alone for me:

So without further parleying,

If you will not sell me any

Of your fruits though much and many,

Give me back my silver penny

I toss’d you for a fee.”—

They began to scratch their pates,

No longer wagging, purring,

But visibly demurring,

Grunting and snarling.

One call’d her proud,

Cross-grain’d, uncivil;

Their tones wax’d loud,

Their looks were evil.

Lashing their tails

They trod and hustled her,

Elbow’d and jostled her,

Claw’d with their nails,

Barking, mewing, hissing, mocking,

Tore her gown and soil’d her stocking,

Twitch’d her hair out by the roots,

Stamp’d upon her tender feet,

Held her hands and squeez’d their fruits

Against her mouth to make her eat.

White and golden Lizzie stood,

Like a lily in a flood,—

Like a rock of blue-vein’d stone

Lash’d by tides obstreperously,—

Like a beacon left alone

In a hoary roaring sea,

Sending up a golden fire,—

Like a fruit-crown’d orange-tree

White with blossoms honey-sweet

Sore beset by wasp and bee,—

Like a royal virgin town

Topp’d with gilded dome and spire

Close beleaguer’d by a fleet

Mad to tug her standard down.

One may lead a horse to water,

Twenty cannot make him drink.

Though the goblins cuff’d and caught her,

Coax’d and fought her,

Bullied and besought her,

Scratch’d her, pinch’d her black as ink,

Kick’d and knock’d her,

Maul’d and mock’d her,

Lizzie utter’d not a word;

Would not open lip from lip

Lest they should cram a mouthful in:

But laugh’d in heart to feel the drip

Of juice that syrupp’d all her face,

And lodg’d in dimples of her chin,

And streak’d her neck which quaked like curd.

At last the evil people,

Worn out by her resistance,

Flung back her penny, kick’d their fruit

Along whichever road they took,

Not leaving root or stone or shoot;

Some writh’d into the ground,

Some div’d into the brook

With ring and ripple,

Some scudded on the gale without a sound,

Some vanish’d in the distance.

In a smart, ache, tingle,

Lizzie went her way;

Knew not was it night or day;

Sprang up the bank, tore thro’ the furze,

Threaded copse and dingle,

And heard her penny jingle

Bouncing in her purse,—

Its bounce was music to her ear.

She ran and ran

As if she fear’d some goblin man

Dogg’d her with gibe or curse

Or something worse:

But not one goblin scurried after,

Nor was she prick’d by fear;

The kind heart made her windy-paced

That urged her home quite out of breath with haste

And inward laughter.

She cried, “Laura,” up the garden,

“Did you miss me?

Come and kiss me.

Never mind my bruises,

Hug me, kiss me, suck my juices

Squeez’d from goblin fruits for you,

Goblin pulp and goblin dew.

Eat me, drink me, love me;

Laura, make much of me;

For your sake I have braved the glen

And had to do with goblin merchant men.”

Laura started from her chair,

Flung her arms up in the air,

Clutch’d her hair:

“Lizzie, Lizzie, have you tasted

For my sake the fruit forbidden?

Must your light like mine be hidden,

Your young life like mine be wasted,

Undone in mine undoing,

And ruin’d in my ruin,

Thirsty, canker’d, goblin-ridden?”—

She clung about her sister,

Kiss’d and kiss’d and kiss’d her:

Tears once again

Refresh’d her shrunken eyes,

Dropping like rain

After long sultry drouth;

Shaking with aguish fear, and pain,

She kiss’d and kiss’d her with a hungry mouth.

Her lips began to scorch,

That juice was wormwood to her tongue,

She loath’d the feast:

Writhing as one possess’d she leap’d and sung,

Rent all her robe, and wrung

Her hands in lamentable haste,

And beat her breast.

Her locks stream’d like the torch

Borne by a racer at full speed,

Or like the mane of horses in their flight,

Or like an eagle when she stems the light

Straight toward the sun,

Or like a caged thing freed,

Or like a flying flag when armies run.

Swift fire spread through her veins, knock’d at her heart,

Met the fire smouldering there

And overbore its lesser flame;

She gorged on bitterness without a name:

Ah! fool, to choose such part

Of soul-consuming care!

Sense fail’d in the mortal strife:

Like the watch-tower of a town

Which an earthquake shatters down,

Like a lightning-stricken mast,

Like a wind-uprooted tree

Spun about,

Like a foam-topp’d waterspout

Cast down headlong in the sea,

She fell at last;

Pleasure past and anguish past,

Is it death or is it life?

Life out of death.

That night long Lizzie watch’d by her,

Counted her pulse’s flagging stir,

Felt for her breath,

Held water to her lips, and cool’d her face

With tears and fanning leaves:

But when the first birds chirp’d about their eaves,

And early reapers plodded to the place

Of golden sheaves,

And dew-wet grass

Bow’d in the morning winds so brisk to pass,

And new buds with new day

Open’d of cup-like lilies on the stream,

Laura awoke as from a dream,

Laugh’d in the innocent old way,

Hugg’d Lizzie but not twice or thrice;

Her gleaming locks show’d not one thread of grey,

Her breath was sweet as May

And light danced in her eyes.

Days, weeks, months, years

Afterwards, when both were wives

With children of their own;

Their mother-hearts beset with fears,

Their lives bound up in tender lives;

Laura would call the little ones

And tell them of her early prime,

Those pleasant days long gone

Of not-returning time:

Would talk about the haunted glen,

The wicked, quaint fruit-merchant men,

Their fruits like honey to the throat

But poison in the blood;

(Men sell not such in any town):

Would tell them how her sister stood

In deadly peril to do her good,

And win the fiery antidote:

Then joining hands to little hands

Would bid them cling together,

“For there is no friend like a sister

In calm or stormy weather;

To cheer one on the tedious way,

To fetch one if one goes astray,

To lift one if one totters down,

To strengthen whilst one stands.”

Annotations: “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
StanzaAnnotation
“Morning and evening… Come buy, come buy.”The poem opens with goblins enticing young women with enchanting fruits, establishing a mysterious and foreboding atmosphere.
“Evening by evening… finger tips.”Laura and Lizzie’s different responses to the goblins highlight curiosity versus caution, setting up a theme of temptation and moral integrity.
“Laura rear’d her glossy head… bushes.”Laura’s fascination with the goblins’ offerings symbolizes a desire to explore the forbidden, while Lizzie warns against it, underscoring the pull of temptation.
“We must not look at goblin men… linger.”Lizzie cautions Laura about the dangers of the goblins, symbolizing a moral awareness and self-restraint, but Laura’s curiosity wins over.
“One had a cat’s face… hurry skurry.”The goblins are described with grotesque, animalistic features, underscoring their otherworldly, possibly sinister nature and adding to the poem’s fantastical elements.
“Laura stretch’d her gleaming neck… gone.”Laura’s surrender to temptation is described through nature-based imagery, symbolizing her innocence at risk.
“Laura stared but did not stir… honey, The cat-faced purr’d”Laura sacrifices a “golden curl,” symbolizing how indulgence can demand a part of oneself, hinting at the cost of yielding to temptation.
“Lizzie met her at the gate… you should not loiter so.”Lizzie reminds Laura of Jeanie’s cautionary tale, adding to the poem’s moral dimension about purity and the risks of temptation.
“I ate and ate my fill… sugar-sweet their sap.”Laura’s insatiable desire for more fruit symbolizes addiction and the consuming nature of unchecked desires.
“Early in the morning… longing for the night.”The day-to-day routines contrast the supernatural events of the previous night, emphasizing the bond between the sisters and suggesting a moral simplicity.
“But Laura loiter’d still… fruit-merchant men.”Laura’s growing desperation, as she searches for the goblins, symbolizes her spiritual decline as her craving intensifies.
“Then if we lost our way… all the way;”Lizzie’s concern contrasts with Laura’s growing blindness and deafness to reason, depicting the loss of innocence and the descent into despair.
“One day remembering her kernel-stone… sandful breeze.”Laura’s attempt to grow the goblin fruit from a seed shows her yearning for more and her failure to escape the consequences of indulgence.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
DeviceExamplesExplanation
Alliteration“Maids heard the goblins cry”, “Crouching close together”The repetition of consonant sounds, particularly at the beginning of words, creates rhythm and musicality, enhancing the poem’s lyrical quality.
Allusion“Her tree of life droop’d from the root”References to biblical or mythological ideas, such as the “tree of life,” evoke themes of forbidden knowledge and temptation akin to the Garden of Eden.
Anaphora“She suck’d and suck’d and suck’d”Repetition of the phrase emphasizes Laura’s obsessive indulgence in the goblin fruits, highlighting her uncontrollable desire.
Assonance“Curious Laura chose to linger”, “Clasping arms”Repetition of vowel sounds adds a musical quality to the verse, often creating mood and enhancing the flow.
Consonance“With clasping arms and cautioning lips”The repetition of similar consonant sounds within words provides rhythm and texture, enhancing the intimacy and tension in the scene.
Enjambment“She suck’d until her lips were sore; Then flung the emptied rinds away”A sentence continues without a pause beyond the end of a line, which accelerates the pace and mirrors the urgency of Laura’s actions.
Imagery“Bloom-down-cheek’d peaches,”, “Bright-fire-like barberries”Vivid descriptions evoke the senses, creating mental images that make the goblin fruits and their allure tangible and tempting to the reader.
Internal Rhyme“Morns that pass by, Fair eves that fly;”Rhyming within a single line adds musicality, reinforcing the seductive and rhythmic appeal of the goblins’ chant.
Irony“The goblins who lure Laura with ‘love’ but intend harm”Despite the goblins’ pleasant appearance and sweet words, their intentions are malicious, showcasing the irony of their ‘kindness.’
Metaphor“Laura stretch’d her gleaming neck like a rush-imbedded swan”Laura is compared to a swan to symbolize her beauty and innocence, highlighting the contrast between her purity and the goblins’ corruptive influence.
Mood“Maids heard the goblins cry”, “In the cooling weather”The eerie and mysterious atmosphere, or mood, is created by using specific descriptions and words that evoke suspense and unease.
Onomatopoeia“Cooing,”, “Mewing,”, “Hissing”Words that mimic sounds reinforce the goblins’ animalistic traits, emphasizing their otherworldly nature.
Personification“And dew-wet grass Bow’d in the morning winds”Inanimate elements, like grass, are given human characteristics to make nature seem alive and dynamic, deepening the poem’s immersion in natural beauty.
Repetition“Come buy, come buy,”, “Suck’d and suck’d and suck’d”Repeated phrases emphasize the goblins’ persistent temptation and Laura’s insatiable craving, adding to the poem’s rhythmic allure.
Rhyme Scheme“Fruit to fill the mouth, Citrons from the south”The consistent rhyming pattern adds musicality and structure, underscoring the song-like quality of the goblin chant and making it memorable.
Simile“Like a lily from the beck,”, “Like a rush-imbedded swan”Similes compare Laura to pure and graceful objects, highlighting her innocence and the contrasting corruption of the goblins.
Symbolism“Golden curl,”, “Goblin fruit”The golden curl symbolizes Laura’s innocence and purity, while the goblin fruit represents forbidden temptation, lending deeper meaning to these objects.
Synesthesia“Sweet to tongue and sound to eye”Mixing sensory experiences, such as taste and sight, emphasizes the overwhelming allure of the goblin fruits and their almost magical appeal.
Tone“Laura’s desperate craving” vs. “Lizzie’s cautiousness”The tone shifts from caution to despair as Laura succumbs, creating a dynamic contrast that reflects the psychological journey of temptation and redemption.
Verse StructureIrregular rhyme scheme and stanza lengthsThe varied structure adds a sense of unpredictability, mirroring the goblins’ chaotic and alluring presence, and distinguishing this poem’s style.
Themes: “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
  1. Temptation and Desire: The theme of temptation is evident throughout Goblin Market, especially as the goblins lure Laura with their “orchard fruits,” using enticing calls to draw her attention: “Come buy our orchard fruits… Apples and quinces, / Lemons and oranges.” These fruits symbolize forbidden desires, and Laura’s inability to resist highlights the allure of indulgence. Her consumption of the fruit leads her into an obsessive craving, represented in the line, “I ate and ate my fill, / Yet my mouth waters still.” This overwhelming desire serves as a warning about the dangers of surrendering to one’s temptations.
  2. Sisterhood and Sacrifice: The bond between Laura and Lizzie underscores the poem’s focus on sisterhood and the strength found in familial love. Lizzie’s selfless act of facing the goblins to save Laura exemplifies the power of sacrificial love: “For your sake I have braved the glen / And had to do with goblin merchant men.” Lizzie endures abuse and humiliation to obtain the antidote for her sister, and her courage ultimately revives Laura, demonstrating that love and loyalty can overcome even the deepest despair and addiction.
  3. The Danger of Moral Transgression: Rossetti warns of the consequences of yielding to temptation through Laura’s plight after eating the goblin fruits. Once she partakes in the forbidden offering, she becomes sickly and begins to waste away, paralleling moral and physical degradation. Her hair “grew thin and grey,” and she “dwindled, as the fair full moon doth turn / To swift decay and burn / Her fire away.” The poem suggests that straying from moral integrity, as Laura does, leads to a form of spiritual death that only sacrifice and true repentance can heal.
  4. Redemption and Renewal: Despite Laura’s fall, her redemption is made possible through Lizzie’s brave intervention. When Lizzie confronts the goblins, she refuses to succumb to their pressure, becoming an instrument of salvation for her sister. After Lizzie brings Laura the antidote, Laura is rejuvenated, “Her breath was sweet as May / And light danced in her eyes.” This rebirth emphasizes the possibility of redemption, suggesting that even after the deepest moral failings, one can return to a state of purity and innocence through love, sacrifice, and repentance.
Literary Theories and “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
Literary TheoryApplication to Goblin MarketReferences from the Poem
Feminist TheoryGoblin Market can be analyzed as a critique of Victorian expectations of women’s purity and sexuality. The poem explores female autonomy, especially through Lizzie’s resilience against the goblins, and the solidarity shared between the sisters. Feminist readings often interpret the goblins’ attempts to lure women as symbolic of patriarchal control, while Lizzie’s refusal reflects a woman’s agency in resisting societal pressures.“For there is no friend like a sister… To strengthen whilst one stands.” Here, sisterhood is depicted as a source of strength and support against external temptations. Lizzie’s bravery in the face of goblins further highlights the power of female unity.
Marxist TheoryThrough a Marxist lens, the poem can be interpreted as a critique of capitalist consumerism. The goblins’ fruits represent seductive commodities, and the goblins as merchants symbolize manipulative capitalists. Laura’s initial consumption followed by her physical and moral decline underscores the dangers of unchecked material desire, while Lizzie’s resistance to buying their fruits suggests a rejection of exploitative consumer practices.“Come buy, come buy,” as the goblins repeatedly urge the sisters to purchase, reflects the incessant call of consumerism. Laura’s deteriorating state after indulging in the fruits represents the destructive effects of material excess.
Psychoanalytic TheoryFrom a psychoanalytic perspective, the goblins represent the id, tempting Laura’s unconscious desires, while Lizzie embodies the superego, attempting to enforce restraint. Laura’s succumbing to the fruit is symbolic of repressed desires surfacing, which leads to her “addiction” and moral decay. Lizzie’s intervention symbolizes the ego’s balancing force, allowing Laura to find resolution and healing.“I ate and ate my fill, / Yet my mouth waters still,” reflects Laura’s unrestrained indulgence in forbidden desires, symbolizing the overpowering force of the id. Lizzie’s resistance to the goblins contrasts as a display of moral self-control and discipline.
Critical Questions about “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
  • How does Rossetti portray the theme of temptation, and what might the goblin fruit symbolize in a moral or spiritual sense?
  • In “Goblin Market”, Rossetti presents temptation as both alluring and dangerous, with the goblin fruit representing an enticing yet forbidden indulgence. The fruits are described as “Apples and quinces, / Lemons and oranges, / Plump unpeck’d cherries,” evoking a sense of abundance and sensory appeal. However, Laura’s physical and spiritual decline after consuming the fruit suggests that the fruits symbolize more than a simple pleasure; they represent a dangerous surrender to desire. Laura’s transformation, as she grows “thin and grey” and “dwindles,” reflects the destructive consequences of succumbing to temptation, hinting that the goblin fruit serves as a moral warning against giving in to unchecked desires.
  • In what ways does the poem explore the bond between women, particularly through the relationship between Laura and Lizzie?
  • The bond between Laura and Lizzie is central to “Goblin Market”, symbolizing the strength of sisterhood and solidarity in overcoming challenges. Lizzie’s devotion to Laura, even as she sacrifices her own safety to confront the goblins, demonstrates the power of selfless love: “For your sake I have braved the glen / And had to do with goblin merchant men.” This sacrificial act emphasizes the redemptive power of love, especially between women, as Lizzie’s courageous act ultimately saves Laura. By highlighting their sisterly bond, Rossetti underscores a feminist theme of female unity and support, suggesting that women’s resilience is stronger when they stand together.
  • How does “Goblin Market” reflect Victorian societal views on women, morality, and purity?
  • “Goblin Market” reflects Victorian society’s emphasis on female purity and the consequences of transgressing moral boundaries. The character of Laura, who is initially curious about the goblins’ fruits despite warnings, can be seen as symbolizing a woman who defies societal expectations. Her consumption of the fruit results in moral and physical decay, illustrated as her “hair grew thin and grey.” Victorian readers might interpret Laura’s experience as a cautionary tale reinforcing the period’s strict moral code, suggesting that deviation from purity leads to suffering. Rossetti’s portrayal reflects the cultural expectations of women to adhere to moral virtue, while Lizzie’s purity and sacrifice serve as the model for societal ideals.
  • What is the significance of redemption in “Goblin Market”, and how does Rossetti suggest it is achieved?
  • Redemption is a significant theme in “Goblin Market”, embodied in Lizzie’s self-sacrifice and Laura’s ultimate restoration. After Lizzie faces the goblins and brings Laura the antidote in the form of the goblins’ juices, Laura experiences a kind of resurrection: “Her breath was sweet as May / And light danced in her eyes.” This renewal symbolizes that redemption is achieved through love, resilience, and selflessness, particularly in the context of sisterly devotion. Rossetti implies that, despite moral failings or moments of weakness, individuals can be redeemed through genuine acts of love and support from others. Lizzie’s role in Laura’s redemption reinforces the poem’s suggestion that true salvation lies in compassion and solidarity, rather than judgment or punishment.
Literary Works Similar to “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
  1. “The Rime of the A“The Rime of The Ancient Mariner Part II” by Samuel T. Coleridgencient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
    Shares themes of temptation and redemption, with the mariner’s moral journey mirroring Laura’s in “Goblin Market”.
  2. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats
    Both poems explore the allure and danger of supernatural temptation, as well as the consequences of succumbing to enchanting but destructive figures.
  3. “The Lady of Shalott” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
    Examines themes of isolation, forbidden desire, and the tragic outcome of breaking societal or magical restrictions, paralleling Laura’s experience.
  4. “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats
    Similar in its dreamlike, sensory imagery and focus on the conflict between desire and moral restraint, much like Rossetti’s portrayal of temptation.
  5. “Porphyria’s Lover” by Robert Browning
    Explores possessive love and the dark consequences of yielding to passion, reflecting the intensity of desire and the boundary between love and obsession.
Representative Quotations of “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“Come buy, come buy: / Our grapes fresh from the vine”The goblins entice the sisters with tempting fruit, initiating the theme of temptation.Marxist Theory: Reflects consumerism, where materialism corrupts.
“We must not look at goblin men, / We must not buy their fruits”Lizzie warns Laura about the dangers of engaging with the goblins, embodying caution and morality.Moral Criticism: Represents Victorian moral values, urging self-restraint.
“Her hair grew thin and grey; / She dwindled, as the fair full moon doth turn”Laura suffers physical and emotional decline after consuming the forbidden fruit.Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects punishment for yielding to suppressed desires.
“For your sake I have braved the glen / And had to do with goblin merchant men”Lizzie risks her safety to help Laura, symbolizing selfless sisterhood and sacrifice.Feminist Theory: Illustrates female solidarity and strength in adversity.
“She suck’d and suck’d and suck’d the more”Laura’s insatiable consumption of the goblin fruit highlights her inability to resist temptation.Psychological Criticism: Reflects addictive behavior and loss of control.
“Their offers should not charm us, / Their evil gifts would harm us”Lizzie voices the dangers of the goblins’ gifts, foreshadowing the harmful consequences for Laura.Moral Criticism: Symbolizes the conflict between virtue and vice.
“Golden head by golden head, / Like two pigeons in one nest”Lizzie and Laura lie together, highlighting the closeness and unity of their bond.Feminist Theory: Demonstrates the power of female companionship and sisterhood.
“Her breath was sweet as May / And light danced in her eyes”Laura is restored after Lizzie’s sacrifice, symbolizing renewal and redemption.Religious Allegory: Suggests a Christian redemption narrative, with Lizzie as a Christ-like figure.
“Do you not remember Jeanie, / How she met them in the moonlight”Lizzie recalls Jeanie’s tragic fate, a cautionary tale to prevent Laura’s suffering.Feminist Theory: Reflects the consequences of societal transgression for women.
“For there is no friend like a sister / In calm or stormy weather”The poem concludes with a message on the enduring strength of sisterly love and loyalty.Humanist Perspective: Emphasizes human connections and resilience through familial love.
Suggested Readings: “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
  1. Packer, Lona Mosk. “Symbol and Reality in Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market.” PMLA, vol. 73, no. 4, 1958, pp. 375–85. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/460256. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  2. Harrison, Antony H. “Christina Rossetti: Illness and Ideology.” Victorian Poetry, vol. 45, no. 4, 2007, pp. 415–28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40347411. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  3. Mendoza, Victor Roman. “‘Come Buy’: The Crossing of Sexual and Consumer Desire in Christina Rossetti’s ‘Goblin Market.'” ELH, vol. 73, no. 4, 2006, pp. 913–47. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30030043. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  4. Mermin, Dorothy. “Heroic Sisterhood in ‘Goblin Market.'” Victorian Poetry, vol. 21, no. 2, 1983, pp. 107–18. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40002024. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  5. Helsinger, Elizabeth K. “Consumer Power and the Utopia of Desire: Christina Rossetti’s ‘Goblin Market.'” ELH, vol. 58, no. 4, 1991, pp. 903–33. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2873286. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  6. Grass, Sean C. “Nature’s Perilous Variety in Rossetti’s ‘Goblin Market.'” Nineteenth-Century Literature, vol. 51, no. 3, 1996, pp. 356–76. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2934015. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  7. Carpenter, Mary Wilson. “‘Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me’: The Consumable Female Body in Christina Rossetti’s ‘Goblin Market.'” Victorian Poetry, vol. 29, no. 4, 1991, pp. 415–34. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40003006. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.

“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats: A Critical Analysis

“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats first appeared in 1818 in his collection titled Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems.

"When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be" by John Keats: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats

“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats first appeared in 1818 in his collection titled Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. This sonnet is celebrated for its profound exploration of mortality, creativity, and the fleeting nature of human experience. Keats reflects on his fear of an untimely death, worrying he will never fully realize his potential or experience the depth of love and beauty life offers. These universal themes, paired with his lyrical yet straightforward language, make the poem especially resonant and popular in academic settings. Keats’ vivid imagery and deep personal vulnerability connect with readers across generations, offering insights into the Romantic era’s preoccupation with beauty and the inevitability of death. Its inclusion in textbooks underscores its literary merit and its impact on poetic explorations of human transience.

Text: “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats

When I have fears that I may cease to be

   Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain,

Before high-pilèd books, in charactery,

   Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain;

When I behold, upon the night’s starred face,

   Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance,

And think that I may never live to trace

   Their shadows with the magic hand of chance;

And when I feel, fair creature of an hour,

   That I shall never look upon thee more,

Never have relish in the faery power

   Of unreflecting love—then on the shore

Of the wide world I stand alone, and think

Till love and fame to nothingness do sink.

Annotations: “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
LineAnnotation
When I have fears that I may cease to beKeats expresses his fear of dying young, introducing the poem’s central theme of mortality. This fear highlights his preoccupation with the limits of time and the potential for an unfulfilled life and career.
Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain,He fears not being able to express all the thoughts, ideas, and creativity within him. The metaphor of “gleaning” (harvesting) his brain suggests he has much left to write and share with the world.
Before high-pilèd books, in charactery,Keats envisions books filled with his thoughts and poems, symbolizing the intellectual legacy he hopes to leave. “Charactery” suggests written language, echoing his fear of unfinished works.
Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain;Books are compared to “rich garners” (granaries) filled with “full ripened grain,” symbolizing a harvest of knowledge and creativity. Keats worries he may never see the fruition of his poetic “harvest.”
When I behold, upon the night’s starred face,The “night’s starred face” symbolizes the vastness and mystery of the universe. This imagery sets a contemplative tone as he considers the beauty and wonder that he may not fully explore or appreciate.
Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance,Keats describes clouds in the sky as “symbols of a high romance,” suggesting a romanticized and grand vision of nature, love, and the sublime. These symbols represent his imaginative and poetic inspiration.
And think that I may never live to traceHe fears that he may not have time to explore and “trace” these inspirations, underscoring his anxiety about a prematurely ended life and the resulting loss of artistic potential.
Their shadows with the magic hand of chance;The “magic hand of chance” suggests that creativity and discovery are unpredictable. Keats fears missing out on the serendipitous moments that fuel artistic expression.
And when I feel, fair creature of an hour,He refers to a beloved or perhaps to the fleeting nature of beauty itself. “Fair creature of an hour” implies that beauty, like life, is temporary, lasting only “an hour” or a short while.
That I shall never look upon thee more,Keats dreads the prospect of never seeing his beloved or experiencing beauty again. This line conveys a sense of loss and finality, emphasizing his fear of mortality in personal relationships.
Never have relish in the faery power“Faery power” refers to the enchanting, magical quality of love and beauty. Keats laments that he may never again experience this mystical allure. This phrase combines Romantic idealism with Keats’ melancholy tone.
Of unreflecting love—then on the shore“Unreflecting love” suggests a pure, spontaneous love free from overthinking. He imagines himself alone “on the shore,” a place of transition, reflecting on life’s fleeting nature and his fears.
Of the wide world I stand alone, and thinkHe positions himself on the shore of the “wide world,” feeling isolated as he contemplates life’s vastness and his own place within it. This metaphorical shore highlights his solitude and introspection.
Till love and fame to nothingness do sink.Keats ends with a poignant meditation on impermanence, suggesting that both “love” and “fame” eventually fade into “nothingness.” This line reflects his understanding that even life’s greatest joys and achievements are ephemeral.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats

DeviceExampleExplanation
Alliteration” And when I feel, fair creature of an hour “The repetition of the consonant “f” sound creates a rhythmic flow, emphasizing Keats’ idea of beauty.
Allusion“fair creature of an hour”An allusion to the fleeting nature of beauty or possibly to Keats’ muse Fanny Brawne, whom he loved deeply. This highlights the temporality of beauty and love.
Anaphora“When I have fears…When I behold…When I feel”The repetition of “When I” at the beginning of successive clauses emphasizes the poet’s anxieties about unfulfilled potential and the inevitability of death.
Assonance“gleaned my teeming brain”Repetition of the “ee” sound in “gleaned” and “teeming” connects the words sonically, drawing attention to Keats’ fear of unrealized potential.
Caesura“Of the wide world I stand alone, and think”The comma creates a natural pause, reflecting the poet’s solitude and introspection. This pause allows readers to reflect on the depth of his thoughts.
Consonance“When I have fears that I may cease to be”The repetition of the “s” sound throughout the line enhances the somber tone, mimicking a whispered, contemplative mood.
End Rhyme“brain/grain,” “romance/chance”The rhyme scheme (ABAB) provides a structured rhythm, giving the sonnet a traditional form that contrasts with the chaotic themes of unfulfilled potential and death.
Enjambment“And think that I may never live to trace / Their shadows”The sentence flows over the line break without punctuation, creating a sense of continuity and urgency, reflecting his racing thoughts and fears.
Hyperbole“Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance”The exaggerated description of clouds as “huge symbols” elevates them to a grand, almost cosmic level, reflecting the lofty ambitions and ideals Keats fears he will not achieve.
Imagery“Upon the night’s starred face”Vivid visual imagery allows readers to picture the vast night sky, symbolizing the endless creative possibilities and beauty that Keats fears he may never fully explore.
Metaphor“my pen has gleaned my teeming brain”Compares his mind to a field ripe for harvest, symbolizing the richness of his creativity that he fears he won’t be able to express fully.
Personification“night’s starred face”Personifying the night as having a “face” gives the scene a mystical quality, highlighting the Romantic connection between nature and human emotion.
Repetition“Before” (used in lines 2 and 3)Repeating “before” emphasizes the many experiences and accomplishments Keats fears he may not achieve due to his mortality.
Rhetorical Question“When I have fears that I may cease to be?”Though implicit, the entire sonnet raises the unspoken question about the value of art and love in the face of mortality, prompting readers to ponder these universal concerns.
Romanticism“Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance”Emphasizes the Romantic theme of awe and inspiration drawn from nature, as well as the idealization of beauty, love, and the sublime.
Simile“Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain”Compares his unwritten works to a full granary, suggesting the wealth of ideas that he fears will go unexpressed.
Sonnet StructureFourteen-line ABAB rhyme schemeThe poem follows the Shakespearean sonnet structure, traditionally used for themes of love and mortality, emphasizing Keats’ thematic exploration of unfulfilled love and life.
Symbolism“night’s starred face”The stars represent both beauty and the unknown, symbolizing Keats’ hopes and dreams that may remain unrealized.
ToneReflective and MelancholicThe tone is somber and introspective, as Keats reflects on life, love, and fame, all of which seem to dissolve in the face of mortality.
Volta“then on the shore / Of the wide world I stand alone”The shift, or volta, in line 12 marks a change from his contemplations about mortality to his ultimate acceptance of fate, conveying a sense of resolution and letting go.
Themes: “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
  1. Mortality and the Fear of Death: Keats’ primary theme is his profound fear of dying before he has fulfilled his potential, both as a poet and as a lover. In the opening line, “When I have fears that I may cease to be,” Keats immediately sets a reflective and somber tone, voicing his anxiety about life’s impermanence. The poem unfolds as a meditation on the inevitability of death, which hangs over Keats’ ambitions like a shadow, suggesting his urgency to create, love, and live fully. His fear is rooted in the unpredictability of life and the sense that time is slipping away before he has “gleaned [his] teeming brain,” leaving his aspirations unrealized.
  2. Unfulfilled Potential and Creativity: Keats explores his fear of an incomplete legacy, revealing a deep yearning to capture his ideas in writing. He laments the possibility of dying “Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain,” fearing he will not have enough time to realize his creative vision. This image, where his mind is compared to a field ripe for harvesting, illustrates Keats’ awareness of his own potential and the pain of possibly leaving his thoughts and poetry unwritten. The metaphor of “rich garners” filled with “full ripened grain” reflects his fear that his poetry may never see fruition, underscoring the theme of unfulfilled creative ambitions.
  3. Nature and the Sublime: Throughout the poem, Keats draws on imagery of the natural world to convey the vastness and beauty of life. The line “When I behold, upon the night’s starred face, / Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance” portrays the night sky as a sublime force, embodying both inspiration and mystery. These “symbols” serve as a Romantic ideal of beauty and creativity, suggesting that nature is a source of immense wonder and poetic inspiration. Keats’ fear of missing out on such sublime experiences ties into his broader anxieties about mortality, as he longs to connect with the world’s beauty before it’s too late.
  4. The Transience of Love and Fame: Toward the end, Keats reflects on the fleeting nature of love and fame, considering their ultimate insignificance in the face of death. When he writes, “Till love and fame to nothingness do sink,” he acknowledges the impermanence of human achievements and relationships. This realization brings him to a moment of acceptance, as he stands “on the shore / Of the wide world…alone,” confronting the vastness of existence and his solitary role within it. Keats implies that love and fame, while deeply desired, are ultimately ephemeral, reinforcing the Romantic notion that life’s pursuits are transient in the face of death’s finality.
Literary Theories and “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
Literary TheoryExplanationReferences from the Poem
RomanticismRomanticism focuses on the expression of intense emotions, individualism, and a reverence for nature. Keats, a Romantic poet, conveys deep personal fears and an appreciation of nature’s sublimity, aligning with Romantic ideals.“Upon the night’s starred face” and “Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance” showcase Keats’ awe of the natural world, which symbolizes both inspiration and the sublime.
Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic theory examines unconscious desires and fears. Keats’ preoccupation with mortality reflects an inner conflict between his drive for achievement and an awareness of life’s limitations, rooted in subconscious anxieties.The line “When I have fears that I may cease to be / Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain” reveals Keats’ anxiety over unfulfilled desires and potential.
ExistentialismExistentialism explores themes of meaning, solitude, and the inevitability of death. Keats contemplates life’s purpose and the transient nature of love and fame, which aligns with existential concerns about the meaning of existence.In “Till love and fame to nothingness do sink,” Keats acknowledges the insignificance of worldly pursuits in the face of death, highlighting existential reflections on purpose.
Critical Questions about “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
  • How does Keats express his fear of mortality, and what effect does it have on his sense of purpose?
  • In the opening line, “When I have fears that I may cease to be,” Keats introduces his intense awareness of mortality, which underscores his deep-seated anxiety about an untimely death. This fear is tied directly to his sense of purpose, as he is haunted by the thought that he might not achieve his poetic ambitions or reach his full potential. Lines like “Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain” illustrate his desire to capture the vast ideas within him, fearing he won’t have enough time to realize them. This sense of urgency propels Keats’ creative drive, as he views his poetic expression as essential to his identity and legacy.
  • What role does nature play in Keats’ contemplation of life and death?
  • Nature serves as both inspiration and a reminder of life’s transience in Keats’ contemplation of mortality. The line “Upon the night’s starred face” evokes a sense of wonder at the beauty and vastness of the night sky, while “Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance” suggest the grandeur and mystery of nature. Keats’ reference to nature as a “high romance” ties into his Romantic fascination with the sublime, as he sees the natural world as something grand and unattainable. Yet, his acknowledgment that he may not have time to fully “trace their shadows” reflects his sorrow at potentially missing out on these profound experiences, adding depth to his reflections on mortality.
  • How does Keats reconcile with the impermanence of love and fame by the end of the poem?
  • By the poem’s conclusion, Keats arrives at a poignant acceptance of the transient nature of love and fame. Standing “on the shore / Of the wide world…alone,” he envisions himself in a place of reflection, isolated as he contemplates the broader implications of life and death. The final line, “Till love and fame to nothingness do sink,” illustrates his realization that earthly pursuits, no matter how deeply desired, ultimately fade into obscurity. This line suggests that Keats reconciles with impermanence by embracing the inevitable decline of love and fame, underscoring his acknowledgment of life’s fleeting nature.
  • What is the significance of the poem’s structure in conveying Keats’ emotional journey?
  • The Shakespearean sonnet structure of the poem, with its ABAB rhyme scheme and concluding couplet, mirrors Keats’ journey from fear to acceptance. The structure initially creates a sense of confinement, echoing Keats’ anxiety about his limited time and unfulfilled desires. However, the volta, or turn, in the final quatrain marks a shift in tone, as Keats begins to confront and ultimately accept life’s impermanence. The concluding couplet, “Of the wide world I stand alone, and think / Till love and fame to nothingness do sink,” serves as a resolution, where Keats reaches a contemplative calm, embracing the transitory nature of all things. This structure allows Keats to move through stages of anxiety, reflection, and acceptance within the compact form of the sonnet.
Literary Works Similar to “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
  1. Sonnet 73” by William Shakespeare – This poem explores aging and the inevitability of death, reflecting on the approach of life’s end and the urgency to live fully, much like Keats’ contemplation of mortality.
  2. Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas – Thomas’ poem passionately urges resistance against death, paralleling Keats’ own fear of an untimely end and desire to fulfill his creative potential.
  3. Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley – Shelley meditates on the fleeting nature of power and fame, akin to Keats’ acknowledgment that love and fame will “sink to nothingness” in the face of mortality.
  4. Because I Could Not Stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson – Dickinson personifies death as a natural and inevitable process, much like Keats’ eventual acceptance of mortality as he stands “on the shore” contemplating life’s end.
  5. Thanatopsis” by William Cullen Bryant – This poem reflects on the inevitability of death and encourages an acceptance of life’s transience, resonating with Keats’ journey from fear of death to a quiet acceptance of life’s impermanence.
Representative Quotations of “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“When I have fears that I may cease to be”The opening line reveals Keats’ preoccupation with mortality, setting the tone for the poem.Existentialism – The line reflects Keats’ anxiety about existence and the fear of life ending before he can realize his ambitions.
“Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain”Keats fears he won’t have time to express his ideas and fulfill his poetic potential.Romanticism – Emphasizes the Romantic ideal of the overflowing creative mind, filled with ideas that need expression.
“Before high-pilèd books, in charactery”He imagines a collection of unwritten books, symbolizing his desire to leave a literary legacy.Psychoanalytic Theory – Reflects the subconscious drive to create and the anxiety of leaving a lasting impact.
“Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain”Books are compared to granaries full of ideas, symbolizing the “harvest” of his mind that he hopes to share.Agrarian Metaphor – Suggests Keats’ view of creativity as a natural process, needing time and effort to reach fruition.
“When I behold, upon the night’s starred face”Keats describes looking at the night sky, feeling small within the vastness of the universe.Romanticism – This line reflects the Romantic fascination with nature and the sublime, suggesting both awe and insignificance.
“Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance”The clouds represent Keats’ lofty ideals and dreams, which he fears he may not fulfill.Idealism – Expresses Keats’ Romantic idealization of inspiration and nature, viewing them as symbols of unattainable beauty.
“And think that I may never live to trace”Keats laments possibly not having the chance to follow his dreams or explore his creativity.Existentialism – Implies Keats’ fear of unfulfilled potential and the limited time to pursue meaning in life.
“Fair creature of an hour”He refers to a beloved person or beauty itself, emphasizing the transitory nature of love.Transcendentalism – Reflects Keats’ acknowledgment of life’s fleeting moments of beauty and connection.
“Till love and fame to nothingness do sink”Keats realizes that love and fame are ultimately ephemeral, vanishing in the face of death.Existentialism – Embraces the insignificance of worldly pursuits in the larger context of mortality.
“On the shore / Of the wide world I stand alone”The shore represents a boundary between life and death, where Keats contemplates his solitude and mortality.Psychoanalytic Theory – The imagery of standing alone suggests self-reflection and the confrontation of inner fears.
Suggested Readings: “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
  1. O’Brien, Veronica. “The Language of Poetry.” Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, vol. 58, no. 232, 1969, pp. 415–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30087893. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  2. Fitzgerald, William. “Keats’s Sonnets and the Challenge of Winter.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 26, no. 1, 1987, pp. 59–83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25600635. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  3. Dulek, Ronald E. “KEATS’S YOUNG MAN-POET; SHAKESPEARE’S PUBLIC-PRIVATE MAN.” CLA Journal, vol. 24, no. 2, 1980, pp. 203–08. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44321659. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.
  4. Nunokawa, Jeff. “In Memoriam and the Extinction of the Homosexual.” ELH, vol. 58, no. 2, 1991, pp. 427–38. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2873375. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024.