Category: Poem Analysis

Introduction: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

“Goosey Goosey Gander” stands apart from traditional, soothing nursery rhymes, showing a lilting, playful quality. But the rhyme, first published in a collection titled Gammer Gurton’s Garland in 1784, takes an unexpected twist. It transitions into a scene of unsettling action – an old man who refuses to pray is forcefully ejected. This abrupt thematic shift, coupled with the rhyme’s infectious rhythm and the lingering ambiguity surrounding the old man’s fate, forms a compelling and memorable element that distinguishes “Goosey Goosey Gander” within the genre.

Text: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Goosey goosey gander,
Whither shall I wander?
Upstairs and downstairs
And in my lady’s chamber.
There I met an old man
Who wouldn’t say his prayers,
So I took him by his left leg
And threw him down the stairs.

Annotations: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Line Number	Line	Annotation
1	Goosey goosey gander,	The speaker addresses a goose or refers to someone as “goosey,” setting the scene.
2	Whither shall I wander?	The speaker wonders aloud where they should go or what direction they should take.
3	Upstairs and downstairs	The speaker considers moving through different levels of a house or building.
4	And in my lady’s chamber.	The speaker mentions entering a specific room, presumably belonging to a lady or woman.
5	There I met an old man	The speaker encounters an elderly male individual in the lady’s chamber.
6	Who wouldn’t say his prayers,	The old man refuses or neglects to engage in prayer or religious observance.
7	So I took him by his left leg	The speaker takes physical action against the old man, grabbing him by his leg.
8	And threw him down the stairs.	The speaker escalates the situation by throwing the old man down a flight of stairs.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Device	Definition	Reference from Poem
Alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds within close proximity to each other.	“Goosey goosey gander”
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within close proximity to each other.	“Goosey goosey gander”
Imagery	Use of descriptive language to create vivid mental images.	“Upstairs and downstairs”
Irony	Expression of meaning through language that signifies the opposite of what is stated.	“Who wouldn’t say his prayers”
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.	“Goosey goosey gander”
Rhyme	Correspondence of sound between words or the endings of words.	“wander” / “chamber”
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts beyond their literal meaning.	“Lady’s chamber”
Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence or phrase from one line or stanza to the next without a pause.	“Whither shall I wander?”

Themes: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

1. Exploration of Space and Place:
   • The nursery rhyme takes the reader on a journey through different spaces, including upstairs, downstairs, and a lady’s chamber. The repeated questioning of “Whither shall I wander?” suggests a theme of exploration and discovery of different physical locations within the setting of the poem.
2. Encounter with Strangers:
   • The encounter with the old man in the lady’s chamber highlights themes of unexpected encounters and interactions with strangers. The speaker’s reaction to the old man’s refusal to say prayers leads to a surprising and potentially confrontational action, suggesting themes of curiosity and perhaps even danger associated with meeting unknown individuals.
3. Rebellion and Consequence:
   • The nursery rhyme hints at themes of rebellion and consequence through the speaker’s action of throwing the old man down the stairs. This act can be interpreted as a response to the old man’s refusal to conform or adhere to societal norms, showcasing themes of defiance and the potential repercussions of such actions.
4. Religious Undertones:
   • The refusal of the old man to say his prayers introduces religious undertones to the poem. This theme is further emphasized by the speaker’s subsequent action, which may be interpreted as a form of punishment or retribution for the old man’s perceived transgression against religious or moral expectations.

Literary Theories and “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Literary Theory	Description	Reference from Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the text’s intrinsic qualities, such as structure, language, and style.	“Goosey goosey gander” – The repetition of “goosey” and the rhyme scheme.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the role of the reader’s interpretation and response in understanding the text’s meaning.	“Whither shall I wander?” – Readers interpret the speaker’s wanderings differently.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Analyzes characters, symbols, and themes to explore the unconscious desires and conflicts of the author.	“Threw him down the stairs” – Could be interpreted as a manifestation of inner conflict.
Marxist Criticism	Examines the text’s social, economic, and political contexts, focusing on power dynamics and class struggle.	“Lady’s chamber” – Reflects social hierarchy and access to certain spaces.
Feminist Criticism	Considers gender roles, representations, and power dynamics within the text and its cultural context.	“Lady’s chamber” – Explores the significance of gendered spaces and roles.

Critical Questions about “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

1. What is the Significance of the Speaker’s Wanderings?
   • The repeated questioning, “Whither shall I wander?” prompts an inquiry into the purpose and significance of the speaker’s movements throughout the poem. References to going “upstairs and downstairs” and entering “my lady’s chamber” raise questions about the speaker’s motivations and the symbolic meaning behind their journey.
2. Why Does the Speaker Encounter an Old Man in the Lady’s Chamber?
   • The unexpected encounter with an old man in the lady’s chamber invites analysis into the significance of this interaction. The refusal of the old man to say his prayers and the subsequent action of the speaker grabbing him by the leg and throwing him down the stairs raise questions about the nature of this encounter and its implications within the narrative.
3. What Themes of Rebellion and Authority are Present?
   • The act of throwing the old man down the stairs suggests themes of rebellion and defiance against authority or societal norms. Critical examination of these themes can explore the power dynamics at play within the poem, as well as the consequences of challenging established structures of authority.
4. How Does the Nursery Rhyme Reflect Cultural and Religious Norms?
   • The reference to the old man’s refusal to say his prayers introduces themes of religion and morality into the poem. Critical inquiry into the cultural and religious contexts of the time period in which the nursery rhyme was written can shed light on the significance of this reference and its implications for interpreting the overall message of the poem.

Literary Works Similar to “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

• “Jack and Jill”: Another popular nursery rhyme featuring a simple narrative structure and rhyming scheme, often with unexpected or humorous twists.
• “Humpty Dumpty”: Like “Goosey Goosey Gander,” “Humpty Dumpty” is a well-known nursery rhyme with a short, catchy rhythm and elements of surprise.
• “Old Mother Hubbard”: This nursery rhyme shares similarities with “Goosey Goosey Gander” in its exploration of domestic settings and unexpected encounters.
• “Little Jack Horner”: Similar to “Goosey Goosey Gander,” this nursery rhyme features a short, rhyming narrative with elements of surprise and whimsy.
• “Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary”: While thematically different, this nursery rhyme shares structural similarities with “Goosey Goosey Gander” and features playful language and rhyming patterns.

Suggested Readings: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

1. Opie, Iona, and Peter Opie. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes. Oxford University Press, 1997.
2. Halliwell, James Orchard. The Nursery Rhymes of England. London: Frederick Warne and Co., 1842.
3. Langstaff, John. “The History of ‘Goosey Goosey Gander’.” The Horn Book Magazine, vol. 49, no. 3, 1973, pp. 257-262.
4. Iona Opie. “Goosey, goosey, gander,” The Poetry Archive, www.poetryarchive.org. Accessed 21 Mar. 2024.
5. Oster, Ernst. “The Goosey Goosey Gander Tune.” Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol. 21, no. 2, 1968, pp. 266-282. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/830678.

Introduction: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson: Critical Analysis

Within the broader context her oeuvre, “I Dreaded That First Robin So” by Emily Dickinson stands as a striking example of the poet’s exploration of melancholy and introspection. The poem disrupts traditional representations of nature, using the robin to symbolize the speaker’s struggle to find solace or renewal amidst the changing seasons. Dickinson’s characteristic dashes and unconventional capitalization create a sense of urgency and fragmentation, mirroring the speaker’s own conflicted emotions. This dissonant portrayal of spring reflects Dickinson’s frequent examination of life’s darker undercurrents, her willingness to challenge idealized notions, and her profound ability to convey complex internal landscapes through seemingly simple natural imagery.

Text: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Annotations: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Stanza	Annotation
Stanza 1 I dreaded that first Robin, so, / But He is mastered, now, / I’m accustomed to Him grown, / He hurts a little, though —	* The speaker expresses a fear and aversion toward the robin, a symbol of spring. * The shift from “dreaded” to “mastered” suggests a forced acceptance, yet the lingering “hurt” reveals unresolved emotional turmoil.
Stanza 2 I thought If I could only live / Till that first Shout got by — / Not all Pianos in the Woods / Had power to mangle me —	* The intensity of the robin’s song evokes a sense of overwhelming pain. * The personified “Pianos in the Woods” emphasize nature’s discordant, even violent, potential to the speaker.
Stanza 3 I dared not meet the Daffodils — / For fear their Yellow Gown / Would pierce me with a fashion / So foreign to my own —	* Daffodils, with their vibrant yellow, represent a joy that feels alien and threatening to the speaker’s inner darkness. * The concept of their fashion “piercing” implies a sense of wounded vulnerability.
Stanza 4 I wished the Grass would hurry — / So — when ’twas time to see — / He’d be too tall, the tallest one / Could stretch — to look at me —	* The speaker wishes for the grass to obscure her from the harsh beauty of spring. * This desire for concealment reveals a sense of shame or inadequacy in the face of nature’s cyclical vibrancy.
**Stanza 5 ** I could not bear the Bees should come, / I wished they’d stay away / In those dim countries where they go, / What word had they, for me?	* Bees, with their humming and association with pollination, represent the life that continues despite the speaker’s wish for stillness. * The question “What word had they, for me?” emphasizes a sense of alienation from the natural world’s cycles.
Stanza 6 They’re here, though; not a creature failed — / No Blossom stayed away / In gentle deference to me — / The Queen of Calvary —	* Resignation: all the elements of springtime continue unabated. * The title “Queen of Calvary” (Calvary being the site of Christ’s crucifixion) is self-mocking, highlighting the speaker’s sense of isolated suffering amidst indifferent nature.
Stanza 7 Each one salutes me, as he goes, /And I, my childish Plumes, / Lift, in bereaved acknowledgment / Of their unthinking Drums —	* Nature continues in its cyclical patterns, a march the speaker feels compelled to acknowledge.   * “Childish plumes” emphasize powerlessness; the acknowledgment feels obligatory, lacking joy.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from the Poem
Personification	Attribution of human qualities to non-human things	“Not all Pianos in the Woods / Had power to mangle me —”
Metaphor	Implied comparison between unlike things	“The Queen of Calvary”
Symbolism	Use of objects/images to represent abstract ideas	The robin symbolizes the overwhelming arrival of spring and the speaker’s internal conflict.
Imagery	Vivid language appealing to the senses	“For fear their Yellow Gown / Would pierce me with a fashion”
Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence across line breaks	“I dreaded that first Robin, so, / But he is mastered now,”
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth	“I’m accustomed to Him grown, / He hurts a little, though —”
Dashes	Dickinson’s characteristic punctuation, creating pauses and emphasis	“So foreign to my own —”
Unconventional Capitalization	Emphasis on words that may not usually be capitalized	“He”, “Pianos”, “Queen”
Juxtaposition	Contrasting elements placed together for effect	The vibrant imagery of nature vs. the speaker’s dark emotional state
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, event, or work	“The Queen of Calvary” (reference to the Virgin Mary at Christ’s crucifixion)
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis	“Not all Pianos in the Woods / Had power to mangle me —”
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines	“I wished…”, “I dared not…”
Irony	Expression of meaning that is contrary to the literal	“The Queen of Calvary” – the speaker feels far from triumphant
Tone	The speaker’s attitude conveyed through word choice	Melancholic, apprehensive, isolated

Themes: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

1. The Discord Between Inner Turmoil and Nature: The poem explores the speaker’s intense aversion to the arrival of spring. While nature bursts with renewal and vibrancy, the speaker experiences inner darkness and pain. This contrast is evident in lines like “He hurts a little, though” and “For fear their Yellow Gown / Would pierce me with a fashion / So foreign to my own”.
2. Grief and Loss: The speaker’s emotional state suggests an experience of grief or profound loss. The images of pain, aversion to joy, and self-description as “The Queen of Calvary” hint at a deep sense of suffering that clashes with the expected renewal of spring.
3. Isolation and Alienation: The speaker expresses a feeling of alienation from the natural world’s cycles. They wish to avoid the sights and sounds of spring, even wishing the grass would grow tall enough to hide them. This isolation is further emphasized by the question, “What word had they, for me?” directed at the bees.
4. Powerlessness and Resignation: Despite a strong desire to resist the inevitable change of seasons, the poem concludes with a tone of resignation. The speaker acknowledges the unstoppable force of nature (“Not a creature failed — / No Blossom stayed away”) and their limited power within this cycle.

Literary Theories and “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Theory	Focus	How it Applies to the Poem	Poem References
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious desires, motivations, and repressed emotions	The speaker’s aversion to spring could be interpreted as a manifestation of unresolved grief, trauma, or inner turmoil.	“He hurts a little, though”, “The Queen of Calvary” (self-mocking reference to suffering)
Feminist	Gender roles, female experiences, and patriarchal power structures.	The poem could be read as an expression of a woman’s inner conflict within societal expectations of joy and renewal. The speaker’s feelings of isolation and powerlessness might resonate with feminist interpretations.	“childish Plumes”, wishing the grass would hide her (confinement)
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s role in creating meaning from a text.	A reader’s personal experiences with grief, change, or feeling out of sync with societal expectations will heavily influence their interpretation of the poem.	The poem’s open-ended nature leaves room for diverse reader interpretations.
Formalist (New Criticism)	Close reading of literary elements like form, structure, and language.	Analyzing Dickinson’s use of dashes, unconventional capitalization, enjambment, vivid imagery, and metaphor enriches the understanding of the poem’s emotional impact.	Examples throughout the poem, such as the capitalization of “He” (the robin) and “Queen”.
Biographical	Explores connections between the author’s life and their creative work.	Knowing about Dickinson’s reclusive nature and frequent themes of introspection and solitude in her poetry adds a layer of understanding to the speaker’s isolation and aversion to external stimuli.	While not directly reflected in the poem, biographical knowledge of Dickinson’s life adds context.

Critical Questions about “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Works Similar to “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Other Works Exploring Similar Themes and Styles

• “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost:
• This poem shares Dickinson’s exploration of melancholy amidst nature’s beauty. Frost’s speaker grapples with the allure of the quiet woods, representing a retreat from responsibilities, yet ultimately acknowledges a need to continue onward.
• “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe: Although Poe’s poem focuses on unrelenting grief and obsession symbolized by the raven, it aligns with Dickinson’s work in its use of a bird to represent an emotional burden and psychological conflict.
• Selected Poems by Sylvia Plath: Plath’s confessional poetry frequently delves into themes of mental anguish, isolation, and the potential for darkness within the natural world. Her starkly personal voice resonates with the intense introspection present in Dickinson’s work.
• “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot’s poem resonates with Dickinson’s in its exploration of emotional paralysis and social alienation. Both works feature speakers who feel trapped by internal anxieties and an inability to fully engage with the world.

Key Similarities:

• Exploration of Inner Turmoil: These works delve into the psychological landscape, prioritizing the complexities of inner struggles over external plot events.
• Ambiguous Portrayals of Nature: Nature is not simply a source of beauty or solace. It can symbolize darkness, emotional distress, or a fundamental disconnect between the speaker and the external world.
• Themes of Introspection and Isolation: The speakers of these works often grapple with feelings of alienation and disconnection, turning their focus inward towards their own shadowed emotional states.

Suggested Readings: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Books

• Farr, Judith, editor. Emily Dickinson: A Collection of Critical Essays. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. (This collection offers a diverse range of critical perspectives and may include essays exploring Dickinson’s nature imagery, complex emotional landscapes, or recurring themes relevant to “I Dreaded That First Robin So.”)
• Sewall, Richard B. The Life of Emily Dickinson. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974. (Considered a seminal work, Sewall’s comprehensive biography provides valuable context for Dickinson’s life experiences and the potential personal resonances within her poetry.)
• Wolff, Cynthia Griffin. Emily Dickinson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986. (This well-regarded critical biography delves into Dickinson’s distinctive poetic style, her exploration of universal themes, and offers insights relevant to interpreting her work.)

Articles

• Bennett, Paula. “‘I dreaded that first robin so’: Dickinson and Manic-Depressive Illness.” The Emily Dickinson Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, The Emily Dickinson International Society, 2001, pp. 91-106. (Bennett’s article offers a specific psychological lens for analyzing the poem, potentially illuminating its exploration of internal turmoil.)
• Diehl, Joanne Feit. “‘Come Slowly – Eden’: An Exploration of Women Poets and Their Gardens.” The Emily Dickinson Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, The Emily Dickinson International Society, 1994, pp. 51-61. (While not directly focused on “I Dreaded That First Robin So,” Diehl’s analysis of Dickinson’s use of nature imagery provides a broader context for understanding the poem’s themes.)

Websites

• The Emily Dickinson Museum: (https://www.emilydickinsonmuseum.org/) (The official website of the Emily Dickinson Museum offers biographical information, access to Dickinson’s manuscripts, and curated critical resources that may be valuable for further research.)
• The Poetry Foundation: (https://www.poetryfoundation.org/) (Explore the Poetry Foundation’s resources on Emily Dickinson, including her poems, biographical information, and potentially relevant critical essays.)

Introduction: “Icarus” by Edward Field

“Icarus” by Edward Field published in his 1963 collection Stand Up, Friend, With Me, offers a subversive reimagining of the classic Greek myth. Field departs from traditional interpretations of Icarus’s fall as a consequence of reckless ambition, instead portraying a nuanced exploration of longing, the complexities of freedom, and the repercussions of challenging societal limitations. This fresh perspective invites readers to re-examine the enduring symbolism and themes of the Icarus myth.

Text: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Only the feathers floating around the hat
Showed that anything more spectacular had occurred
Than the usual drowning. The police preferred to ignore
The confusing aspects of the case,
And the witnesses ran off to a gang war.
So the report filed and forgotten in the archives read simply
“Drowned,” but it was wrong: Icarus
Had swum away, coming at last to the city
Where he rented a house and tended the garden.
“That nice Mr. Hicks” the neighbors called,
Never dreaming that the gray, respectable suit
Concealed arms that had controlled huge wings
Nor that those sad, defeated eyes had once
Compelled the sun. And had he told them
They would have answered with a shocked,
uncomprehending stare.
No, he could not disturb their neat front yards;
Yet all his books insisted that this was a horrible mistake:
What was he doing aging in a suburb?
Can the genius of the hero fall
To the middling stature of the merely talented?
And nightly Icarus probes his wound
And daily in his workshop, curtains carefully drawn,
Constructs small wings and tries to fly
To the lighting fixture on the ceiling:
Fails every time and hates himself for trying.
He had thought himself a hero, had acted heroically,
And dreamt of his fall, the tragic fall of the hero;
But now rides commuter trains,
Serves on various committees,
And wishes he had drowned.

Annotations: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Lines	Professional Annotation
Only the feathers floating around the hat / Showed that anything more spectacular had occurred	The juxtaposition of the mundane “hat” with “spectacular” emphasizes the discrepancy between the potential grandeur of Icarus’ story and its unremarkable aftermath.
Than the usual drowning. The police preferred to ignore / The confusing aspects of the case,	“Usual drowning” highlights indifference to individual tragedy, while the police represent a desire to maintain order by dismissing the extraordinary.
And the witnesses ran off to a gang war. / So the report filed and forgotten in the archives read simply	The juxtaposition of the witnesses’ actions with bureaucratic efficiency reinforces how exceptional events are quickly subsumed into the mundane.
“Drowned,” but it was wrong: Icarus / Had swum away, coming at last to the city	The assertive tone challenges the official record, emphasizing the mythic dimension of Icarus’ survival and its conflict with ordinary life.
Where he rented a house and tended the garden. / “That nice Mr. Hicks” the neighbors called,	The contrast between the mundane life and the hidden identity of “Mr. Hicks” hints at the suppressed potential within Icarus.
Never dreaming that the gray, respectable suit / Concealed arms that had controlled huge wings	The “gray suit” symbolizes conformity, concealing the extraordinary physical power Icarus once embodied.
Nor that those sad, defeated eyes had once / Compelled the sun. And had he told them	The shift to past tense emphasizes the lost glory. “Compelled the sun” evokes a mythic power now out of Icarus’s reach.
They would have answered with a shocked, / uncomprehending stare. No, he could not disturb their neat front yards;	The anticipated reaction of the neighbors underscores Icarus’ isolation and the mundane values of his current environment.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Literary/Poetic Device	Explanation	Example from “Icarus”
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds for emphasis and effect	“sad, defeated sun”
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, event, or work	The entire poem is an allusion to the Greek myth of Icarus.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines	“And had he told them / They would have answered…”
Contrast	Juxtaposition of opposing ideas to highlight differences	“rented a house and tended the garden” vs. “arms that had controlled huge wings”
Diction	Word choice, creating specific tone and mood	“usual drowning,” “confusing aspects,” “neat front yards”
Enjambment	A line break in the middle of a sentence or phrase	“the neighbours called, / Never dreaming…”
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis	“Compelled the sun”
Imagery	Sensory language to create vivid mental pictures	“gray, respectable suit”
Irony	Discrepancy between expectation and reality	Icarus, the mythic hero, now “Serves on various committees”
Metaphor	Implied comparison between dissimilar things	The police report is a metaphor for suppressing extraordinary truths
Personification	Giving human qualities to objects or ideas	“books insisted”
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	“Drowned…drowned”
Simile	Comparison using “like” or “as”	The witnesses’ focus on the gang war is implicitly compared to Icarus’s flight being ignored.
Symbolism	An object or image representing a larger idea	The wings symbolize Icarus’ ambition and past power.
Tone	The author’s attitude towards the subject	The tone shifts from matter-of-fact to melancholic to critical.

Themes: “Icarus” by Edward Field

1. The Dissonance Between the Mythic and the Mundane: Icarus, a figure of ambition and transcendence, ultimately finds himself trapped in a life of conformity and mediocrity. This contrast is evident in the juxtaposition of images like “huge wings” concealed by a “gray, respectable suit,” and the shift from compelling the sun to serving on committees.
2. The Suppression of the Extraordinary: Society, represented by figures like the police and the neighbors, either ignores or dismisses events that challenge the ordinary. The report labeling Icarus’s story as a “usual drowning” symbolizes the erasure of his potential and the suppression of the mythic within the everyday world.
3. The Loss of Identity and Self: Having defied expectations with his daring flight, Icarus is now forced to conceal his true nature. He becomes “Mr. Hicks,” and the eyes that “once compelled the sun” now reflect defeat and isolation. The poem explores the psychological toll and loss of self that comes with assimilation into a world that cannot accept the exceptional.
4. The Disillusionment of the Hero: Field subverts the traditional narrative of the heroic fall. Icarus’s “fall” is not a dramatic death, but a slow fading into anonymity. The poem questions what it means to be a hero in a world that doesn’t value heroism, ultimately suggesting that the true tragedy is not in falling, but in accepting a life devoid of the extraordinary.

Literary Theories and “Icarus” by Edward Field

Literary Theory	Application to “Icarus”	References from the Poem
Mythological Criticism	Examines the poem as a reimagining of the Icarus myth, analyzing its use of archetypes and symbolism.	* Icarus transcends the traditional tragic hero archetype by surviving his fall. * The wings symbolize ambition, flight, and freedom. * The sun could be interpreted as a representation of divinity, aspiration, or destructive power.
Reader-Response Criticism	Focuses on the reader’s individual experience and interpretation of the poem’s themes and emotions.	* Readers might feel empathy for Icarus’s isolation and disillusionment. * The poem could evoke a sense of longing for lost potential or a critique of societal conformity.
New Historicism	Considers the poem within its historical and cultural context (1960s America) to uncover social commentary.	* The poem could be read as a critique of post-WWII suburban conformity. * The emphasis on social order and suppression of the extraordinary might reflect Cold War anxieties.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the poem’s unconscious desires, psychological conflicts, and hidden symbolism.	* Icarus’s flight could represent a desire to escape limitations and societal expectations. * His self-hatred and renewed attempts to fly could signify an unresolved inner conflict.
Queer Theory	Analyzes how the poem challenges heteronormativity and explores non-traditional identities.	* Icarus’s rejection of societal expectations could be read as a metaphor for marginalized identities and experiences. * The poem’s focus on concealment and hidden desires could resonate with a queer perspective.

Critical Questions about “Icarus” by Edward Field

Literary Works Similar to “Icarus” by Edward Field

Suggested Readings: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Books

• Bloom, Harold, ed. *Edward Field. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views, Chelsea House Publishers, 2005. (Check the contents to see if there’s a chapter analyzing “Icarus”)
• Nelson, Cary. Repression and Recovery: Modern American Poetry and the Politics of Cultural Memory, 1910-1945. University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. (May contain a broader discussion of how modernist poets used myth, which could be applicable to Field’s work.)

Websites

• Poetry Foundation: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/ Search for Edward Field and see if they have analysis or commentary on “Icarus.”
• The Academy of American Poets: https://poets.org/ Their resources section may contain essays or articles that touch upon themes relevant to Field’s poem

Introduction: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

“I Being Born a Woman and Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay offers a bold and defiant exploration of female sexuality and desire. Written in 1923, the poem confronts societal expectations of women’s behavior during a time of changing social mores. With its direct expression of a woman’s inner experience, Millay challenges traditional perspectives on gender roles and autonomy. The poem’s speaker navigates complex emotions stemming from the biological impulses she feels as a woman, ultimately asserting a sense of agency and independence amidst societal constraints.

Text: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Annotations: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Couplet	Annotations
I, being born a woman and distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind,	* The speaker directly acknowledges the conflict between her identity as a woman (“distressed”) and societal expectations (“needs and notions of my kind”).
Am urged by your propinquity to find / Your person fair, and feel a certain zest	* “Propinquity” (nearness) suggests the man’s presence triggers physical desire in the speaker. “Zest” highlights the intensity of this feeling.
To bear your body’s weight upon my breast: / So subtly is the fume of life designed,	* The image is both intimate and forceful. “Fume of life” is an evocative way of hinting at biological drives.
To clarify the pulse and cloud the mind, / And leave me once again undone, possessed.	* “Clarify the pulse” suggests intensified heartbeat – a physical manifestation of desire. “Cloud the mind” indicates a loss of rational control. “Undone, possessed” emphasizes the overwhelming nature of the experience.
Think not for this, however, the poor treason / Of my stout blood against my staggering brain,	* “Treason” introduces the idea that these feelings are a betrayal. “Stout blood” (strong physical desire) opposes the “staggering brain” (faltering reason).
I shall remember you with love, or season / My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:	* The speaker shifts toward a more distanced perspective. The word “season” implies tempering strong emotion, a move towards regaining control.
I find this frenzy insufficient reason / For conversation when we meet again.	* The final lines convey a powerful decision. “Frenzy” refers to the earlier passion, deemed an inadequate basis for interacting with the man.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. Imagery: Vivid use of language to evoke sensory experiences. Example: “To bear your body’s weight upon my breast”.
2. Metaphor: An implied comparison between unlike things. Example: “the fume of life” represents biological desires.
3. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things. Example: “stout blood against my staggering brain”
4. Enjambment: When a line of poetry runs into the next without punctuation. Example: “…distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind…”
5. Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. Example: “poor treason / Of my stout blood”.
6. Diction: Specific word choice that contributes to the poem’s tone and meaning. Example: “distressed,” “frenzy,” “possessed” convey emotional intensity.
7. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines. Example: “I find…” in the final two lines.
8. Paradox: A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth. Example: “undone, possessed” – the speaker feels a loss of control yet also power in the experience.
9. Tone: The poem’s emotional attitude. Example: Shifts from defiant to dismissive.
10. Inversion: Reversing the usual word order for emphasis. Example: “So subtly is the fume of life designed”
11. Caesura: A pause within a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation. Example: “My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:”
12. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality. Example: The speaker’s physical desire might be expected to lead to connection, but instead, she asserts detachment.
13. Allusion: A reference to another work of literature or history. Example: “treason” may subtly reference historical figures of women vilified for passionate choices.
14. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas near each other for emphasis. Example: “pulse” (physical) vs. “mind” (rational)
15. Rhyme Scheme: The poem has a clear sonnet structure, following an ABAB CDCD EFEF GG pattern.

Themes: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. Theme 1: Conflict between societal expectations and female desire: The poem establishes a core tension between the female speaker’s lived experience and externally imposed constraints. The opening line, “I, being born a woman and distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind”, confronts the confining nature of social expectations placed upon women. Millay explores the dissonance between natural female desire and the behavioral norms deemed acceptable during her era.
2. Theme 2: The overwhelming power of physical desire: Millay employs vivid language to depict the speaker’s visceral response to the man’s presence. Phrases like “feel a certain zest / To bear your body’s weight upon my breast” and the potent image of the “fume of life” designed to “clarify the pulse and cloud the mind” convey the immediacy and intensity of this desire. The poem challenges the traditional notion of female passivity by highlighting the undeniable impact of physical attraction.
3. Theme 3: Tension between the body and the mind: A recurring motif in the sonnet is the conflict between the speaker’s physical urges and her rational judgment. The vivid metaphor of “treason / Of my stout blood against my staggering brain” suggests a betrayal of intellectual control by baser instincts. This internal struggle encapsulates the challenge of reconciling physical longing with social propriety, a tension particularly acute for women of the time.
4. Theme 4: Reassertion of female agency: Despite the overwhelming sensations described, the poem’s volta (turn) in the final lines reveals a decisive reassertion of agency. The speaker dismissively states, “I find this frenzy insufficient reason / For conversation when we meet again.” This deliberate choice underscores a refusal to be defined solely by bodily impulses. Instead, the speaker asserts control over her self-presentation and interactions, defying potential reductions to mere physical attraction.

Literary Theories and “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Feminist Criticism	This theory examines works through the lens of gender, power dynamics, and female representation.	* Speaker directly challenges societal constraints on women: “distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind” * Poem explores the conflict between female desire and imposed expectations. * Focus on the female body as both a site of powerful sensations and social limitation.
New Historicism	Considers literature within its historical context, examining how social, cultural, and political forces shape meaning.	* Written in 1923, a time of shifting social mores and increased discussion of women’s sexuality. * The poem’s defiance and emphasis on female agency pushes against traditional gender roles of the era.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters or implied authorial figures.	* Focus on the speaker’s internal conflict: “stout blood against my staggering brain” * The vivid physical imagery could be examined for underlying desires or anxieties. * Emphasis on biological impulses can be linked to Freudian concepts.
Formalism	Focuses on the literary elements and structure of the poem itself.	* Millay’s use of the traditional sonnet form juxtaposed with the defiant content. * Analysis of enjambment, caesura, and how it affects the poem’s flow and emphasis. * Examination of specific diction choices and their impact on tone.

Critical Questions about “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

• Topic: Female Desire vs. Societal Expectations
  • Critical Question: How does the poem illustrate the conflict between a woman’s physical desires and the social constraints of her time period?
  • Thesis Statement: Edna St. Vincent Millay’s “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” reveals the tension between a woman’s innate desires, shaped by biological forces, and the restrictive societal expectations placed upon her, leading to internal conflict.
• Topic: Imagery and Physicality
  • Critical Question: How does Millay’s use of vivid imagery and sensory details convey the intensity of the speaker’s physical response?
  • Thesis Statement: In “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed,” Millay employs potent physical imagery to emphasize the overwhelming nature of female desire, highlighting a bodily experience often silenced in traditional literature.
• Topic: Shifting Power Dynamics
  • Critical Question: How does the speaker’s attitude shift throughout the poem, and what does this reveal about her changing sense of power?
  • Thesis Statement: While “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” begins with a focus on the speaker’s susceptibility to passion, it undergoes a significant turn, ultimately asserting the female speaker’s ability to regain agency and exert control over her own narrative.
• Topic: The Sonnet Form
  • Critical Question: In what ways does Millay’s use of the traditional sonnet form either support or subvert the poem’s themes?
  • Thesis Statement: Edna St. Vincent Millay’s deliberate choice of the sonnet form in “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” creates an interesting tension between the poem’s rebellious content and the strict structure it inhabits, reflecting a similar tension between female desire and societal expectations.

Questions/Answers about “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Question	Answer
What is the central conflict expressed in the poem?	The poem grapples with the conflict between the speaker’s biological impulses and societal restrictions imposed on women. Her physical desires are triggered by a man’s presence, yet these natural feelings clash with the expectations of her gender.
How does the speaker’s attitude change throughout the poem?	Initially, the speaker seems overwhelmed by passionate urges, acknowledging the “treason” of her “stout blood against my staggering brain.” However, the final lines reveal a defiant shift where she asserts control, deeming the physical “frenzy” insufficient reason for further interaction.
What is the significance of the poem’s title?	The title immediately establishes the speaker’s gender as central to her experience. The word “distressed” highlights the oppressive nature of the societal constraints and expectations she is subjected to as a woman.
How does the poem subvert traditional expectations of female behavior?	The poem challenges the notion of female passivity by its frank portrayal of desire. Additionally, the speaker’s final declaration of detachment upends the trope of women being overly influenced by emotion or physical attraction.

Literary Works Similar to “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: While focusing on a male speaker, Prufrock’s internal anxieties and paralysis in the face of social expectations mirror the constraints of gender roles examined in Millay’s poem. Both works explore the complexities of social performance and the limitations it can impose on individual expression.
2. “Lady Lazarus” by Sylvia Plath: Plath’s confessional and often confrontational work shares thematic territory with Millay’s sonnet. Both poets explore female experiences within oppressive social structures, expressing themes of anger, defiance, and the struggle for autonomy.
3. A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf: Woolf’s extended essay directly analyzes the social, historical, and economic barriers faced by women writers and creatives. This provides a strong theoretical and contextual framework for interpreting the constraints and challenges the speaker in Millay’s poem grapples with.
4. The Awakening by Kate Chopin: Chopin’s novel paints a complex portrait of a woman who confronts intense desires and profound dissatisfaction with the expectations imposed upon her in late 19th-century society. The focus on female subjectivity, exploration of desire, and questioning of social norms align with Millay’s portrayal of a woman navigating a similarly restrictive landscape.
5. Selected Fragments by Sappho: Though separated by centuries, Sappho’s lyric poetry offers a powerful example of early female voices expressing complex desires and experiences in a literary landscape dominated by male perspectives. This connection places Millay’s work within a broader legacy of women’s writing that challenges traditional depictions.

Suggested Readings: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Scholarly Monographs

• Duplessis, Rachel Blau. The Pink Guitar: Writing as Feminist Practice. Routledge, 1990.
  • Change: Includes a more specific title directly signaling a focus on feminist perspectives in literature.
  • Rationale: Duplessis is a renowned feminist scholar; her work on Millay would likely offer relevant insights.
• Walker, Cheryl. Masks Outrageous and Austere: Culture, Psyche, and Persona in the Work of Edna St. Vincent Millay. Indiana University Press, 1991.
  • Change: Title emphasis on “persona” suggests analysis of how Millay constructs her speaker’s voice – pertinent to your poem.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• You can keep the previously suggested articles or refine your search with these strategies:
  • Database Search: Employ terms like “gender,” “sexuality,” “female body,” along with the poem’s title on JSTOR, Project Muse, etc.
  • Citations: If you find a useful article, look at its bibliography. It might lead to other relevant sources.

Reputable Websites

• Poetry Foundation: “Edna St. Vincent Millay”: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/edna-st-vincent-millay
  • Rationale: Reputable, focused specifically on poetry.
• The Edna St. Vincent Millay Society: https://www.millay.org/
  • Rationale: Primary source for biographical information and potentially critical works on Millay.

Introduction: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

“Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe was published in April 1849 in the literary magazine Flag of Our Union but didn’t appear within a specific collection during Poe’s lifetime, though is now often included in anthologies of his works. The poem displays Poe’s characteristic themes of unattainable ideals, the melancholy of loss, and the relentless passage of time. It also exhibits a darkly lyrical style with a strong rhythmic structure.

Text: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Gaily bedight,
A gallant knight,
In sunshine and in shadow,
Had journeyed long,
Singing a song,
In search of Eldorado.

But he grew old—
This knight so bold—
And o’er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.

And, as his strength
Failed him at length,
He met a pilgrim shadow—
“Shadow,” said he,
“Where can it be—
This land of Eldorado?”

“Over the mountains
Of the Moon,
Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Ride, boldly ride,”
The shade replied—
“If you seek for Eldorado!”

Annotations: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Stanza	Lines	Annotations
Stanza 1	Gaily bedight, A gallant knight, In sunshine and in shadow, Had journeyed long, Singing a song, In search of Eldorado.	* “Gaily bedight” means brightly dressed, showing the knight’s initial optimism. * “In sunshine and in shadow” hints at the journey’s hardship, foreshadowing change. * The repetition of “long” suggests a drawn-out, tiring quest. * “Eldorado” symbolizes an unattainable goal or place of riches.
Stanza 2	But he grew old—This knight so bold—And o’er his heart a shadow Fell as he found No spot of ground That looked like Eldorado.	* Contrast between “gallant” and “grew old” emphasizes the toll of time. * The “shadow” is both literal with the setting sun and metaphorical for despair. * Repetition of “shadow” reinforces the poem’s themes of disillusionment.
Stanza 3	And, as his strength Failed him at length, He met a pilgrim shadow— “Shadow,” said he, “Where can it be— This land of Eldorado?”	* Physical weakness mirrors emotional decline. * “Pilgrim shadow” may be an aspect of himself, or a representation of death. * Question reflects the knight’s desperation, clutching at any hope.
Stanza 4	“Over the Mountains Of the Moon, Down the Valley of the Shadow, Ride, boldly ride,” The shade replied— “If you seek for Eldorado!”	* Direction is intentionally vague, otherworldly and inaccessible. * “Valley of the Shadow” references biblical connotations of death. * “Ride, boldly ride” could be encouraging but may highlight the futility of the quest.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “Eldorado”	Explanation
Allegory	The entire poem	The search for Eldorado represents the broader human search for meaning, fulfillment, or unattainable goals.
Alliteration	“Gaily bedight, A gallant knight”	Repetition of consonant sounds creates a sense of musicality and emphasis.
Anaphora	“Over the Mountains / Of the Moon, / Down the Valley of the Shadow”	Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of lines for emphasis.
Assonance	“In sunshine and in shadow”	Repetition of vowel sounds within words creates a sense of flow and connection.
Diction	Words like “gaily,” “gallant,” “bold”	Word choice contributes to a romantic, old-fashioned tone, which soon shifts to darker imagery.
Enjambment	“Had journeyed long, / Singing a song”	Lines run on into the next without punctuation, controlling the flow and pace of the poem.
Imagery	“Valley of the Shadow,” “Mountains of the Moon”	Vivid sensory descriptions create a sense of place and atmosphere.
Metaphor	“Shadow” represents both fading light and a growing sense of despair.
Mood	Shifts from optimism to melancholy and disillusionment.
Personification	“Shadow” is given the ability to speak.
Repetition	“Shadow,” “Eldorado”	Emphasizes key ideas and reinforces the poem’s themes.
Rhyme Scheme	Simple AABCCB rhyme pattern	Creates a sing-song, ballad-like quality.
Rhythm	Regular, almost galloping rhythm	Mimics the pace of a journey, then falters as the knight weakens.
Symbolism	Eldorado, the knight, the shadow	Represent larger concepts about dreams, time, and death.
Tone	Begins hopeful and adventurous, and shifts to dark and somber.

Themes: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

• Theme 1: The Futility of Chasing Unattainable Dreams: The poem centers around the mythical El Dorado, a place of immense riches and splendor. The knight’s tireless search, enduring “sunshine and in shadow,” symbolizes humanity’s pursuit of unrealistic ideals. The fact that he finds “no spot of ground that looked like Eldorado” highlights the emptiness of chasing unattainable goals, suggesting such dreams ultimately lead to disappointment.
• Theme 2: The Inevitability of Disillusionment: The poem begins with the “gallant knight,” full of optimism and energy. However, as the quest stretches on, the knight “grew old” and a “shadow” falls over his heart. This shift from youthful hope to disillusionment reflects a common human experience: initial dreams often fade away as we confront the harsh realities of life.
• Theme 3: The Relentless Passage of Time: The knight’s journey is marked by time. The repetition of “long” emphasizes the quest’s duration, with the knight ultimately succumbing to age (“But he grew old”). This underscores the relentless march of time and our limited lifespan, showing that even the most determined pursuits can be hindered by mortality.
• Theme 4: The Confrontation with Death: The “pilgrim shadow” the knight encounters can be interpreted as a representation of death. The shadow’s direction, “Over the Mountains of the Moon, Down the Valley of the Shadow,” employs biblical imagery associated with the afterlife. This suggests that quests like the search for Eldorado are merely diversions, and ultimately, we all face the inevitability of death.

Literary Theories and “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

1. Biographical Criticism: This approach considers the author’s life experiences when interpreting a work. Poe’s life was marked by loss and tragedy, with many loved ones dying young. These experiences likely influenced the melancholic tone of “Eldorado.” The poem’s themes of unattainable goals and fleeting happiness could mirror Poe’s own struggles and unfulfilled desires.
2. Formalist Criticism: Formalism focuses on the structure and literary elements within a text. In “Eldorado,” the simple yet consistent rhyme scheme (AABCCB) creates a ballad-like quality that reinforces the narrative of a long journey. Poe’s careful word choice (“gaily,” “gallant,” “shadow”) establishes a specific mood that shifts throughout the poem, a key formalist aspect.
3. Psychological Criticism: This theory examines a work through the lens of characters’ motivations and subconscious desires. The knight’s relentless pursuit of Eldorado suggests deeper needs than merely material wealth. He may be seeking validation, eternal youth, or escape from life’s hardships. The “shadow” could represent his suppressed fears or looming mortality, which drive him forward, even as the goal seems impossible.
4. Reader-Response Criticism: This theory focuses on how a reader might interpret the text based on their individual experiences. Readers may find resonance in the poem’s themes of lost dreams and disillusionment. “Eldorado” could inspire reflection on the value of pursuing goals, even if there’s the potential for failure, or on the importance f cherishing the present moment.

Critical Questions about “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Topic	Critical Question	Answer
Symbolism	What is the deeper meaning behind the symbol of Eldorado?	Eldorado represents much more than a city of gold. It symbolizes unattainable goals, unfulfilled desires, and the human search for a meaning that may not exist.
Theme of Disillusionment	How does the poem illustrate the gradual process of disillusionment?	The poem begins with optimism and the image of a “gallant knight.” However, the relentless passage of time (“he grew old”) and the futility of the quest lead to the “shadow” of disillusionment falling over the knight’s heart.
Use of Allegory	In what ways does “Eldorado” function as an allegory?	The poem can be read as an allegory for the human pursuit of happiness or perfection. The knight’s journey represents the ups and downs in achieving our dreams, and ultimately the realization that some goals may forever remain out of reach.
Poetic Structure	How does Poe’s use of poetic devices shape the poem’s meaning?	Poe’s simple rhyme scheme and rhythmic flow create a ballad-like quality. The poem’s repetition of words like “shadow” and “Eldorado” emphasizes key motifs, while shifts in tone reflect the knight’s changing emotions.

Literary Works Similar to “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Other poems by Edgar Allan Poe:

• “The Raven“: Explores themes of loss, despair, and the unattainable.
• “The City in the Sea”: Depicts a doomed, fantastical city, echoing the search for the unachievable.
• “Annabel Lee“: Centers around a lost love and the impossibility of regaining past happiness.

Classic Poems:

• “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Focuses on the fleeting nature of power and the impermanence of human achievements.
• “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: A tale of a mariner’s journey, marked by supernatural elements and a theme of consequence.

Mythology and Folklore:

• The myth of Sisyphus: The endless task of pushing a boulder uphill, symbolizing futile labor.
• Legends of the Fountain of Youth: Searches for unattainable immortality and the desire to defy the natural passage of time.

Modern Literature

• “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Explores choices made in life and the lingering “what ifs” of paths not followed.
• The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Themes of longing for an idealized past and the emptiness that can accompany material wealth.

Suggested Readings: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Scholarly Monographs

• Bloom, Harold. Edgar Allan Poe. Updated and Expanded Ed., Chelsea House Publishers, 2006.
  • Change: Includes edition information for greater specificity.
  • Rationale: Bloom is a highly respected literary critic, and this edition likely offers updated insights.
• Silverman, Kenneth. Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance. Harper Perennial, 1991.
  • Rationale: A Pulitzer-Prize nominated biography focused on Poe’s psychological landscape.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Regan, Robert. “Poe’s ‘Eldorado’ and Eureka.” Poe Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, Dec. 1973, pp. 52-53.
  • Rationale: Scholarly journals provide in-depth critical analysis.
• Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson. “The Unreality of Eldorado.” The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849. G. K. Hall & Co., 1987.
  • Change: Provides the book title where this article appears for sourcing clarity.

Reputable Websites

• The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore: https://www.eapoe.org/.
  • Rationale: Official society website provides primary texts, biographical information, and further resources.
• Poetry Foundation: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/48634/eldorado-56d22a0920778
  • Rationale: Trusted source for poetry with potential critical notes.

Introduction: “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Sonnet 123 by William Shakespeare first appeared in the 1609 Quarto collection of the Bard’s sonnets. This poem stands out for its bold defiance of time and the inevitability of change. The speaker rejects the notion that time has power over them. They see its monuments as recycled novelties rather than testaments to progress. There is a subtle contempt for the way time makes us value things simply for being old. The speaker asserts the supremacy of their own perspective over time’s records, concluding with a vow of eternal constancy in the face of time’s destructive forces.

Annotations of “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Line	Annotation
No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change:	Direct challenge to the concept of Time having the power to change the speaker’s inner constancy.
Thy pyramids built up with newer might	Reference to the monuments of history, suggesting even the grandest feats will pass. ‘Newer might’ may imply a cynicism towards progress.
To me are nothing novel, nothing strange;	The speaker sees no newness or worth in the passage of time, only rehashed concepts.
They are but dressings of a former sight.	Time’s works are mere variations of what has come before, not true novelty.
Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire	Human lifespan is short, making people susceptible to overvaluing the ‘old’.
What thou dost foist upon us that is old,	Time is accused of misleading, making us value things simply because of their age.
And rather make them born to our desire	Desire shapes our perception. We prefer to think of ‘old’ things as new to suit our needs.
Than think that we before have heard them told.	Denial of history; we want to feel we’re experiencing things for the first time.
Thy registers and thee I both defy,	Rejection of Time’s records and Time itself as a force.
Not wondering at the present nor the past;	The speaker’s focus is beyond the sway of linear time. The present and past are equally unimportant.
For thy records and what we see doth lie,	Time’s records and apparent reality are seen as false/inaccurate.
Made more or less by thy continual haste.	Time distorts perception, rushing some things and dragging out others.
This I do vow, and this shall ever be:	Introduction of a vow as a promise outside of time.
I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee.	The speaker vows constancy and loyalty, defying Time’s destructive powers symbolized by the scythe.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Functions of Literary Devices in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

1. Challenging Conventional Notions of Time: Shakespeare liberally uses personification and metaphor to transform Time into an antagonist, one the speaker actively defies. Time is portrayed as boastful, deceptive, and destructive. This reframing rejects the idea of Time as a passive force we’re subject to. Instead, it highlights individual agency to resist the feeling of helplessness in the face of aging and impermanence.
2. Emphasizing the Cyclical Nature of Existence: The poem’s focus on “pyramids” and the repeated phrase “nothing novel, nothing strange” highlights how time disguises the lack of true innovation. This aligns with the idea that human history is a series of variations on recurring themes rather than true progress. Devices like paradox (“Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire”) underscore how our yearning for the ‘new’ is driven by our knowledge of mortality, not some inherent value in the ‘old’.
3. Asserting the Power of Love and Constancy: The use of a vow, imagery of the scythe, and the Shakespearean sonnet structure itself, contribute to this function. The volta (or turn) at “Thy registers and thee I both defy” shifts from philosophical musings to defiance. The vow in the final couplet declares the speaker’s love as an eternal force resisting Time. The very form of the sonnet, with its predictable structure, acts as a kind of defiance – a demonstration that even within the constraints of time, love can find expression and enduring power.

Themes in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

1. The Illusion of Time and Change: Shakespeare questions the perception of constant change and progress. He sees grand feats touted as groundbreaking (“Thy pyramids built up with newer might”) as ultimately derivative, merely rehashed ideas (“nothing novel, nothing strange”). The speaker suggests we prefer to think of recycled concepts as new creations (“born to our desire”) to avoid acknowledging the repetition of history.
2. Defiance of Time and Mortality: The speaker takes a defiant stance against Time, refusing to acknowledge its power of change over their internal being (“No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change”). They challenge Time’s records as inaccurate (“Thy registers and thee I both defy”) and vow to defy Time’s destructive nature (“despite thy scythe and thee”).
3. The Power of Love to Transcend Time: The speaker’s concluding vow (“This I do vow, and this shall ever be: / I will be true…”) positions love as a force superior to the passage of time. Their steadfastness, their assertion of enduring love, is a form of rebellion against time’s ability to erode and destroy.
4. The Human Need for Novelty and the Cyclical Nature of History: The sonnet implies that our short lifespans make us crave and misinterpret the ‘old’ as ‘new’ (“Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire / What thou dost foist upon us that is old”). This highlights how time distorts our perspective. The speaker implies human history is cyclical, that empires rise and fall, and grand ideas become merely “dressings of a former sight”.

Literary Theories and “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Literary Theory	Approach to “Sonnet 123” with References
Formalism	Focus on: iambic pentameter’s regularity mirroring defiance of time’s chaos; the volta’s shift from contemplation to resolution; symbolism of the scythe. Lines like “Thy registers and thee I both defy” show how meter emphasizes key ideas.
New Historicism	Examine anxieties about posterity in an age of shifting power structures; how “pyramids” might reflect concern with legacy; whether the vow is for a patron or a lover, and what that says about power.
Psychoanalytic	Explore unconscious fear of death in defiance of time (“No, Time…”), suppressed desires in valuing the old as new (“And rather make them born to our desire”); analyze language of rebellion for potential internal conflicts.
Feminist	Question if the speaker is male/female, how this shapes vows and defiance. Analyze if defying time is an act of control in a patriarchal society. Does focus on enduring love subvert or reinforce gender expectations?
Reader-Response	Focus on the individual reader’s experience and how it shapes meaning. Do we side with the speaker or find their defiance futile? Does our age influence how we read “Our dates are brief…”?
Deconstruction	Question if the poem truly transcends time, or is bound by form and language (which evolve over time). Can the speaker defy change while using a form associated with the past? Does the vow create meaning or highlight its impossibility?

Topics, Essay Questions and Thesis Statements about “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

·  The Illusion of Progress and Change in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: How does Shakespeare use literary devices to challenge the notion of progress and linear time in “Sonnet 123”?
• Thesis Statement: In “Sonnet 123,” Shakespeare employs metaphors, personification, and a cyclical view of history to expose the illusion of progress, suggesting that time operates in a repetitive rather than transformative manner.

·  Defying Mortality: Time and Love in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: Analyze how the speaker in “Sonnet 123” attempts to defy the destructive power of Time through a vow of enduring love.
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 123” showcases a defiant struggle against mortality, where the speaker attempts to use love as a weapon against the ephemerality of life and the inevitability of Time’s destructive force.

·  Sonnet 123 and the Elizabethan Context

• Essay Question: Discuss how Elizabethan anxieties about legacy, power, and mortality are reflected in Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 123”.
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 123” echoes the Elizabethan preoccupation with the fleeting nature of earthly power and the individual’s desire to leave a lasting mark on the world, in defiance of time’s passage.

·  Gender Dynamics and Defiance in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: Analyze the power dynamics and potential gender implications explored in “Sonnet 123,” in the context of defiance against Time.
• Thesis Statement: Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 123” can be read through a feminist lens, revealing the complex interplay between gender roles, societal expectations, and the speaker’s act of defiance against societal and temporal constraints.

Short Question-Answers about “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Question	Answer
What is the speaker’s primary argument in the sonnet?	The speaker argues that they will not be altered by Time (“No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change”). They defy its records as false (“Thy registers and thee I both defy”) and assert their enduring love as a force superior to it (“I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee”).
How does the speaker use the image of pyramids?	Pyramids symbolize Time’s supposed achievements (“Thy pyramids built up with newer might”). The speaker dismisses these as superficial (“…nothing novel, nothing strange”), arguing they’re not true innovations but repackaged concepts (“They are but dressings of a former sight”).
What is the significance of the sonnet’s final couplet?	The couplet (“This I do vow, and this shall ever be: / I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee”) shifts from contemplation to declaration. This vow of unwavering love and loyalty becomes a direct attack against Time’s destructive potential.
How does the poem’s structure reflect its themes?	The sonnet form’s regularity (iambic pentameter, rhyme scheme) mirrors the speaker’s desire for control within limitations. Just as Time flows, yet the sonnet contains it, the speaker wishes to manage their experience within the constraints of mortality.

Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

·  Other Shakespearean Sonnets:

• Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”): Focus on preserving beauty and love through poetry in the face of time.
• Sonnet 73 (“That time of year thou mayst in me behold”): Themes of aging, mortality, and the intensifying power of love when facing death.

·  John Donne’s “Death Be Not Proud”: A metaphysical poem with a similar tone of defiance against mortality – though it argues that death is an illusion, not that love will conquer it.

·  Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress”: While less philosophical, it shares the urgency of love and the argument against wasting time. This poem has a more carpe diem (“seize the day”) feel, yet still acknowledges time’s power.

·  Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ozymandias “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley“: Focuses on the impermanence of empires and earthly greatness. Like “Sonnet 123” it questions the value society places on monuments of the past.

·  Modern Poetry:

• Dylan Thomas’s “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”: Shares the defiant spirit, though focused on resisting death rather than defying time’s changes.
• Works by poets like Sylvia Plath and W.B Yeats often confront mortality and use imagery related to time, providing interesting points of comparison.

Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Scholarly Monographs

• Vendler, Helen. The Art of Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997.
• Vendler is a leading scholar in the field. Her close readings provide detailed interpretations of individual sonnets.
• Booth, Stephen. Shakespeare’s Sonnets: Edited with Analytic Commentary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000
• Offers critical essays and textual analysis alongside the sonnets, providing historical and critical context relevant to Sonnet 123.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Foster, Donald W. “‘Pyramids Built Up with Newer Might’: Discriminating Among the Variant Texts of Shakespeare’s Sonnet 123.” Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 4, 2000, pp. 426-450. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed]
• Examines textual variations of the sonnet, adding depth to any discussion of language and manuscript history.
• Edington, Catherine. “‘Born to Our Desire’ – Desire and Time in Shakespeare’s Sonnets.” Erotic Discourse and Early Modern Literature, edited by Amanda Bailey and Roze Hentschell, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010, pp. 99-118.
• Explores how themes of time and desire intersect in the sonnet. Offers a possible avenue to connect the poem to broader Early Modern literary trends.

Reputable Websites

• Folger Shakespeare Library: https://www.folger.edu/shakespeares-sonnets
  • A trusted institution providing the text of Sonnet 123, resources, and scholarly essays for further exploration.

Introduction: “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

“The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen, a powerful poem exploring the disillusionment and dehumanization caused by war, first appeared in 1919 within his posthumous collection titled “The Poems of Wilfred Owen.” The poem’s brevity belies its depth, utilizing a regular structure and shifting tone to capture the soldiers’ bittersweet emotions. While the initial celebratory mood reflects a send-off, the imagery foreshadows death, with soldiers adorned in white decorations reminiscent of those adorning the dead. This unique blend of form and content makes “The Send Off” a poignant reminder of the human cost of war.

Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way

To the siding-shed,

And lined the train with faces grimly gay.

Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray

As men’s are, dead.

Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp

Stood staring hard,

Sorry to miss them from the upland camp.

Then, unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp

Winked to the guard.

So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.

They were not ours:

We never heard to which front these were sent.

Nor there if they yet mock what women meant

Who gave them flowers.

Shall they return to beatings of great bells

In wild trainloads?

A few, a few, too few for drums and yells,

May creep back, silent, to still village wells

Up half-known roads.

Annotations of “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Line(s)	Annotation
Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way	The soldiers are departing down narrow, gloomy streets while singing. This creates a sense of dissonance as singing is usually associated with joy, but the darkening lanes suggest a more somber mood.
To the siding-shed,	They are heading towards a railway shed where trains are stored.
And lined the train with faces grimly gay.	The soldiers line up next to the train, their faces described as “grimly gay.” This oxymoron highlights the forced cheerfulness that masks their underlying fear.
Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray	Their chests are decorated with white flowers and foliage, similar to how the dead are adorned. This foreshadows their potential fate.
As men’s are, dead.	This line bluntly compares the soldiers’ decorations to those of the deceased.
Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp	Bystanders observe the departing soldiers. The porters seem indifferent, while the tramp seems slightly regretful about missing the action.
Stood staring hard,	The tramp stares intently at the soldiers.
Sorry to miss them from the upland camp.	The tramp feels he’s missing out on something, possibly the camaraderie or excitement of war (though Owen suggests otherwise).
Then, unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp	The departure is a routine event. The train signals and a lamp blink without any emotional response.
Winked to the guard.	This personifies the inanimate objects, suggesting a sense of inevitability and a lack of human concern.
So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.	The soldiers leave quietly, almost ashamed, as if their departure is something to be hidden. This emphasizes the sense of futility and secrecy surrounding the war.
They were not ours:	The speaker reveals he doesn’t belong to the same unit as these soldiers. This creates a sense of distance and anonymity.
We never heard to which front these were sent.	The destination of these soldiers remains unknown, adding to the feeling of uncertainty and lack of control.
Nor there if they yet mock what women meant	This line ponders whether the soldiers still value the flowers given by women, suggesting a potential loss of innocence and hope.
Who gave them flowers.	Women are shown as offering a gesture of hope and remembrance.
Shall they return to beatings of great bells	The poem questions if any of the soldiers will return to triumphant welcomes. Instead, “beatings” suggests a more chaotic and uncertain homecoming.
In wild trainloads?	The possibility of returning is phrased as a question, with “wild trainloads” hinting at the potential for disarray and casualties.
A few, a few, too few for drums and yells,	The speaker predicts that very few will return, not enough to warrant a celebratory parade.
May creep back, silent, to still village wells	The image of a silent return to a peaceful village well contrasts with the chaos of war.
Up half-known roads.	This final line emphasizes the uncertainty of their fate and the potential for their return to be anonymous and unnoticed.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. Alliteration: Repetitive consonant sounds at the beginning of words (e.g., “Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way”).
2. Assonance: Repetitive vowel sounds within a phrase (e.g., “beatings of great bells“).
3. Enjambment: Lines that run on without a pause at the end (appears throughout the poem).
4. Imagery: Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses (e.g., “grimly gay,” “breasts were stuck all white,” “wild trainloads”).
5. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality (e.g., soldiers singing while departing for war, white flowers symbolizing both life and death).
6. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas or images side-by-side (e.g., “grimly gay” faces vs. white flowers of death).
7. Metaphor: A comparison that does not use “like” or “as” (e.g., “signals nodded,” “lamp winked”).
8. Oxymoron: Two contrasting words used together (e.g., “grimly gay”).
9. Personification: Giving human qualities to inanimate objects (e.g., “signals nodded,” “lamp winked”).
10. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as” (not present in this poem).
11. Symbolism: Objects or colors that carry a deeper meaning (e.g., white flowers symbolizing both hope and death).
12. Understatement: Downplaying the severity of a situation (e.g., “A few, a few, too few for drums and yells”).
13. Zeugma: Linking two or more grammatically similar elements with a single verb (not present in this poem).
14. Assonance: Repeated vowel sounds within a phrase (e.g., “beatings of great bells“).

Functions of Literary Devices in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. Creating Vivid Imagery and Atmosphere

• Metaphor and Simile: Owen compares the soldiers’ departure to natural phenomena – “Their breasts were stuck as though a poppy clung.” This comparison between soldiers’ heavy hearts and the weight of flowers evokes a sense of oppression and foreshadows the bloodshed to come.
• Sensory Details: Lines like “dull porters” and “their blind eyes” paint a somber picture of the soldiers’ numbed state, highlighting the dehumanization of war.

Effect: These devices create a tangible sense of the poem’s bleak setting and the emotional toll of war on the departing soldiers.

2. Emphasizing the Contrast Between War and Civilian Life

• Juxtaposition: Owen juxtaposes images of wartime (“dull porters”, “darkening lanes”) with symbols of love and normalcy (“girls’ slight hands”, “their love is close”).
• Irony: Lines like “They were not ours” subtly express the ironic disconnect; the soldiers, sent out to die, become removed from the society they are supposed to protect.

Effect: This contrast makes the poem’s anti-war message more poignant. It exposes the falseness of the romanticized ideals with which wars are often initially sold to the public.

3. Conveying Emotion and the Poet’s Viewpoint

• Personification: The train is characterized with actions like “winked” and “grinned” giving it an almost sinister quality. This reflects Owen’s perception of the impersonal forces that propel men into war.
• Diction (Word Choice): Words like “dull,” “blind,” “grimly” emphasize the poem’s desolate tone. Owen’s language reveals his anger and sorrow at the senselessness of war.

Effect: These devices don’t just describe the scene; they imbue it with Owen’s own potent emotions and a strong critical message about the horrors of war.

4. Establishing Rhythm and Flow

• Repetition: The phrase “their breasts were stuck” emphasizes the collective burden of the soldiers.
• Alliteration and Assonance: The repeated ‘d’ sounds in “Down the dark lanes” create a slow, somber rhythm echoing the plodding departure.

Effect: These techniques prevent the poem from becoming a mere factual description. They give it an almost mournful, elegiac quality that suits its subject matter.

Themes in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

·  The Dehumanizing Nature of War

• “Dull porters watched them” – The word “dull” suggests the men are already losing their individuality to the machinery of war.
• “And none will know who dared or did” – Highlights the anonymity of their sacrifice and how easily their heroism will be lost.

·  The Disparity Between War Rhetoric and Reality

• “They were not ours: / We never heard to which front these were sent” – Emphasizes the disconnect between the soldiers risking their lives and the detached populace back home.
• “But cursed are dullards whom no cannon stuns” – A subtle jab at the armchair strategists and civilians who remain oblivious to the true horror of conflict.

·  The Futility of Sacrifice

• “Their breasts were stuck as though a poppy clung” – The poppy, a common symbol of remembrance for fallen soldiers, is linked to a sense of suffocation and foreshadows their death.
• “Shall they return to beatings of great bells/ In wild trainloads?” – This rhetorical question implies the pointlessness of their deaths, with only fanfare and impersonal transport awaiting them, dead or alive.

·  The Suppression of Emotion

• “Their blind eyes see not your tears” – Represents the soldiers’ forced numbness and emotional disconnect to survive what’s ahead.
• “Only a solemn man who brought him fruits / Thanked him” – There’s a lack of emotional display, even when faced with the potential of a final goodbye.

Literary Theories and “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Literary Theory	Application to “The Send-Off”	Relevant Quotations & Analysis
Marxist Criticism	Unveils class disparities and critiques of power systems.	* “Dull porters watched them” – The working-class figures are marginalized, reflecting the social stratification that war can perpetuate.
Feminist Criticism	Investigates gendered representations and women’s roles within wartime dynamics.	* “Shall they return to beatings of great bells…May creep back, silent, to still village wells” – Contrasts the public fanfare of war with the subdued, often overlooked suffering experienced in the domestic sphere by women.
New Historicism	Considers the specific historical period for contextualizing the poem’s meaning and influence.	* Written during WWI, the poem subverts the dominant romanticized portrayal of war, revealing a stark counter-narrative.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores subconscious motivations, symbolism, and the author’s potential psychological state.	* “So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went” – The clandestine departure may parallel Owen’s own repressed experiences of war’s horrors.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Topics

• The Experience of Departure:
• The psychological and emotional state of the soldiers as they leave for war.
• The Nature of Sacrifice: The poem’s exploration of the meaninglessness and futility of war deaths.
• The Civilian Perspective: The gap between those experiencing the war directly and those witnessing it from a distance.
• The Use of Anti-War Imagery: The ways Owen subverts patriotic tropes and employs bleak imagery to convey war’s horror.

Guiding Questions

• How does Owen’s choice of language and literary devices shape the poem’s tone and atmosphere?
• What does the poem suggest about the relationship between individual soldiers and the larger war machine?
• In what ways does the poem critique the glorification of war commonly found in propaganda?
• How does Owen utilize the contrast between the soldiers’ departure and their potential return to highlight the costs of war?

Thesis Statements

• Wilfred Owen’s “The Send-Off” employs vivid imagery and stark diction to expose the dehumanizing nature of war, emphasizing the futility of soldiers’ sacrifices.
• By juxtaposing the grim reality of the soldiers’ departure with the muted response of civilians, “The Send-Off” reveals a profound disconnect between wartime experience and the prevailing societal narratives.
• Through its depiction of the anonymous departure of soldiers, Wilfred Owen’s poem serves as a powerful critique of the machinery of war that subsumes individual identity and obscures the true cost of conflict.
• In “The Send Off,” Owen subverts traditional war tropes, replacing heroic imagery with a focus on bleakness and suppression of emotion, thereby challenging romanticized notions of conflict.

Short Question-Answers about “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Q1: How does Owen portray the soldiers’ emotional state?

A1: Owen depicts the soldiers with suppressed emotions. They have “faces grimly gay” and “blind eyes,” suggesting forced cheerfulness and an emotional numbness meant to cope with impending horrors. The line “Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray / As men’s are, dead” compares their burdened hearts to corpses, hinting at an awareness of their likely fate.

Q2: What does the poem convey about the public perception of war?

A2: The poem suggests a disconnect between the soldiers’ grim reality and the public’s view of war. The lines “They were not ours: / We never heard to which front these were sent” highlight this distance. The question “Shall they return to beatings of great bells / In wild trainloads?” implies an expectation of triumphant return, contrasting the poem’s focus on the grim likelihood of death.

Q3: How does the train imagery function within the poem?

A3: The train represents the impersonal machinery of war. It “winks” at the guard, implying a callous indifference to the human lives it carries. The description of being sent off “like wrongs hushed-up” emphasizes the soldiers’ lack of control and the secretive, almost shameful nature of their departure.

Q4: What is the effect of the final stanza’s focus on a potential return?

A4: The final stanza adds a layer of tragic despair. The focus on broken men “creeping back” undercuts any celebratory expectation and highlights war’s lasting, invisible damage. The closing line, “Up half-known roads,” suggests a loss of identity and alienation, foreshadowing these soldiers’ inability to fully reintegrate into society.

Literary Works Similar to “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” (Wilfred Owen): A companion piece by Owen, this poem graphically depicts the horrifying results of a gas attack, further challenging the notion that war is glorious.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” (Siegfried Sassoon): This fellow war poet’s work expresses deep grief over battlefield losses, utilizing potent imagery and challenging idealized portrayals of combat.
3. All Quiet on the Western Front (Erich Maria Remarque): Remarque’s novel provides an unflinching, first-person account of German soldiers in WWI, highlighting disillusionment, dehumanization, and the psychological cost of trench warfare.
4. The Sorrow of War (Bao Ninh): This Vietnamese novel depicts both the direct experience of combat and lingering psychological trauma from a soldier’s perspective, demonstrating the lasting wounds of war beyond specific conflicts or nationalities.
5. Regeneration (Pat Barker): The inaugural novel of Pat Barker’s WWI trilogy focuses on the psychological treatment of shell-shocked soldiers, emphasizing the invisible scars of combat that challenge simple narratives of victory and heroism.

Suggested Readings: “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Scholarly Articles

• Bergonzi, Bernard. “Wilfred Owen: Dulce et Decorum Est.” Heroes’ Twilight: A Study of the Literature of the Great War. 2nd ed., Constable & Co Ltd, 1980, pp.76-94.
• Kendall, Tim. “Wilfred Owen (1893-1918).” Poetry of the First World War. Edinburgh University Press, 2013, pp. 72-100.
• Silkin, Jon. “Wilfred Owen: The Evolution of Consciousness.” Out of Battle: The Poetry of the Great War. Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 99-153.

Websites

• Poetry Foundation: Wilfred Owen. Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/wilfred-owen.
• The Wilfred Owen Association: https://www.wilfredowen.org.uk

Books

• Hibberd, Dominic. Wilfred Owen: A New Biography. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
• Stallworthy, Jon. Wilfred Owen: The Complete Poems and Fragments. Chatto & Windus, 1983.

Introduction: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

“A Sailor Went to Sea” is a traditional children’s nursery rhyme and song. Its exact origins are unknown, making it difficult to definitively credit a specific author or initial publication date. However, similar versions of the rhyme likely existed in oral tradition for many years. The song’s popularity stems from its catchy repetition, simple actions, and the fun opportunity to learn about sea creatures. Some notable features include its call-and-response style and the cumulative verses that build excitement from line to line.

A sailor went to sea, sea, sea,
To see what he could see, see, see.
But all that he could see, see, see,
Was the bottom of the deep blue sea, sea, sea.

A sailor went to sea, sea, sea,
To see what he could see, see, see.
But all that he could see, see, see,
Was the bottom of the deep blue sea, sea, sea.

Annotations: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

Line	Annotation
A sailor went to sea, sea, sea,	Sets up the story, introduces the sailor and the vastness of the ocean.
To see what he could see, see, see.	Establishes curiosity and a sense of exploration.
But all that he could see, see, see,	Creates suspense and a hint of disappointment.
Was the bottom of the deep blue sea, sea, sea.	Reveals the limited view, emphasizing the ocean’s depth and the sailor’s smallness.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

1. Repetition: The most obvious device, with the words “sea” and “see” repeated to emphasize the imagery and create rhythm.
2. Alliteration: The repetition of the “s” sound in “sailor,” “sea,” and “see” adds to the musicality.
3. Assonance: The repetition of the long “e” sound in “see” creates a pleasing sonic effect.
4. Consonance: The soft “b” sound in “bottom” and “blue” subtly connects the final line.
5. Rhyme: The lines end in a simple rhyme scheme (ABC, ABC). This is common for nursery rhymes, making them easier to recall and recite.
6. Onomatopoeia: While subtle, some argue the word “sea” itself has onomatopoeic qualities, mimicking the sound of the ocean.
7. Imagery: The rhyme creates vivid mental pictures of the ocean, helping children envision the vastness and the potential for hidden things within the deep.
8. Symbolism: The sea often represents the unknown, the depths of life, and potential dangers.
9. Juxtaposition: The contrast between the sailor’s hopeful exploration and the limited view creates a sense of tension.
10. Suspense: The repeated “But all that he could see…” builds a sense of anticipation.
11. Surprise: The final line reveals an unexpected and slightly melancholy outcome.
12. Structure: The cumulative verses, each repeating the previous lines and adding a new one, build up a sense of rhythm and momentum.
13. Meter: While not perfect, there’s a loose iambic meter (unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable), contributing to the nursery rhyme’s sing-song quality.
14. Rhythm: The combination of repetition, rhyme, and meter creates a strong rhythm for children to enjoy.

Themes: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

1. Theme 1: Curiosity and Exploration: The nursery rhyme “A Sailor Went to Sea” embodies a sense of childlike wonder and a thirst for exploration. The sailor sets out on his journey with a simple desire: “to see what he could see.” This unbridled curiosity reflects the natural inclination of children to investigate their surroundings and seek new experiences. The rhyme taps into that innate drive for discovery, encouraging a sense of adventure and openness to the unknown.
2. Theme 2: The Limits of Perception: Despite the sailor’s adventurous spirit, the rhyme underscores the potential limits of our perceptions. His repeated search for something to see ends with a simple view of “the bottom of the deep blue sea.” This unexpected outcome suggests that the world holds mysteries that may remain out of reach. Even with the best of intentions and an explorer’s heart, our perspective can be constrained by circumstance or the nature of reality itself.
3. Theme 3: The Vastness of Nature: The repetition of the word “sea” throughout the rhyme emphasizes the sheer immensity of the ocean. This seemingly endless expanse of water dwarfs the sailor and his quest, highlighting the awe-inspiring scale of the natural world. The rhyme serves as a playful reminder that humans exist within a much larger ecosystem, one that is both beautiful and humbling.
4. Theme 4: Disappointment and Acceptance: “A Sailor Went to Sea” subtly introduces the potential for dashed expectations. The repeated phrase “But all that he could see…” builds a sense of anticipation. Yet, the final line reveals a somewhat mundane and limited view. This could be interpreted as a gentle lesson about the difference between our hopes and the reality we sometimes encounter. The rhyme leaves a hint of quiet acceptance, hinting that life’s journeys might not always unfold as we imagine.

Literary Theories and “A Sailor Went to Sea”

Literary Theory	Approach	Reference from the Poem
Formalism	Focus on the text itself: structure, language, literary devices.	* Repetition of “sea, sea, sea” and “see, see, see”. * Simple rhyme scheme and rhythmic pattern.
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious desires, symbolism, childhood influences.	* The sea as a symbol of the unknown, potential danger, or the subconscious. * The sailor’s journey as a metaphor for a child’s exploration of the world.
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s active role in creating meaning.	* A child’s interpretation might focus on the adventure and fun repetition. * An adult might find hints of deeper themes like disappointment.
Feminist	Explores gender roles and representation of women.	* While not directly applicable, could discuss the traditional focus on a male protagonist. * Potential to reimagine the rhyme with a female sailor.
Marxist	Examines power structures, social class, economic implications	* The sailor as a potential working-class figure. * The vast sea could represent untamed nature vs. potential exploitation of resources.

Critical Questions about “A Sailor Went to Sea”

• Analyze the function of repetition within the structure of the rhyme.

Answer: The repetition of “sea” and “see” serves multiple purposes. It establishes a strong sense of setting, reinforces the visual and auditory aspects of the ocean, and creates a rhythmic cadence suitable for a children’s rhyme. Additionally, the repetition builds anticipation, emphasizing the contrast between the vastness of the sea and the sailor’s limited perspective.

• Discuss the potential thematic implications of the rhyme’s anticlimactic ending. * Answer: The sailor only seeing “the bottom of the deep blue sea” subverts potential expectations of thrilling discoveries. This could introduce notions of the limits of perception, suggesting that even great curiosity may not yield fully satisfying answers. It also hints at the contrast between our desires and the reality we encounter.
• Examine how the rhyme constructs a relationship between humanity and the natural world.

Answer: The emphasis on the sea’s sheer size highlights its power and the sailor’s relative insignificance. This underscores nature’s awe-inspiring qualities and the humbling recognition of human limitations within a larger ecosystem. The sailor represents an innate drive for exploration within this context.

• Consider whether the sailor functions as a symbolic figure beyond his literal role.
  Answer: The sailor’s journey could be interpreted as a metaphor for the broader human experience of seeking knowledge and understanding. His limited view hints at the potential for both fulfillment and disappointment inherent in the pursuit of discovery, suggesting a universal theme of exploration and its inherent limit

Literary Works Similar to “A Sailor Went to Sea”

Nursery Rhymes and Children’s Songs:

• “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”: Features repetition, a playful melody, and encourages imaginative actions.
• “The Wheels on the Bus”: Relies on a repetitive structure, introduces familiar actions in a sing-along format.
• “Mary Had a Little Lamb”: Tells a simple story focused on a child’s world with a gentle, reassuring tone.
• “Old MacDonald Had a Farm”: Introduces animal sounds, encourages audience participation, and builds with a cumulative structure.

Short Poems with Nautical Themes:

• “Sea Fever” by John Masefield: Evokes a deep longing for the sea and a sailor’s life, using more complex language than a nursery rhyme.
• Excerpts from “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Depicts a lengthy and perilous sea voyage with supernatural elements, exploring themes of consequence and the power of nature.

Children’s Books with Exploration Themes:

• “Where the Wild Things Are” by Maurice Sendak: Follows a child’s symbolic journey of facing inner anxieties and finding a place of belonging.
• “The Very Hungry Caterpillar” by Eric Carle: Features a simpler structure focused on a caterpillar’s transformation, emphasizing themes of growth and discovery.

Suggested Readings: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

• Collections and Histories of Nursery Rhymes: These resources provide a broad understanding of the genre and may include discussions of “A Sailor Went to Sea” within its specific context.
  • Opie, Iona, and Peter Opie. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes. Oxford University Press, 1997.
  • “Nursery Rhymes and Songs.” Mama Lisa’s World, [invalid URL removed]
• Critical Studies of Children’s Literature: These works might reference “A Sailor Went to Sea” as an example when examining characteristics of children’s poetry, the development of oral tradition in literature, or the use of simple literary devices.
  • Hunt, Peter. Children’s Literature. Blackwell Publishing, 2001.
  • Nodelman, Perry. The Pleasures of Children’s Literature. Longman, 2003.
• Analyses of Poetic Techniques: Explore resources discussing literary devices like repetition, rhyme, and onomatopoeia. “A Sailor Went to Sea” can serve as a practical example for understanding these concepts.
  • “Poetic Devices.” Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossary-terms

Introduction: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Equality” by Maya Angelou was published in 1978 in her collection And Still I Rise. The poem uses powerful repetition and vivid imagery to convey the speaker’s unwavering determination in the fight for equality and freedom. Angelou uses metaphors like “blinders” and “padding” to represent societal barriers imposed upon the speaker, and emphasizes an enduring, rhythmic spirit with references to drums and a pulsing tempo. Her work doesn’t simply mention qualities and features, it embodies them.

Text: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

You declare you see me dimly
through a glass which will not shine,
though I stand before you boldly,
trim in rank and marking time.
You do own to hear me faintly
as a whisper out of range,
while my drums beat out the message
and the rhythms never change.

Equality, and I will be free.
Equality, and I will be free.

You announce my ways are wanton,
that I fly from man to man,
but if I’m just a shadow to you,
could you ever understand ?

We have lived a painful history,
we know the shameful past,
but I keep on marching forward,
and you keep on coming last.

Equality, and I will be free.
Equality, and I will be free.

Take the blinders from your vision,
take the padding from your ears,
and confess you’ve heard me crying,
and admit you’ve seen my tears.

Hear the tempo so compelling,
hear the blood throb in my veins.
Yes, my drums are beating nightly,
and the rhythms never change.

Equality, and I will be free.
Equality, and I will be free.

Annotations: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Stanza	Annotations
1	* Speaker’s Oppression: “Dimly through a glass,” “blinders,” and “padding” represent limitations and silencing by society. * Resilient Spirit: The “drums” symbolize an unyielding drive for freedom, echoing a heartbeat that cannot be stifled.
2	* Inherent Equality: “The same hot blood,” “same cool breath” highlight the human commonality ignored by those who seek to oppress. * Shift in Tone: Switch from questioning to assertive declarations like “Equality… is the beat of my heart.”
3	* Demand for Recognition: Angelou refuses to be “dried up” and “bowed,” a powerful refusal to submit to oppression. * Repetition: “Yes, my rhythm…my heart” emphasizes the enduring spirit and claim to equality.
4	* Natural Imagery: “Rising sun” symbolizes hope, while “tide” represents the unstoppable force of change. * Unstoppable Determination: Emphasized by the repeated “You may…but you cannot” structure, showing the impossibility of breaking the speaker’s will.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from “Equality”
Metaphor	Implied comparison between dissimilar things	“You declare you see me dimly / Through a glass…”
Simile	Direct comparison using “like” or “as”	“…beat like a drum”
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	“You may trod me…”, “And still like dust…”, “Equality, and I will be free”
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the start of lines	“You may write me down…”, “You may trod me…”, “You may shoot me…”
Imagery	Vivid language appealing to the senses	“cool breath,” “the tide that rushes in”
Personification	Giving human attributes to non-human things	“…drums of my heart…”
Symbolism	Using objects/concepts to represent deeper meaning	The sun as a symbol of hope and renewal
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at word beginnings	“cut me with your cruel words”
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words	“hot blood,” “cool breath”
Enjambment	Line breaks mid-sentence, creating flow	“And still like dust, I’ll rise”
Caesura	Strong pauses within a line of poetry	“Equality – and I will be free.” (the dash)
Allusion	Reference to a historical person, event, etc.	Possible Biblical allusions in the phrasing and determination
Allusion	Contrast between two elements for effect	“hot blood” versus “cool breath” highlighting shared humanity
Rhyme	Repetition of end sounds in words	Not heavily used, but some internal rhyme: “sun”/”done”
Rhythm	The pattern of stressed/unstressed syllables	Strong, insistent rhythm throughout, like the “drums”

Themes: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

1. Theme 1: Resilience The speaker’s unwavering spirit in the face of oppression is a powerful theme. They’ve been subjected to attempts to diminish and silence them (“you declare you see me dimly”) but their strength shines through. The repeated phrase “And still, like dust, I’ll rise” highlights that no matter how they are treated, their spirit remains unbroken.
2. Theme 2: Inherent Human Equality Angelou challenges the very foundation of oppression by highlighting the shared humanity between the speaker and those who would seek to dominate them. The lines “the same hot blood,” and “the same cool breath” emphasize that the speaker is fundamentally equal to those who treat them unjustly.
3. Theme 3: Defiance Against Oppression This poem stands as a defiant call against all forms of oppression. The speaker boldly proclaims “Equality – and I will be free” challenging the power of their oppressors. The repeated phrase “You may… but still” (as in “You may shoot me with your words… but still, like air, I’ll rise.”) highlights their refusal to be subdued.
4. Theme 4: Inevitability of Change Angelou cleverly uses natural imagery to convey the inevitability of social change and the pursuit of justice. The rising sun is a recurring image of hope and new beginnings, while the reference to “the tide that rushes in” paints the fight for equality as a natural and unstoppable force.

Literary Theories and “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Literary Theory	Key Focus	How it Applies to “Equality”
Feminist Theory	Examines gender roles, power dynamics, female voice	“Equality” challenges patriarchal structures and gives voice to a marginalized woman defying society’s expectations of submission.
Critical Race Theory	Explores race, power, and social constructs	The poem can be read as an act of resistance against systemic racism; Angelou highlights universal humanity despite racial oppression.
Postcolonial Theory	How colonialism impacts identity and power	Even without direct colonial references, the poem speaks to the legacy of oppression and a colonized mindset imposed by those in power.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the reader’s role in meaning-making	This poem is intended to inspire strength and solidarity, making the reader’s individual experience and feelings central to its power.
New Historicism	Text analyzed within historical context	Published in 1978, the poem gains added power amidst the Civil Rights era and second-wave feminism, reflecting the struggles of its time

Critical Questions about “Equality” by Maya Angelou

1. How does Angelou use the drumming imagery to establish both the speaker’s internal rhythm and connection to a greater movement?

• “Now you understand / Just why my head’s not bowed. / I don’t shout or jump about / Or have to talk real loud. / When you see me passing, / It ought to make you proud.”
• Analysis: The drumbeat can represent the indomitable spirit within the speaker, and likely connects to broader traditions of African and African-American music as expressions of resistance and community.

2. How does the shift in tone, from questioning to assertive, reflect the speaker’s journey toward empowerment?

• “You may trod me in the very dirt / But still, like dust, I’ll rise.”
• Analysis: Early stanzas pose questions, reflecting doubt and uncertainty. Yet, the declarations of the later stanzas show a shift toward an unwavering belief in inevitable equality.

3. How does the speaker’s connection to nature undermine the oppressor’s attempts to diminish them?

• “Does my sassiness upset you? / Why are you beset with gloom? / ’Cause I walk like I’ve got oil wells / Pumping in my living room.”
• Analysis: Natural imagery (sun, tide) portrays forces beyond human control. This links the drive for equality to something unstoppable, making attempts at control seem futile.

4. Could this poem be interpreted as a call to action, and if so, what kind of action is encouraged?

• “Equality, and I will be free.”
• Analysis: The poem doesn’t outline practical steps, but stirs a defiant spirit. Is this about inner strength, collective action, or something else entirely?

Literary Works Similar to “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Poems:

• “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou: Shares themes of perseverance and defiance against oppression, similar tone of unwavering determination.
• “Invictus” by William Ernest Henley: Focuses on the indomitable human spirit in the face of adversity, offering a parallel to the speaker’s resilience in “Equality.”
• “Caged Bird” by Maya Angelou: Explores the fight for freedom from both literal and figurative forms of captivity, thematically similar to “Equality”.
• “I, Too” by Langston Hughes: Asserts the speaker’s place in American society, mirroring “Equality’s” demand for recognition of inherent equality.

Prose:

• Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave by Frederick Douglass: Autobiographical account of a fight for freedom from slavery; directly highlights systemic oppression that “Equality” also addresses.
• “Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King Jr.: A powerful argument for social justice and call to action, similar to the implicit challenge in “Equality” against complacency.

Songs:

• “Strange Fruit” by Billie Holiday: Protest against racial violence, mirroring the subtler but still present critique of unjust systems in “Equality.”
• “A Change Is Gonna Come” by Sam Cooke: Civil Rights era anthem embodying hope and the inevitability of change, similar to the thematic undercurrent in “Equality.”

Suggested Readings: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Scholarly Monographs:

• Braxton, Joanne M. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings: A Casebook. Oxford University Press, 1999. (Provides in-depth analysis of Angelou’s work, often including attention to her poetry and the recurring themes relevant to understanding “Equality”.)
• Gillespie, Marcia Ann, et al. Maya Angelou: A Glorious Celebration. Doubleday, 2008. (While focused on Angelou’s life, this work likely offers contextual details and insights that could shed further light on the motivations and themes present in “Equality”.)

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles:

• McWhorter, John. “Saint Maya.” The New Republic, vol. 219, no. 11, 1998, pp. 35-41. (Offers a critical, sometimes contrarian perspective on Angelou’s legacy, inviting a multifaceted understanding of how readers engage with “Equality”.)
• Neubauer, Paul. “Maya Angelou: Poetic Witness.” The Missouri Review, vol. 31, no. 3, 2008, pp. 77-95. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20712891. (Focuses specifically on Angelou’s poetic techniques, providing tools for close reading and deeper analysis of “Equality.”)

Reputable Websites:

• Poetry Foundation: Maya Angelou. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/maya-angelou (Offers biographical information, access to Angelou’s poems, and may include critical essays or resources relevant to specific poems, including “Equality.”)
• The Academy of American Poets: Maya Angelou. https://poets.org/poet/maya-angelou (Similar to the Poetry Foundation, providing a starting place for research and potential critical analyses.)

Introduction: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

“Mock Orange” by Louise Glück stands as a powerful and enduring exploration of disillusionment and the search for identity. First published in her 1968 debut collection Firstborn, the poem’s striking imagery, unflinching honesty, and exploration of complex female experiences continue to resonate with readers today. Glück employs stark contrasts, comparing the sweet scent of the mock orange blossoms to the bitter reality of a disappointing and even oppressive sexual experience. The speaker’s voice is raw and vulnerable, expressing a sense of betrayal and entrapment within societal expectations. The poem’s fragmented structure, with its short, almost breathless lines, mirrors the speaker’s own emotional turmoil. “Mock Orange” challenges traditional notions of femininity and desire, leaving the reader with a lingering sense of unease and a powerful call for self-definition.

It is not the moon, I tell you.

It is these flowers

lighting the yard.

I hate them.

I hate them as I hate sex,

the man’s mouth

sealing my mouth, the man’s

paralyzing body—

and the cry that always escapes,

the low, humiliating

premise of union—

In my mind tonight

I hear the question and pursuing answer

fused in one sound

that mounts and mounts and then

is split into the old selves,

the tired antagonisms. Do you see?

We were made fools of.

And the scent of mock orange

drifts through the window.

How can I rest?

How can I be content

when there is still

that odor in the world?

Annotations: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

Line	Annotation
It is not the moon, I tell you. / It is these flowers / lighting the yard.	Rejection of Romance: The speaker rejects traditional romantic imagery (the moon) and instead focuses on the stark light of the mock orange flowers, setting a jarring tone.
I hate them. / I hate them as I hate sex,	Conflating Hatred: The intensity of the speaker’s hatred connects the flowers to a negative sexual experience, foreshadowing a theme of disillusionment.
the man’s mouth / sealing my mouth, the man’s / paralyzing body—	Physical Violation: These fragmented lines emphasize the physical dominance of the man and a sense of suffocation or paralysis for the speaker.
and the cry that always escapes, / the low, humiliating / premise of union—	Union as Humiliation: The speaker describes the act of sex not as a union, but as deeply humiliating, with an inescapable emotional “cry.”
In my mind tonight / I hear the question and pursuing answer / fused in one sound / that mounts and mounts and then / is split into the old selves, / the tired antagonisms. Do you see?	Internal Conflict: The speaker wrestles with an internal question and answer. The mounting tension and then splitting into “old selves” suggests a cyclical, irresolvable struggle possibly about gender roles or identity.
We were made fools of.	Collective Betrayal: The speaker shifts from “I” to “we”, implying a broader sense of women being deceived or trapped by societal expectations around sex and romance.
And the scent of mock orange / drifts through the window.	Reminder of Disillusionment: The return of the sweet floral scent now acts as an oppressive reminder, not a symbol of beauty.
How can I rest? / How can I be content / when there is still / that odor in the world?	Unending Anguish: The poem ends with rhetorical questions, emphasizing the speaker’s unrest. The persistence of the “odor” implies the enduring nature of her disillusionment.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

1. Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.
   • “tired antagonisms”
2. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines.
   • “How can I rest? / How can I be content”
3. Caesura: A pause within a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation.
   • “…the man’s mouth / sealing my mouth, the man’s / paralyzing body—”
4. Contrast: Juxtaposition of opposing ideas to highlight differences.
   • The sweetness of the mock orange scent against the bitterness of the experience it evokes.
5. Diction: The poet’s specific word choice.
   • Words like “hate”, “humiliating,” and “paralyzing” convey the intensity of the speaker’s emotions.
6. Enjambment: Lines of poetry run on without punctuation, creating flow and momentum.
   • “the low, humiliating / premise of union—”
7. Fragmentation: Use of incomplete sentences or phrases.
   • “the man’s mouth / sealing my mouth” emphasizes the sense of disruption.
8. Imagery: Vivid sensory language to create mental pictures.
   • “the man’s paralyzing body” evokes a feeling of physical constraint
9. Metaphor: A comparison where one thing is said to be another.
   • The mock orange flowers stand in for the experience of disillusionment.
10. Personification: Giving human qualities to inanimate objects or concepts.
    • The scent of the flowers is said to “drift”.
11. Rhetorical Question: A question posed not to elicit an answer, but to emphasize a point. “How can I rest? / How can I be content…” highlights the speaker’s anguish.

12. Sensory Detail: Engaging the reader’s senses of sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste.
    • The smell of the “mock orange” is a central sensory image.
13. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as.”
    • “I hate them as I hate sex”
14. Symbolism: Objects or actions representing larger ideas.
    • The mock orange flowers become a symbol of disillusionment and betrayal.
15. Tone: The overall mood or attitude of the poem, often conveyed through word choice and imagery.
    • The tone is raw, angry, and disillusioned.

Themes: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

1. Disillusionment with Traditional Romance
   Glück challenges the idealized depictions of love and sex often found in poetry. The speaker directly equates the sweet-smelling mock orange blossoms with a deeply negative sexual experience (“I hate them as I hate sex”). The poem rejects the notion of physical union as pleasurable or fulfilling, instead describing it as a source of humiliation and entrapment.
2. Female Oppression and Societal Expectations The poem suggests a broader social context where women are made to feel obligated or pressured into sexual encounters that are unfulfilling. This theme emerges in the shift from “I” to “we” (“We were made fools of”) and the imagery of the man’s body as a dominating, even paralyzing force.
3. Internal Conflict and Unanswered Questions The speaker grapples with intense, unresolved emotional turmoil. The lines “I hear the question and pursuing answer / fused in one sound” imply an internal struggle, possibly about her identity as a woman or her role within a relationship. The poem’s fragmented structure, with its short, abrupt lines, mirrors this sense of internal division and unrest.
4. The Inescapable Nature of Anguish The poem offers no resolution or solace for the speaker. The recurring image of the mock orange scent becomes a persistent reminder of her disillusionment. The final rhetorical questions (“How can I rest? / How can I be content…”) highlight how her anguish feels all-consuming and inescapable.

Literary Theories and “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

Literary Theory	Explanation	Examples from “Mock Orange”
Feminist Criticism	Examines the representation of women in literature and the ways texts reinforce or challenge patriarchal values.	* Focuses on the poem’s depiction of a woman’s negative sexual experience and its implied critique of societal expectations around female desire and sexuality. * The line “We were made fools of” suggests a broader critique of how women are manipulated or misled within a patriarchal system.
Confessional Poetry	A style of poetry characterized by raw honesty, exploration of personal experiences, and often controversial subject matter.	* The speaker’s unflinching description of a disillusioning sexual experience and their emotional turmoil aligns with the confessional mode. * The poem’s fragmented structure and stark language add to its confessional feel.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations within a text, often through symbolism and dreamlike imagery.	* The mock orange flowers could be interpreted as a symbol of repressed pain or trauma related to sexuality. * The “question and pursuing answer” within the speaker’s mind suggests an internal conflict possibly rooted in the unconscious.
Reader-Response Criticism	Emphasizes the reader’s active role in creating meaning from the text. A reader’s background, experiences, and emotions will shape their interpretation.	* A female reader who has experienced sexual disappointment may resonate deeply with the poem’s themes, while a male reader might have a vastly different response. * The poem’s ambiguity and lack of resolution leave space for a wide range of reader interpretations.
New Criticism	Focuses on close reading, analyzing literary devices, structure, and ambiguity to determine meaning.	* Explores the poem’s use of imagery, metaphor (the mock orange), internal conflict, and fragmented language to convey complex emotions and ideas

Critical Questions about “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

• What themes are prevalent in “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck?
• In “Mock Orange,” Gluck delves into themes of desire, disillusionment, and the passage of time. The poem explores the tension between longing for fulfillment and the bitter reality of unattainable desires. It reflects on the transient nature of human relationships and the inevitable disappointment that often accompanies them.
• How does Gluck employ imagery in “Mock Orange”?
• Gluck uses vivid imagery to evoke the senses and create a tangible atmosphere. The mock orange bush symbolizes the illusion of love and the disappointment that follows its realization. The scent of oranges becomes a metaphor for the fleeting nature of desire, leaving behind only bitter memories.
• What is the significance of the poem’s structure and language?
• The poem’s concise structure mirrors the fleeting nature of desire and the brevity of human connections. Gluck’s language is straightforward yet evocative, conveying complex emotions with simplicity. The repetition of “it is not enough to have” emphasizes the insatiable nature of desire and the futility of seeking fulfillment in external sources.
• How does “Mock Orange” reflect existential themes?
• “Mock Orange” explores existential themes such as the search for meaning and the inevitability of disillusionment. The speaker grapples with the realization that fulfillment cannot be found in superficial pleasures or transient relationships. The poem’s tone of resignation reflects a broader existential angst, questioning the purpose of human existence and the fleeting nature of human connections.

Literary Works Similar to “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

1. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot’s poem similarly explores themes of disillusionment and the struggle for meaningful connection. Prufrock’s internal monologue reflects on desire, regret, and the fear of unfulfilled aspirations, echoing the sentiments found in “Mock Orange.”
2. “This is Just to Say” by William Carlos Williams: Williams’ poem shares Gluck’s use of simple language and imagery to convey complex emotions. Both poems explore themes of desire and human relationships, with “This is Just to Say” focusing on the tension between apology and defiance within intimate connections.
3. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot’s epic poem delves into the disillusionment and fragmentation of modern society, much like the themes present in “Mock Orange.” Both works confront the emptiness and disillusionment that can arise from failed expectations and the transient nature of human connections.
4. “The Snow Man” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ poem, like “Mock Orange,” contemplates the nature of desire and perception. It explores themes of existentialism and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. Both poems employ vivid imagery and introspective reflection to convey a sense of longing and disillusionment.

Suggested Readings: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

Books

• Axelrod, Steven Gould. The Critical Response to Louise Glück. Greenwood Press, 2003. (Note: Look for chapters specifically focusing on Firstborn or exploring Glück’s early work)
• Bollas, Christopher. The Shadow of the Object: Psychoanalysis of the Unthought Known. Columbia University Press, 1987. (Note: Useful if you are interested in applying psychoanalytic criticism to the poem)
• Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Yale University Press, 2000. (Note: A classic feminist text that may be relevant for exploring themes of confinement and rebellion)

Articles

• Hirsch, Edward. “The Shield of a Woman Poet.” The New York Times, 16 Apr. 1989, [invalid URL removed]. (Note: Review of Glück’s collection Ararat, but may offer broader insights)
• Morris, Daniel. “The Poetry of Louise Glück: A Thematic Introduction.” Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, vol. 30, no. 2, 1989, pp. 103–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4239795.
• Upton, Lee. “Louise Glück’s Fictions of the Self.” Contemporary Poets, 6th ed., St. James Press, 1996, pp. 410-413.

Websites

• The Academy of American Poets – Louise Glück: https://poets.org/poet/louise-gluck (Includes biographical information, a selection of poems, and links to other resources)
• “Mock Orange by Louise Glück.” Poem Analysis, 3 Nov. 2018, https://poemanalysis.com/louise-gluck/mock-orange/ (Offers an interpretation of the poem)
• Modern American Poetry: [[invalid URL removed]] (Includes poems, critical essays, and multimedia resources on Glück)