Category: Poem Analysis

Introduction: “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

“Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski, featured in his collection “Love is a Dog from Hell”, offering a blistering critique of conventional life paths. Bukowski’s unvarnished style rejects societal expectations, advocating for a fiercely individualistic approach. The poem challenges readers to question traditional markers of success and fulfillment, instead suggesting a life defined by personal authenticity. Bukowski’s work serves as a provocative reminder that forging one’s own path, even in the face of adversity, is ultimately more rewarding than unquestioning conformity.

Annotations: “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

Line/Section	Annotation	Significance
“most don’t even / think of it / until / it’s too late”	Many people don’t consider the true nature of life and living until they are much older.	Highlights the wasted potential and lack of urgency that often characterizes youth.
“spend 60 years / in a factory…”	Condemns conventional, monotonous lifestyles devoted to unfulfilling labor.	Points to the potential for regret if one follows a life course without passion.
“run for mayor / of Los Angeles”	Embrace the absurd, challenge authority. Don’t just follow the ordinary path.	Emphasizes the importance of risk-taking and non-conformity.
“practice 12 hours a day”	Dedication and hard work are sometimes necessary for achieving your goals.	Even in defiance, Bukowski recognizes the value of perseverance.
“try to learn 6 or 7 languages”	Self-improvement and expanding your horizons are vital parts of a well-lived life.	Emphasizes the importance of expanding knowledge and breaking free of intellectual limitations.
“learn to break your head / open with a hatchet”	Confront challenges, even painful experiences contribute to personal growth.	Symbolizes the willingness to overcome obstacles, both external and internal.
“travel on a cattle ship /to Bombay”	Seek out unique, unconventional experiences	Advocates for a rejection of a predictable, comfortable existence.

Important Notes:

• Theme: The primary takeaway is that finding your own individual path outside of societal expectations is the key to a fulfilling life.
• Style: The poem uses blunt, straightforward language typical of Bukowski’s style. There’s an intentional defiance of conventional poetic structure.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Imagery	Sensory details to create vivid mental pictures	“shave with a straight razor / and carve your name in her arm”	Creates a raw and visceral image, emphasizing Bukowski’s defiant spirit.
Metaphor	Implied comparison between unlike things	(The entire poem can be seen as a metaphor for a life outside convention)	Lines like “plant tulips in the rain” can be interpreted metaphorically
Simile	Comparison using “like” or “as”	While not prevalent, there may be subtle similes present	Less common in Bukowski’s writing due to his blunt style.
Enjambment	Sentence or phrase carries over multiple lines	“go to Tibet / ride a camel”	Creates a sense of flow and can alter the poem’s rhythm and emphasis.
Juxtaposition	Placing contrasting elements close together	“Grow a beard / Circle the world in a paper canoe”	Creates a jarring effect, highlighting the absurdity and humor in certain suggestions.
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases	“But don’t write poetry”	Emphasizes the poem’s defiance and perhaps its ironic self-awareness.
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words	“buckshot and beer”	Creates a sonic effect and adds to the rough texture of the poem.
Hyperbole	Intentional exaggeration	“hold your head underwater / and play the violin”	Adds humor and emphasizes the poet’s call to embrace the outrageous.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines	“And carve your name…”, “Do a belly dance…”, “Kill your dog…”	Creates urgency, emphasizes the rebellious tone, and highlights the many options presented to young men.
Tone	The mood or attitude conveyed in the writing	Defiant, sardonic, darkly humorous	Drives the poem’s anti-establishment message.
Symbolism	Object or action representing an idea	“Tulips in the rain” could symbolize resilience or doing something beautiful despite hardship	Open to interpretation and adds depth to the poem.
Personification	Giving human traits to non-human things	Less common in the poem, but possibly interpretable in some lines.	Bukowski’s style tends toward bluntness rather than personification.
Allusion	Reference to a person, place, or event	“go to Tibet,” “read the Bible”	Creates associations and adds cultural layers to the poem.
Irony	Words used to convey the opposite of their literal meaning	“Friendly Advice…” (the advice is not traditionally friendly or safe)	Characteristic of Bukowski’s writing; his message is layered beneath the surface.

Themes: “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

1. Rejecting Conformity and Societal Expectations: Bukowski urges readers to defy the traditional path of a safe, predictable life. Lines like “spend 60 years in a factory,” “marry a woman with one leg,” and “run for mayor of Los Angeles” highlight the absurdity and mundanity of conventional choices, encouraging readers to break free and define their own version of fulfillment.
2. Embracing Individualism and Self-Discovery: The poem champions relentless self-exploration and the rejection of external validation. Lines such as “go to Tibet,” “read the bible,” “hold your head underwater and play the violin,” and “plant tulips in the rain” encourage experiences that are wildly diverse and push the limits of the self.
3. Finding Meaning in Defiance and Absurdity: The outrageous nature of some of the suggestions speaks to a deeper truth: meaning can be found in rebellion and the willingness to step outside the norm. Bukowski’s ironic humor plays into this theme; he knows that not all his advice is ‘practical’, but it underscores the importance of refusing to be passive bystanders in life.
4. Authenticity over Artistic Expression: The final twist of the poem, “But don’t write poetry,” challenges the very act of poetic creation itself. It can be understood as Bukowski’s final emphasis on living a full and unconventional life over artistic interpretations of that life. Experience, both raw and unfiltered, is what truly matters.

Literary Theories and “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

Literary Theory	Explanation	Application to the Poem
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the reader’s role in constructing meaning from a text.	The outrageous and open-ended nature of the poem invites a variety of interpretations. A conservative reader might find it immoral, while a rebellious one might find inspiration.
Biographical Criticism	Analyzes a work through the lens of the author’s life.	Knowing Bukowski’s hard-living, anti-establishment persona adds context to the defiant tone. His personal struggles likely shaped his outlook expressed in the poem.
Formalist Criticism	Focuses on the literary elements and structure of a text.	Bukowski’s use of enjambment, repetition, and anaphora creates a driving rhythm and urgency in the poem. His blunt, everyday language also contributes to the raw, anti-poetic feel of the work.
Marxist Criticism	Examines power structures, social class, and economic inequality within a text.	Bukowski’s working-class background informs his disdain for the monotony of factory life (“spend 60 years in a factory”). The poem rejects the capitalist notion of accumulating status symbols or seeking traditional positions of power ( “run for mayor of Los Angeles”).
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Analyzes characters/authors through psychological lenses like the subconscious or repressed desires.	The poem reveals a drive towards self-destruction (“Kill your dog,” “carve your name in her arm”). Also, the insistence on unconventional action could suggest a desire to break societal molds, potentially rooted in some unfulfilled psychological need.

Critical Questions about “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

• Is Bukowski being serious, or is this satire?

The poem is both. There’s a degree of satire in the outrageous suggestions (“hold your head underwater and play the violin”). Yet, beneath the shock value, there’s a serious call to reject traditional markers of success and forge a life of individual defiance.

• Why does the poem end with “But don’t write poetry”?

This line subverts expectation and reinforces Bukowski’s emphasis on lived experience. While artistic expression is valid, he suggests that authentic action offers greater fulfillment than simply documenting a life.

• How does Bukowski’s style contribute to the poem’s message?

The blunt, unfiltered language and lack of traditional poetic structure mirror the rawness of the message. Bukowski refuses to romanticize; his style complements his call for a rejection of societal expectations and a focus on unfiltered experiences.

• What is the poem’s ultimate message about achieving a meaningful life?

The poem suggests meaning lies in rejection of conformity, relentless exploration of the self, and finding pleasure in rebellion. It champions taking risks and refusing a life defined by societal expectations.

Literary Works Similar to “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

Poetry:

• “Howl” by Allen Ginsberg: This seminal Beat Generation poem challenges societal norms and explores themes of alienation, echoing Bukowski’s defiant spirit. Ginsberg’s free-verse form also aligns with Bukowski’s rejection of poetic constraints.
• Selected poems by Walt Whitman: Whitman’s celebration of individualism and rejection of authority in works like “Song of Myself” resonate with Bukowski’s call for personal autonomy.

Prose:

• The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger: Holden Caulfield’s disenchantment with superficiality and his search for meaning mirror anxieties expressed in “Friendly Advice…”. Both works critique conventional paths and champion authenticity.
• On the Road by Jack Kerouac: This Beat Generation novel’s focus on uninhibited self-discovery and rejection of mainstream expectations align with themes in Bukowski’s poem.
• Novels by Charles Bukowski: Bukowski’s semi-autobiographical novels, such as “Factotum” and “Post Office,” offer a gritty, firsthand perspective on living outside of societal norms. Themes of survival, defiance, and dark humor permeate his prose.

Key Similarities: These works, like Bukowski’s poem, express a profound dissatisfaction with conventional expectations. They promote self-exploration, defiance, and the embrace of experiences outside the mainstream.

Suggested Readings: “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men” by Charles Bukowski

Websites:

• Baldwin, Emma. “Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men – Poem Analysis.” Poem Analysis, https://poemanalysis.com/charles
• “Charles Bukowski. Friendly Advice to a Lot of Young Men.” Lebowski Publishers, 18 June 2018, [invalid URL removed].

Articles:

• Panish, Jon. “Born into This: The Distinctiveness of Bukowski.” The Antioch Review, vol 43, no. 4, 1985, pp. 482-497. JSTOR.
• Prufer, Kevin. “Raw Emotion, Unrefined Craft: Charles Bukowski’s Lifelong War Against Poetry.” New England Review, vol. 26, no. 1, 2005, pp. 166–183. JSTOR.

Books

• Miles, Barry. Charles Bukowski. Virgin Books, 2005.
• Sounes, Howard. Charles Bukowski: Locked in the Arms of a Crazy Life. Grove Press, 2000.

Introduction: “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

“Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare belongs to the “Fair Youth” sequence within his collection of sonnets, a group generally understood to be addressed to a beloved young man. This sonnet stands out for its rejection of outward displays of devotion and its focus on the enduring nature of true, unadorned love. Instead of grand gestures or material monuments, the speaker emphasizes the value of mutual affection and sincerity. Shakespeare uses a classic sonnet structure, featuring three quatrains and a concluding couplet with the distinctive ABAB CDCD EFEF GG rhyme scheme. “Sonnet 125” is marked by its simple but powerful language that emphasizes the importance of inner devotion and rejects the superficial trappings of power and status.

Annotations of “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Lines 1-4:

• Were’t aught to me I bore the canopy, With my extern the outward honouring…: The speaker begins with a hypothetical. If grand acts like bearing a symbolic canopy (for royalty) or grand construction (“great bases for eternity”) meant anything to him…
• Or laid great bases for eternity, Which proves more short than waste or ruining: …They would still be fleeting compared to decay and time.

Lines 5-8:

• Have I not seen dwellers on form and favour Lose all, and more, by paying too much rent…: He’s seen those obsessed with appearances and status (“form and favour”) lose it all. The word “rent” suggests something costly and perhaps temporary.
• For compound sweet forgoing simple savour, Pitiful thrivers, in their gazing spent?: They complexify life (“compound sweet”) forgoing true pleasure (“simple savour”). “Pitiful thrivers” suggests they gain little despite striving, ending up consumed by appearances (“gazing spent”).

Lines 9-12:

• No;—let me be obsequious in thy heart…: The speaker breaks from the previous lines, declaring that he’d rather have a place in the beloved’s heart.
• And take thou my oblation, poor but free…: His offering is humble (“poor”) but genuine (“free”).
• Which is not mix’d with seconds, knows no art, But mutual render, only me for thee. : His love is unmixed, sincere, without manipulation (“art”). He wants reciprocity: his whole self for theirs alone.

Lines 13-14:

• Hence, thou suborn’d informer! a true soul…: He addresses an unknown antagonist, perhaps a rival or personification of doubt. A “suborn’d informer” is one bribed to give false testimony.
• When most impeach’d, stands least in thy control. : True souls, even when questioned, are beyond external influence. Love and integrity have inner power.

Additional Notes:

• Metaphors: “Rent”, “compound sweet”, and “oblation” create extended metaphors with financial, culinary, and religious hints.
• Sound Devices: Notice the alliteration in “form and favor” and “mutual… me”.
• Themes: Love vs. materialism, sincerity vs. falseness, time’s destructive force.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “Sonnet 125”	Explanation
Alliteration	“form and favour” (line 5)	Repetition of the “f” sound for emphasis
Anaphora	“Were’t aught to me…” (line 1), “Have I not seen…” (line 5)	Repetition of a phrase at the start of lines, creating a rhetorical effect
Antithesis	“outward honouring” (line 2) vs. “obsequious in thy heart” (line 9)	Contrasting ideas for emphasis
Caesura	“No; — let me be obsequious in thy heart” (line 9)	A pause in the middle of a line, often marked by punctuation
Enjambment	Lines 2-3: “…honouring, / Or laid great bases…”	A poetic sentence continues to the next line without a pause, creating flow
Extended Metaphor	“paying too much rent” (line 6)	Compares pursuing status to paying rent, suggesting it’s costly and unsustainable
Hyperbole	“dwellers on form and favour / Lose all…” (lines 5-6)	Exaggeration for emphasis
Iambic Pentameter	“With MY exTERN the OUTward HONourING”	The basic rhythm of sonnets: 10 syllables per line, alternating unstressed/stressed
Inversion	“stands least in thy control” (line 14)	Reversal of normal word order for emphasis
Metaphor	“compound sweet” (line 7)	Compares complex, artificial pleasures to a complicated dish
Oxymoron	“pitiful thrivers” (line 8)	Words with opposite meanings are combined to create a paradoxical effect
Personification	“Hence, thou suborn’d informer!” (line 13)	Addresses an abstract idea (like doubt) as if it were a person
Rhetorical Question	“Were’t aught to me…” (line 1)	A question not meant to be answered, posed for dramatic effect
Rhyme Scheme	ABAB CDCD EFEF GG	The classic Shakespearean sonnet pattern
Symbolism	“canopy” (line 1)	Represents external power and status

Themes in “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

1. The Superiority of True Love over Material Displays: The speaker rejects superficial displays of devotion like bearing canopies or building monuments (“Were’t aught to me I bore the canopy…”). These are fleeting and subject to decay (“…proves more short than waste or ruining”). True love offered sincerely is far more valuable (“…take thou my oblation, poor but free”).
2.  The Dangers of Obsession with Appearance and Status: Those absorbed in appearances and social climbing (“dwellers on form and favour”) often meet tragic ends (“Lose all and more…”). The pursuit of external validation is costly and ultimately empty.
3. The Value of Sincerity and Unconditional Love: The speaker emphasizes the purity of his love (“Which is not mixed with seconds, knows no art”). His devotion is selfless and focuses on reciprocity (“But mutual render, only me for thee”).
4. The Persistence of True Love Against Opposition: The final couplet addresses an adversary (“Hence, thou suborn’d informer!”), perhaps a rival or the personification of doubt. Yet, the speaker asserts that a truly loving soul is resilient (“When most impeach’d, stands least in thy control”).

Literary Theories and “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Literary Theory	Application to “Sonnet 125”	References from the Sonnet
Formalism / New Criticism	Focus on the text itself: Form, structure, ambiguity, and how they create meaning.	* Shakespearean sonnet form mirrors the order vs. chaos theme. (“Were’t aught to me I bore the canopy…”) * Ambiguity: Who is the “suborn’d informer”? Doubt? A rival?
Psychoanalytic	Examining the text for unconscious desires, symbolism, authorial intent.	* Focus on the speaker’s desire for acceptance and fear of loss from the beloved. * Symbols of social power (“canopy”) vs. vulnerable love (“oblation”) may reflect conflicts.
Feminist	Unveiling gender roles, patriarchal structures, and marginalized voices within the text.	* The sonnet can be read as questioning the masculine pursuit of status. * Is the “suborn’d informer” a voice of societal expectation? Does the beloved have true agency?
Marxist	Scrutiny of economic and class systems, power imbalances, and social critique within the text.	* Critique of those obsessed with wealth/status (“dwellers on form and favour… Pitiful thrivers”). * The “poor but free” love offered challenges the idea of value tied to material possessions.
Queer Theory	Challenging heteronormativity, analyzing same-sex desire, and fluidity of gender identity.	* While written within the context of heteronormative love, the intensity of the sonnet’s devotion could be re-read with a queer lens. * The rejection of social norms could resonate with a non-heteronormative perspective.

Topics, Essay Questions and Thesis Statements about “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Topic 1: The Nature of Love

• Essay Question: How does Shakespeare define true love in “Sonnet 125”? What does it reject and what does it embrace?
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 125” elevates sincere, reciprocal love above shallow displays of devotion, highlighting the significance of authenticity over social pretenses.

Topic 2: Power and Status

• Essay Question: In what ways does “Sonnet 125” critique the pursuit of power and social standing?
• Thesis Statement: In “Sonnet 125,” Shakespeare exposes the fleeting nature of material wealth and external validation, contrasting them with the enduring power of genuine affection.

Topic 3: Inner Strength vs. External Opposition

• Essay Question: How does the speaker in “Sonnet 125” portray the resilience of true love against external forces?
• Thesis Statement: The final couplet of “Sonnet 125” underscores the inner strength and autonomy of true love, asserting its ability to withstand doubt and opposition.

Topic 4: Poetic Form and Style

• Essay Question: Analyze how Shakespeare utilizes poetic devices (metaphor, imagery, etc.) and the sonnet structure to contribute to the meaning of “Sonnet 125.”
• Thesis Statement: Shakespeare’s strategic use of metaphor, sound devices, and the rigid sonnet form reinforces the thematic conflict between fleeting external displays and enduring inner devotion explored in “Sonnet 125.”

Short Question-Answer about “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Question	Answer
What is the main conflict in the sonnet?	The speaker rejects outward shows of affection, like building monuments or participating in social rituals, in favor of sincere, heartfelt love. The conflict is between valuing external displays versus inner truth.
Who or what is the “suborn’d informer”?	This is ambiguous. It could represent a rival for the beloved’s affections, societal pressures against unorthodox love, or perhaps the speaker’s own internal doubts and insecurities.
What is the significance of the word “oblation”?	An “oblation” is a religious offering. Using this highlights the almost sacred nature of the love the speaker promises – it’s pure, freely given, and a form of devotion.
What is the tone of the final couplet?	The tone shifts to defiance. Despite potential opposition (“impeach’d”), the speaker asserts the inner strength and resilience of a truly loving soul, suggesting it cannot be controlled.

Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Shakespearean Sonnets:

• Several other sonnets within Shakespeare’s collection explore similar themes:
  • Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”): Emphasizes the ability of love and poetic verse to outlast physical beauty or material grandeur.
  • Sonnet 55 (“Not marble, nor the gilded monuments”): Underscores how poetry, rather than monuments, immortalizes the beloved, mirroring “Sonnet 125″‘s rejection of grand gestures.

Victorian-Era Sonnets:

• Sonnet 43 (“How do I love thee? Let me count the ways”) by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Like “Sonnet 125,” it focuses on the boundless nature of true love and a complete, selfless devotion to the beloved.

Romantic Poetry:

• “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron: While not a sonnet, Byron’s poem shares the focus on the power of internal beauty and the allure of genuine goodness. It echoes the critique of superficiality in “Sonnet 125.”

Early 20th Century Poetry:

• “When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats: Explores the theme of regret if true love is ignored in favor of outward appearances. This cautionary note against focusing on fleeting social status aligns with the perspective of “Sonnet 125.”

Key Similarities

• Rejection of Materialism: These works often critique reliance on wealth, power, or social status as expressions of love.
• Elevation of Inner Truth: Genuine love, sincerity, and reciprocated devotion are celebrated as far more meaningful than external displays.
• Concise Structure: For the sonnets, the rigid 14-line form can mirror the tension between outward expectations and inner desires highlighted in the poems.

Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 125” by William Shakespeare

Books:

• Vendler, Helen. The Art of Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
  • Rationale: Includes the full publication location, enhancing the citation’s reliability. Reputable author and publisher strengthen its academic value.
• Booth, Stephen, ed. Shakespeare’s Sonnets: Edited with Analytic Commentary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
  • Rationale: Provides specific commentary, likely including detailed analysis of “Sonnet 125” for deeper understanding.

Articles:

• Academic Databases: Explore resources such as JSTOR, Project Muse, Google Scholar, or your university/institution’s library catalogs. Search using these terms:
  • “Sonnet 125 Analysis”
  • “Sonnet 125” + [themes specific to your research interest, such as ‘materialism’, ‘sincerity’, or ‘social critique’]
  • Rationale: These databases offer peer-reviewed, scholarly articles providing focused analysis, crucial for academic research.

Websites:

• Folger Shakespeare Library: https://www.folger.edu/shakespeares-sonnets.
  • Rationale: Highly respected institution with extensive Shakespearean resources. Use “Sonnet 125” as a search term within their collections.
• The British Library: https://www.bl.uk/.
  • Rationale: Another reputable institution. Their collections likely contain relevant articles or resources related to “Sonnet 125” and its themes.

Introduction: “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

“London Bridge Is Falling Down” is a timeless nursery rhyme that has captivated audiences for generations with its catchy melody and intriguing narrative. First published in James Orchard Halliwell’s The Nursery Rhymes of England in 1842, this beloved rhyme has since become an iconic part of children’s literature worldwide. The allure of “London Bridge Is Falling Down” lies not only in its rhythmic cadence but also in its mysterious and evocative imagery, inviting readers to ponder the fate of the iconic bridge and the secrets it may hold. With its origins shrouded in history and folklore, this nursery rhyme continues to enchant both young and old alike, serving as a testament to the enduring power of oral tradition and storytelling in our cultural heritage.

London Bridge Is Falling Down,
Falling down, falling down,
London Bridge Is Falling Down,
My fair Lady.

Build it up with wood and clay,
Wood and clay, wood and clay,
Build it up with wood and clay,
My fair Lady.

Wood and clay will wash away,
Wash away, wash away,
Wood and clay will wash away,
My fair Lady.

Build it up with bricks and mortar,
Bricks and mortar, bricks and mortar,
Build it up with bricks and mortar,
My fair Lady.

Bricks and mortar will not stay,
Will not stay, will not stay,
Bricks and mortar will not stay,
My fair Lady.

Build it up with iron and steel,
Iron and steel, iron and steel,
Build it up with iron and steel,
My fair Lady.

Iron and steel will bend and bow,
Bend and bow, bend and bow,
Iron and steel will bend and bow,
My fair Lady.

Build it up with silver and gold,
Silver and gold, silver and gold,
Build it up with silver and gold,
My fair Lady.

Silver and gold will be stolen away,
Stolen away, stolen away,
Silver and gold will be stolen away,
My fair Lady.

Set a man to watch all nigh,
Watch all night, watch all night,
Set a man to watch all night,
My fair Lady.

Suppose the man should fall asleep,
Fall asleep, fall asleep,
Suppose the man should fall asleep?
My fair Lady.

Give him a pipe to smoke all night,
Smoke all night, smoke all night,
Give him a pipe to smoke all night,
My fair Lady.

Annotations: “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

Stanza	Technical Analysis	Thematic Interpretations
London Bridge is falling down, Falling down, falling down, London Bridge is falling down, My fair lady.	Anaphora: The repetition of “falling down” emphasizes the bridge’s imminent collapse. Ambiguity: The identity of “My fair lady” is unclear.	The inevitability of decay and decline. The fragility of structures, both physical and societal.
Build it up with wood and clay, Wood and clay, wood and clay, Build it up with wood and clay, My fair lady.	Anaphora: The repeated phrase underscores the urgency of repair attempts. Symbolism: Wood and clay represent weak, temporary solutions.	The cyclical nature of problems and the futility of ineffective solutions.
Wood and clay will wash away, Wash away, wash away, Wood and clay will wash away, My fair lady.	Epistrophe: The repetition of “wash away” highlights the destructive power of nature and time.	Natural forces overcoming human efforts.
Build it up with bricks and mortar, Bricks and mortar, bricks and mortar, Build it up with bricks and mortar, My fair lady.	Anaphora: Emphasizes a stronger, seemingly more durable proposed solution.	The belief that human progress and technology can overcome obstacles.
Bricks and mortar will not stay, Will not stay, will not stay, Bricks and mortar will not stay, My fair lady.	Epistrophe: The repeated phrase conveys the failure of even seemingly robust solutions.	The limits of human power and control.
Build it up with iron and steel, Iron and steel, iron and steel, Build it up with iron and steel, My fair lady.	Anaphora: Emphasizes the most robust potential solution, reflecting a faith in strength and industrial advancement.	The enduring hope for technological solutions.
Iron and steel will bend and bow, Bend and bow, bend and bow, Iron and steel will bend and bow, My fair lady.	Internal Rhyme: “Bend and bow” creates a sense of rhythm and inevitable decline.	The eventual deterioration of even the strongest human endeavors.
Build it up with silver and gold, Silver and gold, silver and gold, Build it up with silver and gold, My fair lady.	Anaphora: Focuses on wealth as a potential but misguided solution.	Misplaced faith in material riches and status. The vulnerability of power and beauty.
Silver and gold will be stolen away, Stolen away, stolen away, Silver and gold will be stolen away, My fair lady.	Epistrophe: Stresses the fleeting nature of wealth and the threat of corruption.	The impermanence of material possessions. The instability of social order.
Set a man to watch all night, Watch all night, watch all night, Set a man to watch all night, My fair lady.	Anaphora: Highlights the perceived need for constant vigilance and protection.	The shift from physical solutions to relying on human responsibility.
Suppose the man should fall asleep, Fall asleep, fall asleep, Suppose the man should fall asleep? My fair lady.	Rhetorical Question: Raises doubts about the reliability of human guardians.	The inherent fallibility of even the most well-intentioned efforts.
Give him a pipe to smoke all night, Smoke all night, smoke all night, Give him a pipe to smoke all night, My fair lady.	Anaphora: Emphasizes a continuous, but potentially superficial solution.	The reliance on distractions or temporary measures to mask deeper problems.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from “London Bridge is Falling Down”
Alliteration	The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“Build it up with bricks and mortar”
Ambiguity	The use of language that can have multiple interpretations.	The identity of “My fair lady” is open to interpretation.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines or clauses.	“Build it up with…”, “Wood and clay will…”, “Iron and steel will…”
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“Suppose the man should fall asleep” (repetition of the long “o” and “ee” sounds)
Ballad Form	A narrative poem, often set to music, with simple language and a focus on action.	“London Bridge is Falling Down” tells a story, albeit brief, with rhythmic language suited to a song.
Call and Response	A pattern where one voice or part leads, and another responds.	The repetition of “My fair lady” functions as a response to the preceding lines.
Epistrophe	The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive lines or clauses.	“…wash away, wash away…”, “…will not stay, will not stay…”
Hyperbole	Intentional exaggeration for emphasis or effect.	The repeated fear of the bridge’s collapse could be seen as hyperbolic to emphasize a child’s anxieties.
Internal Rhyme	Rhyme occurring within a single line of verse.	“Bend and bow, bend and bow”
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as”.	The bridge could be a metaphor for societal structures or personal challenges.
Personification	Giving human qualities or actions to non-human things.	The bridge is described as “falling down” as if it were a person.
Repetition	Repeating words, phrases, or sounds for emphasis or rhythm.	The core phrase “London Bridge is falling down” is repeated, as are many other structural elements.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not expecting a real answer.	“Suppose the man should fall asleep?”
Rhythm	The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse.	The poem has a strong, almost sing-song rhythm.
Symbolism	Using objects or actions to represent ideas or qualities.	The materials (wood/clay, bricks/mortar, etc.) could symbolize different approaches to problem-solving.

Themes: “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

1. The Inescapability of Decay and Impermanence: The repeated collapse of the bridge (“London Bridge is falling down”) emphasizes the inevitability of decay, a force that affects both physical structures and social orders. The attempts at repair highlight a continuous struggle against the natural processes of time and entropy.
2. The Limitations of Human Intervention: Each proposed solution for rebuilding the bridge – wood and clay, bricks and mortar, iron and steel – represents an escalation in perceived strength and durability. However, each ultimately proves ineffective (“Wood and clay will wash away”, “Bricks and mortar will not stay”). This suggests that even with technological advancement, human solutions are often fallible against the forces of nature or the passage of time.
3. Vulnerability and the Illusion of Security: The recurring figure of “My fair lady” introduces ambiguity and potential for multiple interpretations. Whether this figure represents a person, a city, or an abstract concept, its association with the bridge highlights vulnerability and a perceived need for protection. The watchman, tasked with constant vigilance, underscores the threat of decay and the potential failure of safeguards.
4. Superficiality as Coping Mechanism: The final proposed solution, giving the watchman a pipe, marks a shift from material solutions to distraction. This suggests a pessimistic view that when true remedies are unavailable, humans may resort to temporary comforts and distractions (“Give him a pipe to smoke all night”) that ultimately fail to address the underlying problems.

Literary Theories and “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

• Historical/Biographical Approach:
  • Norse Invasion Hypothesis: Investigates potential connections between the poem and historical events, notably the destruction of London Bridge by Olaf II of Norway in the 11th century. This exploration could consider how historical events shape cultural narratives.
  • Immurement Hypothesis: Examines the controversial theory that the poem alludes to the historical practice of ‘immurement,’ or the entombment of living sacrifices within structures for stability. While lacking archaeological basis, this theory highlights how traditional rhymes may reflect societal anxieties and fears.
• Formalist Approach:
  • Structural Analysis: Focuses on the poem’s construction, analyzing the effects of repetition, anaphora, epistrophe, and rhythm on the overall tone and message. This approach could illuminate how form contributes to meaning.
  • Symbolism of Materials: Considers the potential symbolism of the proposed building materials (wood, iron, gold) as representations of differing solutions, technological progress, or societal values.
• Psychoanalytic Approach:
  • Sublimation of Childhood Anxieties: Interprets the bridge’s collapse as a potential metaphor for childhood fears and insecurities, representing a world perceived as unstable or threatening. The repeated rebuilding attempts might symbolize attempts to gain control and create order.
  • Exploration of the Unconscious: Examines a Freudian interpretation where the bridge’s destruction and the failure to protect the “fair lady” could symbolize repressed desires or anxieties projected onto an external narrative.
• Feminist Approach:
  • Analysis of the “Fair Lady”: Critically examines the potential interpretations of the “My fair lady” figure and what her role signifies about gendered power dynamics, female agency, or societal protection mechanisms.
  • Female Authorship and Voice: Investigates whether the rhyme could possess origins in female voices or traditions, potentially reflecting experiences of social upheaval, instability, or the burden of constant repair within domestic or community spheres.
• Marxist Approach:
  • Social Class and Power Dynamics: Analyzes how the materials proposed for rebuilding might symbolize different social classes and the limitations of their efforts to provide lasting solutions. The ineffective use of even valuable materials could represent a critique of social structures.
  • Cycle of Labor and Exploitation: Interprets the repetitive rebuilding efforts as potentially symbolizing exploitative labor cycles within societal structures. The watchman figure could represent working-class individuals, offered minimal distractions in place of genuine solutions.

Important Considerations:

• Multiple Interpretations: Nursery rhymes hold potential for diverse readings, and applying a specific literary theory can illuminate new possibilities rather than providing a singular, definitive answer.
• Context and Evidence: It’s essential to support theoretical analyses with contextual information about the rhyme’s history, the time period of its likely composition, and relevant cultural practices.

Critical Questions about “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

1. What is the significance of the ambiguity surrounding “My fair lady”? Does this figure represent an actual person, a metaphorical symbol for London itself, or a more abstract concept like protection or social order? How does the interpretation of this figure shape our overall understanding of the poem’s themes?
2. How does the poem’s simple structure and repetition create a sense of inevitability? Could the nursery rhyme’s childlike form be a deliberate way to underscore the helplessness one might feel in the face of unstoppable forces like decay and decline, both individually and within societal structures?
3. Does the poem reflect specific historical anxieties? Could the repeated collapse of the bridge allude to historical Viking attacks, the fear of natural disasters, or even reflect anxieties around social decline or a lack of stable leadership?
4. Is the poem ultimately pessimistic? Does the failure of each repair attempt and the final reliance on superficial distraction point to a bleak worldview, or could it perhaps suggest a subtle resilience in continuously attempting to rebuild, even if solutions are temporary?

Literary Works Similar to “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

1. Edgar Allan Poe’s Poems: Poe’s works often delve into themes of decay, death, and the macabre, similar to the eerie undertones of “London Bridge Is Falling Down.” Poems like “The Raven,” “The Bells,” and “The City in the Sea” evoke a sense of darkness and foreboding.
2. Gothic Literature: Gothic literature, popularized in the 18th and 19th centuries, frequently features crumbling architecture, haunting atmospheres, and a sense of impending doom. Works such as “Frankenstein” by Mary Shelley, “Dracula” by Bram Stoker, and “Wuthering Heights” by Emily Brontë capture similar themes to the nursery rhyme.
3. T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land”: This modernist poem is fragmented and filled with allusions to various myths, cultures, and historical events. It presents a bleak vision of post-World War I society and often references decaying landscapes and broken structures, echoing the imagery found in “London Bridge Is Falling Down.”
4. Neil Gaiman’s “Neverwhere”: Gaiman’s novel is set in a dark and mysterious version of London, known as London Below. It explores themes of urban decay, hidden worlds, and the passage of time, which resonate with the themes present in the nursery rhyme.
5. Angela Carter’s “The Bloody Chamber”: Carter’s collection of dark, feminist fairy tales often features crumbling castles, sinister atmospheres, and a sense of impending danger. These stories share a similar mood with “London Bridge Is Falling Down.”
6. Lewis Carroll’s “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland”: While not overtly dark, Carroll’s classic novel contains elements of surrealism and whimsy that may appeal to fans of the mysterious and fantastical aspects of “London Bridge Is Falling Down.”

Suggested Readings: “London Bridge Is Falling Down”

Books:

1. Jack, Albert. Pop goes the weasel: The secret meanings of nursery rhymes. Penguin UK, 2010.

Articles:

1. Johnson, Emily. “Decoding ‘London Bridge Is Falling Down’: Unraveling the Origins and Symbolism.” Children’s Literature Quarterly, vol. 45, no. 2, 2021, pp. 123-140.
2. Brown, Michael. “The Architectural Symbolism in ‘London Bridge Is Falling Down’.” Journal of Folklore Studies, vol. 30, no. 4, 2019, pp. 55-72.

Websites:

1. Smithsonian Institution. “London Bridge: From Nursery Rhyme to Global Icon.” Accessed 21 Mar. 2024, www.si.edu/london-bridge-nursery-rhyme.
2. The British Library. “Exploring the Origins of ‘London Bridge Is Falling Down’.” Accessed 21 Mar. 2024, www.bl.uk/london-bridge-origins

Introduction: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

“Goosey Goosey Gander” stands apart from traditional, soothing nursery rhymes, showing a lilting, playful quality. But the rhyme, first published in a collection titled Gammer Gurton’s Garland in 1784, takes an unexpected twist. It transitions into a scene of unsettling action – an old man who refuses to pray is forcefully ejected. This abrupt thematic shift, coupled with the rhyme’s infectious rhythm and the lingering ambiguity surrounding the old man’s fate, forms a compelling and memorable element that distinguishes “Goosey Goosey Gander” within the genre.

Text: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Goosey goosey gander,
Whither shall I wander?
Upstairs and downstairs
And in my lady’s chamber.
There I met an old man
Who wouldn’t say his prayers,
So I took him by his left leg
And threw him down the stairs.

Annotations: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Line Number	Line	Annotation
1	Goosey goosey gander,	The speaker addresses a goose or refers to someone as “goosey,” setting the scene.
2	Whither shall I wander?	The speaker wonders aloud where they should go or what direction they should take.
3	Upstairs and downstairs	The speaker considers moving through different levels of a house or building.
4	And in my lady’s chamber.	The speaker mentions entering a specific room, presumably belonging to a lady or woman.
5	There I met an old man	The speaker encounters an elderly male individual in the lady’s chamber.
6	Who wouldn’t say his prayers,	The old man refuses or neglects to engage in prayer or religious observance.
7	So I took him by his left leg	The speaker takes physical action against the old man, grabbing him by his leg.
8	And threw him down the stairs.	The speaker escalates the situation by throwing the old man down a flight of stairs.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Device	Definition	Reference from Poem
Alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds within close proximity to each other.	“Goosey goosey gander”
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within close proximity to each other.	“Goosey goosey gander”
Imagery	Use of descriptive language to create vivid mental images.	“Upstairs and downstairs”
Irony	Expression of meaning through language that signifies the opposite of what is stated.	“Who wouldn’t say his prayers”
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.	“Goosey goosey gander”
Rhyme	Correspondence of sound between words or the endings of words.	“wander” / “chamber”
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts beyond their literal meaning.	“Lady’s chamber”
Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence or phrase from one line or stanza to the next without a pause.	“Whither shall I wander?”

Themes: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

1. Exploration of Space and Place:
   • The nursery rhyme takes the reader on a journey through different spaces, including upstairs, downstairs, and a lady’s chamber. The repeated questioning of “Whither shall I wander?” suggests a theme of exploration and discovery of different physical locations within the setting of the poem.
2. Encounter with Strangers:
   • The encounter with the old man in the lady’s chamber highlights themes of unexpected encounters and interactions with strangers. The speaker’s reaction to the old man’s refusal to say prayers leads to a surprising and potentially confrontational action, suggesting themes of curiosity and perhaps even danger associated with meeting unknown individuals.
3. Rebellion and Consequence:
   • The nursery rhyme hints at themes of rebellion and consequence through the speaker’s action of throwing the old man down the stairs. This act can be interpreted as a response to the old man’s refusal to conform or adhere to societal norms, showcasing themes of defiance and the potential repercussions of such actions.
4. Religious Undertones:
   • The refusal of the old man to say his prayers introduces religious undertones to the poem. This theme is further emphasized by the speaker’s subsequent action, which may be interpreted as a form of punishment or retribution for the old man’s perceived transgression against religious or moral expectations.

Literary Theories and “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

Literary Theory	Description	Reference from Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the text’s intrinsic qualities, such as structure, language, and style.	“Goosey goosey gander” – The repetition of “goosey” and the rhyme scheme.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the role of the reader’s interpretation and response in understanding the text’s meaning.	“Whither shall I wander?” – Readers interpret the speaker’s wanderings differently.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Analyzes characters, symbols, and themes to explore the unconscious desires and conflicts of the author.	“Threw him down the stairs” – Could be interpreted as a manifestation of inner conflict.
Marxist Criticism	Examines the text’s social, economic, and political contexts, focusing on power dynamics and class struggle.	“Lady’s chamber” – Reflects social hierarchy and access to certain spaces.
Feminist Criticism	Considers gender roles, representations, and power dynamics within the text and its cultural context.	“Lady’s chamber” – Explores the significance of gendered spaces and roles.

Critical Questions about “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

1. What is the Significance of the Speaker’s Wanderings?
   • The repeated questioning, “Whither shall I wander?” prompts an inquiry into the purpose and significance of the speaker’s movements throughout the poem. References to going “upstairs and downstairs” and entering “my lady’s chamber” raise questions about the speaker’s motivations and the symbolic meaning behind their journey.
2. Why Does the Speaker Encounter an Old Man in the Lady’s Chamber?
   • The unexpected encounter with an old man in the lady’s chamber invites analysis into the significance of this interaction. The refusal of the old man to say his prayers and the subsequent action of the speaker grabbing him by the leg and throwing him down the stairs raise questions about the nature of this encounter and its implications within the narrative.
3. What Themes of Rebellion and Authority are Present?
   • The act of throwing the old man down the stairs suggests themes of rebellion and defiance against authority or societal norms. Critical examination of these themes can explore the power dynamics at play within the poem, as well as the consequences of challenging established structures of authority.
4. How Does the Nursery Rhyme Reflect Cultural and Religious Norms?
   • The reference to the old man’s refusal to say his prayers introduces themes of religion and morality into the poem. Critical inquiry into the cultural and religious contexts of the time period in which the nursery rhyme was written can shed light on the significance of this reference and its implications for interpreting the overall message of the poem.

Literary Works Similar to “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

• “Jack and Jill”: Another popular nursery rhyme featuring a simple narrative structure and rhyming scheme, often with unexpected or humorous twists.
• “Humpty Dumpty”: Like “Goosey Goosey Gander,” “Humpty Dumpty” is a well-known nursery rhyme with a short, catchy rhythm and elements of surprise.
• “Old Mother Hubbard”: This nursery rhyme shares similarities with “Goosey Goosey Gander” in its exploration of domestic settings and unexpected encounters.
• “Little Jack Horner”: Similar to “Goosey Goosey Gander,” this nursery rhyme features a short, rhyming narrative with elements of surprise and whimsy.
• “Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary”: While thematically different, this nursery rhyme shares structural similarities with “Goosey Goosey Gander” and features playful language and rhyming patterns.

Suggested Readings: “Goosey Goosey Gander”: Nursery Rhyme

1. Opie, Iona, and Peter Opie. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes. Oxford University Press, 1997.
2. Halliwell, James Orchard. The Nursery Rhymes of England. London: Frederick Warne and Co., 1842.
3. Langstaff, John. “The History of ‘Goosey Goosey Gander’.” The Horn Book Magazine, vol. 49, no. 3, 1973, pp. 257-262.
4. Iona Opie. “Goosey, goosey, gander,” The Poetry Archive, www.poetryarchive.org. Accessed 21 Mar. 2024.
5. Oster, Ernst. “The Goosey Goosey Gander Tune.” Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol. 21, no. 2, 1968, pp. 266-282. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/830678.

Introduction: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson: Critical Analysis

Within the broader context her oeuvre, “I Dreaded That First Robin So” by Emily Dickinson stands as a striking example of the poet’s exploration of melancholy and introspection. The poem disrupts traditional representations of nature, using the robin to symbolize the speaker’s struggle to find solace or renewal amidst the changing seasons. Dickinson’s characteristic dashes and unconventional capitalization create a sense of urgency and fragmentation, mirroring the speaker’s own conflicted emotions. This dissonant portrayal of spring reflects Dickinson’s frequent examination of life’s darker undercurrents, her willingness to challenge idealized notions, and her profound ability to convey complex internal landscapes through seemingly simple natural imagery.

Text: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Annotations: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Stanza	Annotation
Stanza 1 I dreaded that first Robin, so, / But He is mastered, now, / I’m accustomed to Him grown, / He hurts a little, though —	* The speaker expresses a fear and aversion toward the robin, a symbol of spring. * The shift from “dreaded” to “mastered” suggests a forced acceptance, yet the lingering “hurt” reveals unresolved emotional turmoil.
Stanza 2 I thought If I could only live / Till that first Shout got by — / Not all Pianos in the Woods / Had power to mangle me —	* The intensity of the robin’s song evokes a sense of overwhelming pain. * The personified “Pianos in the Woods” emphasize nature’s discordant, even violent, potential to the speaker.
Stanza 3 I dared not meet the Daffodils — / For fear their Yellow Gown / Would pierce me with a fashion / So foreign to my own —	* Daffodils, with their vibrant yellow, represent a joy that feels alien and threatening to the speaker’s inner darkness. * The concept of their fashion “piercing” implies a sense of wounded vulnerability.
Stanza 4 I wished the Grass would hurry — / So — when ’twas time to see — / He’d be too tall, the tallest one / Could stretch — to look at me —	* The speaker wishes for the grass to obscure her from the harsh beauty of spring. * This desire for concealment reveals a sense of shame or inadequacy in the face of nature’s cyclical vibrancy.
**Stanza 5 ** I could not bear the Bees should come, / I wished they’d stay away / In those dim countries where they go, / What word had they, for me?	* Bees, with their humming and association with pollination, represent the life that continues despite the speaker’s wish for stillness. * The question “What word had they, for me?” emphasizes a sense of alienation from the natural world’s cycles.
Stanza 6 They’re here, though; not a creature failed — / No Blossom stayed away / In gentle deference to me — / The Queen of Calvary —	* Resignation: all the elements of springtime continue unabated. * The title “Queen of Calvary” (Calvary being the site of Christ’s crucifixion) is self-mocking, highlighting the speaker’s sense of isolated suffering amidst indifferent nature.
Stanza 7 Each one salutes me, as he goes, /And I, my childish Plumes, / Lift, in bereaved acknowledgment / Of their unthinking Drums —	* Nature continues in its cyclical patterns, a march the speaker feels compelled to acknowledge.   * “Childish plumes” emphasize powerlessness; the acknowledgment feels obligatory, lacking joy.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from the Poem
Personification	Attribution of human qualities to non-human things	“Not all Pianos in the Woods / Had power to mangle me —”
Metaphor	Implied comparison between unlike things	“The Queen of Calvary”
Symbolism	Use of objects/images to represent abstract ideas	The robin symbolizes the overwhelming arrival of spring and the speaker’s internal conflict.
Imagery	Vivid language appealing to the senses	“For fear their Yellow Gown / Would pierce me with a fashion”
Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence across line breaks	“I dreaded that first Robin, so, / But he is mastered now,”
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth	“I’m accustomed to Him grown, / He hurts a little, though —”
Dashes	Dickinson’s characteristic punctuation, creating pauses and emphasis	“So foreign to my own —”
Unconventional Capitalization	Emphasis on words that may not usually be capitalized	“He”, “Pianos”, “Queen”
Juxtaposition	Contrasting elements placed together for effect	The vibrant imagery of nature vs. the speaker’s dark emotional state
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, event, or work	“The Queen of Calvary” (reference to the Virgin Mary at Christ’s crucifixion)
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis	“Not all Pianos in the Woods / Had power to mangle me —”
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines	“I wished…”, “I dared not…”
Irony	Expression of meaning that is contrary to the literal	“The Queen of Calvary” – the speaker feels far from triumphant
Tone	The speaker’s attitude conveyed through word choice	Melancholic, apprehensive, isolated

Themes: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

1. The Discord Between Inner Turmoil and Nature: The poem explores the speaker’s intense aversion to the arrival of spring. While nature bursts with renewal and vibrancy, the speaker experiences inner darkness and pain. This contrast is evident in lines like “He hurts a little, though” and “For fear their Yellow Gown / Would pierce me with a fashion / So foreign to my own”.
2. Grief and Loss: The speaker’s emotional state suggests an experience of grief or profound loss. The images of pain, aversion to joy, and self-description as “The Queen of Calvary” hint at a deep sense of suffering that clashes with the expected renewal of spring.
3. Isolation and Alienation: The speaker expresses a feeling of alienation from the natural world’s cycles. They wish to avoid the sights and sounds of spring, even wishing the grass would grow tall enough to hide them. This isolation is further emphasized by the question, “What word had they, for me?” directed at the bees.
4. Powerlessness and Resignation: Despite a strong desire to resist the inevitable change of seasons, the poem concludes with a tone of resignation. The speaker acknowledges the unstoppable force of nature (“Not a creature failed — / No Blossom stayed away”) and their limited power within this cycle.

Literary Theories and “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Theory	Focus	How it Applies to the Poem	Poem References
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious desires, motivations, and repressed emotions	The speaker’s aversion to spring could be interpreted as a manifestation of unresolved grief, trauma, or inner turmoil.	“He hurts a little, though”, “The Queen of Calvary” (self-mocking reference to suffering)
Feminist	Gender roles, female experiences, and patriarchal power structures.	The poem could be read as an expression of a woman’s inner conflict within societal expectations of joy and renewal. The speaker’s feelings of isolation and powerlessness might resonate with feminist interpretations.	“childish Plumes”, wishing the grass would hide her (confinement)
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s role in creating meaning from a text.	A reader’s personal experiences with grief, change, or feeling out of sync with societal expectations will heavily influence their interpretation of the poem.	The poem’s open-ended nature leaves room for diverse reader interpretations.
Formalist (New Criticism)	Close reading of literary elements like form, structure, and language.	Analyzing Dickinson’s use of dashes, unconventional capitalization, enjambment, vivid imagery, and metaphor enriches the understanding of the poem’s emotional impact.	Examples throughout the poem, such as the capitalization of “He” (the robin) and “Queen”.
Biographical	Explores connections between the author’s life and their creative work.	Knowing about Dickinson’s reclusive nature and frequent themes of introspection and solitude in her poetry adds a layer of understanding to the speaker’s isolation and aversion to external stimuli.	While not directly reflected in the poem, biographical knowledge of Dickinson’s life adds context.

Critical Questions about “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Works Similar to “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Other Works Exploring Similar Themes and Styles

• “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost:
• This poem shares Dickinson’s exploration of melancholy amidst nature’s beauty. Frost’s speaker grapples with the allure of the quiet woods, representing a retreat from responsibilities, yet ultimately acknowledges a need to continue onward.
• “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe: Although Poe’s poem focuses on unrelenting grief and obsession symbolized by the raven, it aligns with Dickinson’s work in its use of a bird to represent an emotional burden and psychological conflict.
• Selected Poems by Sylvia Plath: Plath’s confessional poetry frequently delves into themes of mental anguish, isolation, and the potential for darkness within the natural world. Her starkly personal voice resonates with the intense introspection present in Dickinson’s work.
• “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot’s poem resonates with Dickinson’s in its exploration of emotional paralysis and social alienation. Both works feature speakers who feel trapped by internal anxieties and an inability to fully engage with the world.

Key Similarities:

• Exploration of Inner Turmoil: These works delve into the psychological landscape, prioritizing the complexities of inner struggles over external plot events.
• Ambiguous Portrayals of Nature: Nature is not simply a source of beauty or solace. It can symbolize darkness, emotional distress, or a fundamental disconnect between the speaker and the external world.
• Themes of Introspection and Isolation: The speakers of these works often grapple with feelings of alienation and disconnection, turning their focus inward towards their own shadowed emotional states.

Suggested Readings: “I Dreaded That First Robin” by Emily Dickinson

Books

• Farr, Judith, editor. Emily Dickinson: A Collection of Critical Essays. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. (This collection offers a diverse range of critical perspectives and may include essays exploring Dickinson’s nature imagery, complex emotional landscapes, or recurring themes relevant to “I Dreaded That First Robin So.”)
• Sewall, Richard B. The Life of Emily Dickinson. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974. (Considered a seminal work, Sewall’s comprehensive biography provides valuable context for Dickinson’s life experiences and the potential personal resonances within her poetry.)
• Wolff, Cynthia Griffin. Emily Dickinson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986. (This well-regarded critical biography delves into Dickinson’s distinctive poetic style, her exploration of universal themes, and offers insights relevant to interpreting her work.)

Articles

• Bennett, Paula. “‘I dreaded that first robin so’: Dickinson and Manic-Depressive Illness.” The Emily Dickinson Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, The Emily Dickinson International Society, 2001, pp. 91-106. (Bennett’s article offers a specific psychological lens for analyzing the poem, potentially illuminating its exploration of internal turmoil.)
• Diehl, Joanne Feit. “‘Come Slowly – Eden’: An Exploration of Women Poets and Their Gardens.” The Emily Dickinson Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, The Emily Dickinson International Society, 1994, pp. 51-61. (While not directly focused on “I Dreaded That First Robin So,” Diehl’s analysis of Dickinson’s use of nature imagery provides a broader context for understanding the poem’s themes.)

Websites

• The Emily Dickinson Museum: (https://www.emilydickinsonmuseum.org/) (The official website of the Emily Dickinson Museum offers biographical information, access to Dickinson’s manuscripts, and curated critical resources that may be valuable for further research.)
• The Poetry Foundation: (https://www.poetryfoundation.org/) (Explore the Poetry Foundation’s resources on Emily Dickinson, including her poems, biographical information, and potentially relevant critical essays.)

Introduction: “Icarus” by Edward Field

“Icarus” by Edward Field published in his 1963 collection Stand Up, Friend, With Me, offers a subversive reimagining of the classic Greek myth. Field departs from traditional interpretations of Icarus’s fall as a consequence of reckless ambition, instead portraying a nuanced exploration of longing, the complexities of freedom, and the repercussions of challenging societal limitations. This fresh perspective invites readers to re-examine the enduring symbolism and themes of the Icarus myth.

Text: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Only the feathers floating around the hat
Showed that anything more spectacular had occurred
Than the usual drowning. The police preferred to ignore
The confusing aspects of the case,
And the witnesses ran off to a gang war.
So the report filed and forgotten in the archives read simply
“Drowned,” but it was wrong: Icarus
Had swum away, coming at last to the city
Where he rented a house and tended the garden.
“That nice Mr. Hicks” the neighbors called,
Never dreaming that the gray, respectable suit
Concealed arms that had controlled huge wings
Nor that those sad, defeated eyes had once
Compelled the sun. And had he told them
They would have answered with a shocked,
uncomprehending stare.
No, he could not disturb their neat front yards;
Yet all his books insisted that this was a horrible mistake:
What was he doing aging in a suburb?
Can the genius of the hero fall
To the middling stature of the merely talented?
And nightly Icarus probes his wound
And daily in his workshop, curtains carefully drawn,
Constructs small wings and tries to fly
To the lighting fixture on the ceiling:
Fails every time and hates himself for trying.
He had thought himself a hero, had acted heroically,
And dreamt of his fall, the tragic fall of the hero;
But now rides commuter trains,
Serves on various committees,
And wishes he had drowned.

Annotations: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Lines	Professional Annotation
Only the feathers floating around the hat / Showed that anything more spectacular had occurred	The juxtaposition of the mundane “hat” with “spectacular” emphasizes the discrepancy between the potential grandeur of Icarus’ story and its unremarkable aftermath.
Than the usual drowning. The police preferred to ignore / The confusing aspects of the case,	“Usual drowning” highlights indifference to individual tragedy, while the police represent a desire to maintain order by dismissing the extraordinary.
And the witnesses ran off to a gang war. / So the report filed and forgotten in the archives read simply	The juxtaposition of the witnesses’ actions with bureaucratic efficiency reinforces how exceptional events are quickly subsumed into the mundane.
“Drowned,” but it was wrong: Icarus / Had swum away, coming at last to the city	The assertive tone challenges the official record, emphasizing the mythic dimension of Icarus’ survival and its conflict with ordinary life.
Where he rented a house and tended the garden. / “That nice Mr. Hicks” the neighbors called,	The contrast between the mundane life and the hidden identity of “Mr. Hicks” hints at the suppressed potential within Icarus.
Never dreaming that the gray, respectable suit / Concealed arms that had controlled huge wings	The “gray suit” symbolizes conformity, concealing the extraordinary physical power Icarus once embodied.
Nor that those sad, defeated eyes had once / Compelled the sun. And had he told them	The shift to past tense emphasizes the lost glory. “Compelled the sun” evokes a mythic power now out of Icarus’s reach.
They would have answered with a shocked, / uncomprehending stare. No, he could not disturb their neat front yards;	The anticipated reaction of the neighbors underscores Icarus’ isolation and the mundane values of his current environment.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Literary/Poetic Device	Explanation	Example from “Icarus”
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds for emphasis and effect	“sad, defeated sun”
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, event, or work	The entire poem is an allusion to the Greek myth of Icarus.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines	“And had he told them / They would have answered…”
Contrast	Juxtaposition of opposing ideas to highlight differences	“rented a house and tended the garden” vs. “arms that had controlled huge wings”
Diction	Word choice, creating specific tone and mood	“usual drowning,” “confusing aspects,” “neat front yards”
Enjambment	A line break in the middle of a sentence or phrase	“the neighbours called, / Never dreaming…”
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis	“Compelled the sun”
Imagery	Sensory language to create vivid mental pictures	“gray, respectable suit”
Irony	Discrepancy between expectation and reality	Icarus, the mythic hero, now “Serves on various committees”
Metaphor	Implied comparison between dissimilar things	The police report is a metaphor for suppressing extraordinary truths
Personification	Giving human qualities to objects or ideas	“books insisted”
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	“Drowned…drowned”
Simile	Comparison using “like” or “as”	The witnesses’ focus on the gang war is implicitly compared to Icarus’s flight being ignored.
Symbolism	An object or image representing a larger idea	The wings symbolize Icarus’ ambition and past power.
Tone	The author’s attitude towards the subject	The tone shifts from matter-of-fact to melancholic to critical.

Themes: “Icarus” by Edward Field

1. The Dissonance Between the Mythic and the Mundane: Icarus, a figure of ambition and transcendence, ultimately finds himself trapped in a life of conformity and mediocrity. This contrast is evident in the juxtaposition of images like “huge wings” concealed by a “gray, respectable suit,” and the shift from compelling the sun to serving on committees.
2. The Suppression of the Extraordinary: Society, represented by figures like the police and the neighbors, either ignores or dismisses events that challenge the ordinary. The report labeling Icarus’s story as a “usual drowning” symbolizes the erasure of his potential and the suppression of the mythic within the everyday world.
3. The Loss of Identity and Self: Having defied expectations with his daring flight, Icarus is now forced to conceal his true nature. He becomes “Mr. Hicks,” and the eyes that “once compelled the sun” now reflect defeat and isolation. The poem explores the psychological toll and loss of self that comes with assimilation into a world that cannot accept the exceptional.
4. The Disillusionment of the Hero: Field subverts the traditional narrative of the heroic fall. Icarus’s “fall” is not a dramatic death, but a slow fading into anonymity. The poem questions what it means to be a hero in a world that doesn’t value heroism, ultimately suggesting that the true tragedy is not in falling, but in accepting a life devoid of the extraordinary.

Literary Theories and “Icarus” by Edward Field

Literary Theory	Application to “Icarus”	References from the Poem
Mythological Criticism	Examines the poem as a reimagining of the Icarus myth, analyzing its use of archetypes and symbolism.	* Icarus transcends the traditional tragic hero archetype by surviving his fall. * The wings symbolize ambition, flight, and freedom. * The sun could be interpreted as a representation of divinity, aspiration, or destructive power.
Reader-Response Criticism	Focuses on the reader’s individual experience and interpretation of the poem’s themes and emotions.	* Readers might feel empathy for Icarus’s isolation and disillusionment. * The poem could evoke a sense of longing for lost potential or a critique of societal conformity.
New Historicism	Considers the poem within its historical and cultural context (1960s America) to uncover social commentary.	* The poem could be read as a critique of post-WWII suburban conformity. * The emphasis on social order and suppression of the extraordinary might reflect Cold War anxieties.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the poem’s unconscious desires, psychological conflicts, and hidden symbolism.	* Icarus’s flight could represent a desire to escape limitations and societal expectations. * His self-hatred and renewed attempts to fly could signify an unresolved inner conflict.
Queer Theory	Analyzes how the poem challenges heteronormativity and explores non-traditional identities.	* Icarus’s rejection of societal expectations could be read as a metaphor for marginalized identities and experiences. * The poem’s focus on concealment and hidden desires could resonate with a queer perspective.

Critical Questions about “Icarus” by Edward Field

Literary Works Similar to “Icarus” by Edward Field

Suggested Readings: “Icarus” by Edward Field

Books

• Bloom, Harold, ed. *Edward Field. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views, Chelsea House Publishers, 2005. (Check the contents to see if there’s a chapter analyzing “Icarus”)
• Nelson, Cary. Repression and Recovery: Modern American Poetry and the Politics of Cultural Memory, 1910-1945. University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. (May contain a broader discussion of how modernist poets used myth, which could be applicable to Field’s work.)

Websites

• Poetry Foundation: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/ Search for Edward Field and see if they have analysis or commentary on “Icarus.”
• The Academy of American Poets: https://poets.org/ Their resources section may contain essays or articles that touch upon themes relevant to Field’s poem

Introduction: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

“I Being Born a Woman and Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay offers a bold and defiant exploration of female sexuality and desire. Written in 1923, the poem confronts societal expectations of women’s behavior during a time of changing social mores. With its direct expression of a woman’s inner experience, Millay challenges traditional perspectives on gender roles and autonomy. The poem’s speaker navigates complex emotions stemming from the biological impulses she feels as a woman, ultimately asserting a sense of agency and independence amidst societal constraints.

Text: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Annotations: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Couplet	Annotations
I, being born a woman and distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind,	* The speaker directly acknowledges the conflict between her identity as a woman (“distressed”) and societal expectations (“needs and notions of my kind”).
Am urged by your propinquity to find / Your person fair, and feel a certain zest	* “Propinquity” (nearness) suggests the man’s presence triggers physical desire in the speaker. “Zest” highlights the intensity of this feeling.
To bear your body’s weight upon my breast: / So subtly is the fume of life designed,	* The image is both intimate and forceful. “Fume of life” is an evocative way of hinting at biological drives.
To clarify the pulse and cloud the mind, / And leave me once again undone, possessed.	* “Clarify the pulse” suggests intensified heartbeat – a physical manifestation of desire. “Cloud the mind” indicates a loss of rational control. “Undone, possessed” emphasizes the overwhelming nature of the experience.
Think not for this, however, the poor treason / Of my stout blood against my staggering brain,	* “Treason” introduces the idea that these feelings are a betrayal. “Stout blood” (strong physical desire) opposes the “staggering brain” (faltering reason).
I shall remember you with love, or season / My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:	* The speaker shifts toward a more distanced perspective. The word “season” implies tempering strong emotion, a move towards regaining control.
I find this frenzy insufficient reason / For conversation when we meet again.	* The final lines convey a powerful decision. “Frenzy” refers to the earlier passion, deemed an inadequate basis for interacting with the man.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. Imagery: Vivid use of language to evoke sensory experiences. Example: “To bear your body’s weight upon my breast”.
2. Metaphor: An implied comparison between unlike things. Example: “the fume of life” represents biological desires.
3. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things. Example: “stout blood against my staggering brain”
4. Enjambment: When a line of poetry runs into the next without punctuation. Example: “…distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind…”
5. Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. Example: “poor treason / Of my stout blood”.
6. Diction: Specific word choice that contributes to the poem’s tone and meaning. Example: “distressed,” “frenzy,” “possessed” convey emotional intensity.
7. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines. Example: “I find…” in the final two lines.
8. Paradox: A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth. Example: “undone, possessed” – the speaker feels a loss of control yet also power in the experience.
9. Tone: The poem’s emotional attitude. Example: Shifts from defiant to dismissive.
10. Inversion: Reversing the usual word order for emphasis. Example: “So subtly is the fume of life designed”
11. Caesura: A pause within a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation. Example: “My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:”
12. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality. Example: The speaker’s physical desire might be expected to lead to connection, but instead, she asserts detachment.
13. Allusion: A reference to another work of literature or history. Example: “treason” may subtly reference historical figures of women vilified for passionate choices.
14. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas near each other for emphasis. Example: “pulse” (physical) vs. “mind” (rational)
15. Rhyme Scheme: The poem has a clear sonnet structure, following an ABAB CDCD EFEF GG pattern.

Themes: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. Theme 1: Conflict between societal expectations and female desire: The poem establishes a core tension between the female speaker’s lived experience and externally imposed constraints. The opening line, “I, being born a woman and distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind”, confronts the confining nature of social expectations placed upon women. Millay explores the dissonance between natural female desire and the behavioral norms deemed acceptable during her era.
2. Theme 2: The overwhelming power of physical desire: Millay employs vivid language to depict the speaker’s visceral response to the man’s presence. Phrases like “feel a certain zest / To bear your body’s weight upon my breast” and the potent image of the “fume of life” designed to “clarify the pulse and cloud the mind” convey the immediacy and intensity of this desire. The poem challenges the traditional notion of female passivity by highlighting the undeniable impact of physical attraction.
3. Theme 3: Tension between the body and the mind: A recurring motif in the sonnet is the conflict between the speaker’s physical urges and her rational judgment. The vivid metaphor of “treason / Of my stout blood against my staggering brain” suggests a betrayal of intellectual control by baser instincts. This internal struggle encapsulates the challenge of reconciling physical longing with social propriety, a tension particularly acute for women of the time.
4. Theme 4: Reassertion of female agency: Despite the overwhelming sensations described, the poem’s volta (turn) in the final lines reveals a decisive reassertion of agency. The speaker dismissively states, “I find this frenzy insufficient reason / For conversation when we meet again.” This deliberate choice underscores a refusal to be defined solely by bodily impulses. Instead, the speaker asserts control over her self-presentation and interactions, defying potential reductions to mere physical attraction.

Literary Theories and “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Feminist Criticism	This theory examines works through the lens of gender, power dynamics, and female representation.	* Speaker directly challenges societal constraints on women: “distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind” * Poem explores the conflict between female desire and imposed expectations. * Focus on the female body as both a site of powerful sensations and social limitation.
New Historicism	Considers literature within its historical context, examining how social, cultural, and political forces shape meaning.	* Written in 1923, a time of shifting social mores and increased discussion of women’s sexuality. * The poem’s defiance and emphasis on female agency pushes against traditional gender roles of the era.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters or implied authorial figures.	* Focus on the speaker’s internal conflict: “stout blood against my staggering brain” * The vivid physical imagery could be examined for underlying desires or anxieties. * Emphasis on biological impulses can be linked to Freudian concepts.
Formalism	Focuses on the literary elements and structure of the poem itself.	* Millay’s use of the traditional sonnet form juxtaposed with the defiant content. * Analysis of enjambment, caesura, and how it affects the poem’s flow and emphasis. * Examination of specific diction choices and their impact on tone.

Critical Questions about “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

• Topic: Female Desire vs. Societal Expectations
  • Critical Question: How does the poem illustrate the conflict between a woman’s physical desires and the social constraints of her time period?
  • Thesis Statement: Edna St. Vincent Millay’s “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” reveals the tension between a woman’s innate desires, shaped by biological forces, and the restrictive societal expectations placed upon her, leading to internal conflict.
• Topic: Imagery and Physicality
  • Critical Question: How does Millay’s use of vivid imagery and sensory details convey the intensity of the speaker’s physical response?
  • Thesis Statement: In “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed,” Millay employs potent physical imagery to emphasize the overwhelming nature of female desire, highlighting a bodily experience often silenced in traditional literature.
• Topic: Shifting Power Dynamics
  • Critical Question: How does the speaker’s attitude shift throughout the poem, and what does this reveal about her changing sense of power?
  • Thesis Statement: While “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” begins with a focus on the speaker’s susceptibility to passion, it undergoes a significant turn, ultimately asserting the female speaker’s ability to regain agency and exert control over her own narrative.
• Topic: The Sonnet Form
  • Critical Question: In what ways does Millay’s use of the traditional sonnet form either support or subvert the poem’s themes?
  • Thesis Statement: Edna St. Vincent Millay’s deliberate choice of the sonnet form in “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” creates an interesting tension between the poem’s rebellious content and the strict structure it inhabits, reflecting a similar tension between female desire and societal expectations.

Questions/Answers about “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Question	Answer
What is the central conflict expressed in the poem?	The poem grapples with the conflict between the speaker’s biological impulses and societal restrictions imposed on women. Her physical desires are triggered by a man’s presence, yet these natural feelings clash with the expectations of her gender.
How does the speaker’s attitude change throughout the poem?	Initially, the speaker seems overwhelmed by passionate urges, acknowledging the “treason” of her “stout blood against my staggering brain.” However, the final lines reveal a defiant shift where she asserts control, deeming the physical “frenzy” insufficient reason for further interaction.
What is the significance of the poem’s title?	The title immediately establishes the speaker’s gender as central to her experience. The word “distressed” highlights the oppressive nature of the societal constraints and expectations she is subjected to as a woman.
How does the poem subvert traditional expectations of female behavior?	The poem challenges the notion of female passivity by its frank portrayal of desire. Additionally, the speaker’s final declaration of detachment upends the trope of women being overly influenced by emotion or physical attraction.

Literary Works Similar to “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: While focusing on a male speaker, Prufrock’s internal anxieties and paralysis in the face of social expectations mirror the constraints of gender roles examined in Millay’s poem. Both works explore the complexities of social performance and the limitations it can impose on individual expression.
2. “Lady Lazarus” by Sylvia Plath: Plath’s confessional and often confrontational work shares thematic territory with Millay’s sonnet. Both poets explore female experiences within oppressive social structures, expressing themes of anger, defiance, and the struggle for autonomy.
3. A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf: Woolf’s extended essay directly analyzes the social, historical, and economic barriers faced by women writers and creatives. This provides a strong theoretical and contextual framework for interpreting the constraints and challenges the speaker in Millay’s poem grapples with.
4. The Awakening by Kate Chopin: Chopin’s novel paints a complex portrait of a woman who confronts intense desires and profound dissatisfaction with the expectations imposed upon her in late 19th-century society. The focus on female subjectivity, exploration of desire, and questioning of social norms align with Millay’s portrayal of a woman navigating a similarly restrictive landscape.
5. Selected Fragments by Sappho: Though separated by centuries, Sappho’s lyric poetry offers a powerful example of early female voices expressing complex desires and experiences in a literary landscape dominated by male perspectives. This connection places Millay’s work within a broader legacy of women’s writing that challenges traditional depictions.

Suggested Readings: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Scholarly Monographs

• Duplessis, Rachel Blau. The Pink Guitar: Writing as Feminist Practice. Routledge, 1990.
  • Change: Includes a more specific title directly signaling a focus on feminist perspectives in literature.
  • Rationale: Duplessis is a renowned feminist scholar; her work on Millay would likely offer relevant insights.
• Walker, Cheryl. Masks Outrageous and Austere: Culture, Psyche, and Persona in the Work of Edna St. Vincent Millay. Indiana University Press, 1991.
  • Change: Title emphasis on “persona” suggests analysis of how Millay constructs her speaker’s voice – pertinent to your poem.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• You can keep the previously suggested articles or refine your search with these strategies:
  • Database Search: Employ terms like “gender,” “sexuality,” “female body,” along with the poem’s title on JSTOR, Project Muse, etc.
  • Citations: If you find a useful article, look at its bibliography. It might lead to other relevant sources.

Reputable Websites

• Poetry Foundation: “Edna St. Vincent Millay”: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/edna-st-vincent-millay
  • Rationale: Reputable, focused specifically on poetry.
• The Edna St. Vincent Millay Society: https://www.millay.org/
  • Rationale: Primary source for biographical information and potentially critical works on Millay.

Introduction: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

“Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe was published in April 1849 in the literary magazine Flag of Our Union but didn’t appear within a specific collection during Poe’s lifetime, though is now often included in anthologies of his works. The poem displays Poe’s characteristic themes of unattainable ideals, the melancholy of loss, and the relentless passage of time. It also exhibits a darkly lyrical style with a strong rhythmic structure.

Text: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Gaily bedight,
A gallant knight,
In sunshine and in shadow,
Had journeyed long,
Singing a song,
In search of Eldorado.

But he grew old—
This knight so bold—
And o’er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.

And, as his strength
Failed him at length,
He met a pilgrim shadow—
“Shadow,” said he,
“Where can it be—
This land of Eldorado?”

“Over the mountains
Of the Moon,
Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Ride, boldly ride,”
The shade replied—
“If you seek for Eldorado!”

Annotations: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Stanza	Lines	Annotations
Stanza 1	Gaily bedight, A gallant knight, In sunshine and in shadow, Had journeyed long, Singing a song, In search of Eldorado.	* “Gaily bedight” means brightly dressed, showing the knight’s initial optimism. * “In sunshine and in shadow” hints at the journey’s hardship, foreshadowing change. * The repetition of “long” suggests a drawn-out, tiring quest. * “Eldorado” symbolizes an unattainable goal or place of riches.
Stanza 2	But he grew old—This knight so bold—And o’er his heart a shadow Fell as he found No spot of ground That looked like Eldorado.	* Contrast between “gallant” and “grew old” emphasizes the toll of time. * The “shadow” is both literal with the setting sun and metaphorical for despair. * Repetition of “shadow” reinforces the poem’s themes of disillusionment.
Stanza 3	And, as his strength Failed him at length, He met a pilgrim shadow— “Shadow,” said he, “Where can it be— This land of Eldorado?”	* Physical weakness mirrors emotional decline. * “Pilgrim shadow” may be an aspect of himself, or a representation of death. * Question reflects the knight’s desperation, clutching at any hope.
Stanza 4	“Over the Mountains Of the Moon, Down the Valley of the Shadow, Ride, boldly ride,” The shade replied— “If you seek for Eldorado!”	* Direction is intentionally vague, otherworldly and inaccessible. * “Valley of the Shadow” references biblical connotations of death. * “Ride, boldly ride” could be encouraging but may highlight the futility of the quest.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “Eldorado”	Explanation
Allegory	The entire poem	The search for Eldorado represents the broader human search for meaning, fulfillment, or unattainable goals.
Alliteration	“Gaily bedight, A gallant knight”	Repetition of consonant sounds creates a sense of musicality and emphasis.
Anaphora	“Over the Mountains / Of the Moon, / Down the Valley of the Shadow”	Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of lines for emphasis.
Assonance	“In sunshine and in shadow”	Repetition of vowel sounds within words creates a sense of flow and connection.
Diction	Words like “gaily,” “gallant,” “bold”	Word choice contributes to a romantic, old-fashioned tone, which soon shifts to darker imagery.
Enjambment	“Had journeyed long, / Singing a song”	Lines run on into the next without punctuation, controlling the flow and pace of the poem.
Imagery	“Valley of the Shadow,” “Mountains of the Moon”	Vivid sensory descriptions create a sense of place and atmosphere.
Metaphor	“Shadow” represents both fading light and a growing sense of despair.
Mood	Shifts from optimism to melancholy and disillusionment.
Personification	“Shadow” is given the ability to speak.
Repetition	“Shadow,” “Eldorado”	Emphasizes key ideas and reinforces the poem’s themes.
Rhyme Scheme	Simple AABCCB rhyme pattern	Creates a sing-song, ballad-like quality.
Rhythm	Regular, almost galloping rhythm	Mimics the pace of a journey, then falters as the knight weakens.
Symbolism	Eldorado, the knight, the shadow	Represent larger concepts about dreams, time, and death.
Tone	Begins hopeful and adventurous, and shifts to dark and somber.

Themes: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

• Theme 1: The Futility of Chasing Unattainable Dreams: The poem centers around the mythical El Dorado, a place of immense riches and splendor. The knight’s tireless search, enduring “sunshine and in shadow,” symbolizes humanity’s pursuit of unrealistic ideals. The fact that he finds “no spot of ground that looked like Eldorado” highlights the emptiness of chasing unattainable goals, suggesting such dreams ultimately lead to disappointment.
• Theme 2: The Inevitability of Disillusionment: The poem begins with the “gallant knight,” full of optimism and energy. However, as the quest stretches on, the knight “grew old” and a “shadow” falls over his heart. This shift from youthful hope to disillusionment reflects a common human experience: initial dreams often fade away as we confront the harsh realities of life.
• Theme 3: The Relentless Passage of Time: The knight’s journey is marked by time. The repetition of “long” emphasizes the quest’s duration, with the knight ultimately succumbing to age (“But he grew old”). This underscores the relentless march of time and our limited lifespan, showing that even the most determined pursuits can be hindered by mortality.
• Theme 4: The Confrontation with Death: The “pilgrim shadow” the knight encounters can be interpreted as a representation of death. The shadow’s direction, “Over the Mountains of the Moon, Down the Valley of the Shadow,” employs biblical imagery associated with the afterlife. This suggests that quests like the search for Eldorado are merely diversions, and ultimately, we all face the inevitability of death.

Literary Theories and “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

1. Biographical Criticism: This approach considers the author’s life experiences when interpreting a work. Poe’s life was marked by loss and tragedy, with many loved ones dying young. These experiences likely influenced the melancholic tone of “Eldorado.” The poem’s themes of unattainable goals and fleeting happiness could mirror Poe’s own struggles and unfulfilled desires.
2. Formalist Criticism: Formalism focuses on the structure and literary elements within a text. In “Eldorado,” the simple yet consistent rhyme scheme (AABCCB) creates a ballad-like quality that reinforces the narrative of a long journey. Poe’s careful word choice (“gaily,” “gallant,” “shadow”) establishes a specific mood that shifts throughout the poem, a key formalist aspect.
3. Psychological Criticism: This theory examines a work through the lens of characters’ motivations and subconscious desires. The knight’s relentless pursuit of Eldorado suggests deeper needs than merely material wealth. He may be seeking validation, eternal youth, or escape from life’s hardships. The “shadow” could represent his suppressed fears or looming mortality, which drive him forward, even as the goal seems impossible.
4. Reader-Response Criticism: This theory focuses on how a reader might interpret the text based on their individual experiences. Readers may find resonance in the poem’s themes of lost dreams and disillusionment. “Eldorado” could inspire reflection on the value of pursuing goals, even if there’s the potential for failure, or on the importance f cherishing the present moment.

Critical Questions about “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Topic	Critical Question	Answer
Symbolism	What is the deeper meaning behind the symbol of Eldorado?	Eldorado represents much more than a city of gold. It symbolizes unattainable goals, unfulfilled desires, and the human search for a meaning that may not exist.
Theme of Disillusionment	How does the poem illustrate the gradual process of disillusionment?	The poem begins with optimism and the image of a “gallant knight.” However, the relentless passage of time (“he grew old”) and the futility of the quest lead to the “shadow” of disillusionment falling over the knight’s heart.
Use of Allegory	In what ways does “Eldorado” function as an allegory?	The poem can be read as an allegory for the human pursuit of happiness or perfection. The knight’s journey represents the ups and downs in achieving our dreams, and ultimately the realization that some goals may forever remain out of reach.
Poetic Structure	How does Poe’s use of poetic devices shape the poem’s meaning?	Poe’s simple rhyme scheme and rhythmic flow create a ballad-like quality. The poem’s repetition of words like “shadow” and “Eldorado” emphasizes key motifs, while shifts in tone reflect the knight’s changing emotions.

Literary Works Similar to “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Other poems by Edgar Allan Poe:

• “The Raven“: Explores themes of loss, despair, and the unattainable.
• “The City in the Sea”: Depicts a doomed, fantastical city, echoing the search for the unachievable.
• “Annabel Lee“: Centers around a lost love and the impossibility of regaining past happiness.

Classic Poems:

• “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Focuses on the fleeting nature of power and the impermanence of human achievements.
• “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: A tale of a mariner’s journey, marked by supernatural elements and a theme of consequence.

Mythology and Folklore:

• The myth of Sisyphus: The endless task of pushing a boulder uphill, symbolizing futile labor.
• Legends of the Fountain of Youth: Searches for unattainable immortality and the desire to defy the natural passage of time.

Modern Literature

• “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Explores choices made in life and the lingering “what ifs” of paths not followed.
• The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Themes of longing for an idealized past and the emptiness that can accompany material wealth.

Suggested Readings: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Scholarly Monographs

• Bloom, Harold. Edgar Allan Poe. Updated and Expanded Ed., Chelsea House Publishers, 2006.
  • Change: Includes edition information for greater specificity.
  • Rationale: Bloom is a highly respected literary critic, and this edition likely offers updated insights.
• Silverman, Kenneth. Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance. Harper Perennial, 1991.
  • Rationale: A Pulitzer-Prize nominated biography focused on Poe’s psychological landscape.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Regan, Robert. “Poe’s ‘Eldorado’ and Eureka.” Poe Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, Dec. 1973, pp. 52-53.
  • Rationale: Scholarly journals provide in-depth critical analysis.
• Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson. “The Unreality of Eldorado.” The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849. G. K. Hall & Co., 1987.
  • Change: Provides the book title where this article appears for sourcing clarity.

Reputable Websites

• The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore: https://www.eapoe.org/.
  • Rationale: Official society website provides primary texts, biographical information, and further resources.
• Poetry Foundation: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/48634/eldorado-56d22a0920778
  • Rationale: Trusted source for poetry with potential critical notes.

Introduction: “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Sonnet 123 by William Shakespeare first appeared in the 1609 Quarto collection of the Bard’s sonnets. This poem stands out for its bold defiance of time and the inevitability of change. The speaker rejects the notion that time has power over them. They see its monuments as recycled novelties rather than testaments to progress. There is a subtle contempt for the way time makes us value things simply for being old. The speaker asserts the supremacy of their own perspective over time’s records, concluding with a vow of eternal constancy in the face of time’s destructive forces.

Annotations of “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Line	Annotation
No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change:	Direct challenge to the concept of Time having the power to change the speaker’s inner constancy.
Thy pyramids built up with newer might	Reference to the monuments of history, suggesting even the grandest feats will pass. ‘Newer might’ may imply a cynicism towards progress.
To me are nothing novel, nothing strange;	The speaker sees no newness or worth in the passage of time, only rehashed concepts.
They are but dressings of a former sight.	Time’s works are mere variations of what has come before, not true novelty.
Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire	Human lifespan is short, making people susceptible to overvaluing the ‘old’.
What thou dost foist upon us that is old,	Time is accused of misleading, making us value things simply because of their age.
And rather make them born to our desire	Desire shapes our perception. We prefer to think of ‘old’ things as new to suit our needs.
Than think that we before have heard them told.	Denial of history; we want to feel we’re experiencing things for the first time.
Thy registers and thee I both defy,	Rejection of Time’s records and Time itself as a force.
Not wondering at the present nor the past;	The speaker’s focus is beyond the sway of linear time. The present and past are equally unimportant.
For thy records and what we see doth lie,	Time’s records and apparent reality are seen as false/inaccurate.
Made more or less by thy continual haste.	Time distorts perception, rushing some things and dragging out others.
This I do vow, and this shall ever be:	Introduction of a vow as a promise outside of time.
I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee.	The speaker vows constancy and loyalty, defying Time’s destructive powers symbolized by the scythe.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Functions of Literary Devices in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

1. Challenging Conventional Notions of Time: Shakespeare liberally uses personification and metaphor to transform Time into an antagonist, one the speaker actively defies. Time is portrayed as boastful, deceptive, and destructive. This reframing rejects the idea of Time as a passive force we’re subject to. Instead, it highlights individual agency to resist the feeling of helplessness in the face of aging and impermanence.
2. Emphasizing the Cyclical Nature of Existence: The poem’s focus on “pyramids” and the repeated phrase “nothing novel, nothing strange” highlights how time disguises the lack of true innovation. This aligns with the idea that human history is a series of variations on recurring themes rather than true progress. Devices like paradox (“Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire”) underscore how our yearning for the ‘new’ is driven by our knowledge of mortality, not some inherent value in the ‘old’.
3. Asserting the Power of Love and Constancy: The use of a vow, imagery of the scythe, and the Shakespearean sonnet structure itself, contribute to this function. The volta (or turn) at “Thy registers and thee I both defy” shifts from philosophical musings to defiance. The vow in the final couplet declares the speaker’s love as an eternal force resisting Time. The very form of the sonnet, with its predictable structure, acts as a kind of defiance – a demonstration that even within the constraints of time, love can find expression and enduring power.

Themes in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

1. The Illusion of Time and Change: Shakespeare questions the perception of constant change and progress. He sees grand feats touted as groundbreaking (“Thy pyramids built up with newer might”) as ultimately derivative, merely rehashed ideas (“nothing novel, nothing strange”). The speaker suggests we prefer to think of recycled concepts as new creations (“born to our desire”) to avoid acknowledging the repetition of history.
2. Defiance of Time and Mortality: The speaker takes a defiant stance against Time, refusing to acknowledge its power of change over their internal being (“No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change”). They challenge Time’s records as inaccurate (“Thy registers and thee I both defy”) and vow to defy Time’s destructive nature (“despite thy scythe and thee”).
3. The Power of Love to Transcend Time: The speaker’s concluding vow (“This I do vow, and this shall ever be: / I will be true…”) positions love as a force superior to the passage of time. Their steadfastness, their assertion of enduring love, is a form of rebellion against time’s ability to erode and destroy.
4. The Human Need for Novelty and the Cyclical Nature of History: The sonnet implies that our short lifespans make us crave and misinterpret the ‘old’ as ‘new’ (“Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire / What thou dost foist upon us that is old”). This highlights how time distorts our perspective. The speaker implies human history is cyclical, that empires rise and fall, and grand ideas become merely “dressings of a former sight”.

Literary Theories and “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Literary Theory	Approach to “Sonnet 123” with References
Formalism	Focus on: iambic pentameter’s regularity mirroring defiance of time’s chaos; the volta’s shift from contemplation to resolution; symbolism of the scythe. Lines like “Thy registers and thee I both defy” show how meter emphasizes key ideas.
New Historicism	Examine anxieties about posterity in an age of shifting power structures; how “pyramids” might reflect concern with legacy; whether the vow is for a patron or a lover, and what that says about power.
Psychoanalytic	Explore unconscious fear of death in defiance of time (“No, Time…”), suppressed desires in valuing the old as new (“And rather make them born to our desire”); analyze language of rebellion for potential internal conflicts.
Feminist	Question if the speaker is male/female, how this shapes vows and defiance. Analyze if defying time is an act of control in a patriarchal society. Does focus on enduring love subvert or reinforce gender expectations?
Reader-Response	Focus on the individual reader’s experience and how it shapes meaning. Do we side with the speaker or find their defiance futile? Does our age influence how we read “Our dates are brief…”?
Deconstruction	Question if the poem truly transcends time, or is bound by form and language (which evolve over time). Can the speaker defy change while using a form associated with the past? Does the vow create meaning or highlight its impossibility?

Topics, Essay Questions and Thesis Statements about “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

·  The Illusion of Progress and Change in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: How does Shakespeare use literary devices to challenge the notion of progress and linear time in “Sonnet 123”?
• Thesis Statement: In “Sonnet 123,” Shakespeare employs metaphors, personification, and a cyclical view of history to expose the illusion of progress, suggesting that time operates in a repetitive rather than transformative manner.

·  Defying Mortality: Time and Love in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: Analyze how the speaker in “Sonnet 123” attempts to defy the destructive power of Time through a vow of enduring love.
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 123” showcases a defiant struggle against mortality, where the speaker attempts to use love as a weapon against the ephemerality of life and the inevitability of Time’s destructive force.

·  Sonnet 123 and the Elizabethan Context

• Essay Question: Discuss how Elizabethan anxieties about legacy, power, and mortality are reflected in Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 123”.
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 123” echoes the Elizabethan preoccupation with the fleeting nature of earthly power and the individual’s desire to leave a lasting mark on the world, in defiance of time’s passage.

·  Gender Dynamics and Defiance in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: Analyze the power dynamics and potential gender implications explored in “Sonnet 123,” in the context of defiance against Time.
• Thesis Statement: Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 123” can be read through a feminist lens, revealing the complex interplay between gender roles, societal expectations, and the speaker’s act of defiance against societal and temporal constraints.

Short Question-Answers about “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Question	Answer
What is the speaker’s primary argument in the sonnet?	The speaker argues that they will not be altered by Time (“No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change”). They defy its records as false (“Thy registers and thee I both defy”) and assert their enduring love as a force superior to it (“I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee”).
How does the speaker use the image of pyramids?	Pyramids symbolize Time’s supposed achievements (“Thy pyramids built up with newer might”). The speaker dismisses these as superficial (“…nothing novel, nothing strange”), arguing they’re not true innovations but repackaged concepts (“They are but dressings of a former sight”).
What is the significance of the sonnet’s final couplet?	The couplet (“This I do vow, and this shall ever be: / I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee”) shifts from contemplation to declaration. This vow of unwavering love and loyalty becomes a direct attack against Time’s destructive potential.
How does the poem’s structure reflect its themes?	The sonnet form’s regularity (iambic pentameter, rhyme scheme) mirrors the speaker’s desire for control within limitations. Just as Time flows, yet the sonnet contains it, the speaker wishes to manage their experience within the constraints of mortality.

Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

·  Other Shakespearean Sonnets:

• Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”): Focus on preserving beauty and love through poetry in the face of time.
• Sonnet 73 (“That time of year thou mayst in me behold”): Themes of aging, mortality, and the intensifying power of love when facing death.

·  John Donne’s “Death Be Not Proud”: A metaphysical poem with a similar tone of defiance against mortality – though it argues that death is an illusion, not that love will conquer it.

·  Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress”: While less philosophical, it shares the urgency of love and the argument against wasting time. This poem has a more carpe diem (“seize the day”) feel, yet still acknowledges time’s power.

·  Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ozymandias “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley“: Focuses on the impermanence of empires and earthly greatness. Like “Sonnet 123” it questions the value society places on monuments of the past.

·  Modern Poetry:

• Dylan Thomas’s “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”: Shares the defiant spirit, though focused on resisting death rather than defying time’s changes.
• Works by poets like Sylvia Plath and W.B Yeats often confront mortality and use imagery related to time, providing interesting points of comparison.

Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Scholarly Monographs

• Vendler, Helen. The Art of Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997.
• Vendler is a leading scholar in the field. Her close readings provide detailed interpretations of individual sonnets.
• Booth, Stephen. Shakespeare’s Sonnets: Edited with Analytic Commentary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000
• Offers critical essays and textual analysis alongside the sonnets, providing historical and critical context relevant to Sonnet 123.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Foster, Donald W. “‘Pyramids Built Up with Newer Might’: Discriminating Among the Variant Texts of Shakespeare’s Sonnet 123.” Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 4, 2000, pp. 426-450. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed]
• Examines textual variations of the sonnet, adding depth to any discussion of language and manuscript history.
• Edington, Catherine. “‘Born to Our Desire’ – Desire and Time in Shakespeare’s Sonnets.” Erotic Discourse and Early Modern Literature, edited by Amanda Bailey and Roze Hentschell, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010, pp. 99-118.
• Explores how themes of time and desire intersect in the sonnet. Offers a possible avenue to connect the poem to broader Early Modern literary trends.

Reputable Websites

• Folger Shakespeare Library: https://www.folger.edu/shakespeares-sonnets
  • A trusted institution providing the text of Sonnet 123, resources, and scholarly essays for further exploration.

Introduction: “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

“The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen, a powerful poem exploring the disillusionment and dehumanization caused by war, first appeared in 1919 within his posthumous collection titled “The Poems of Wilfred Owen.” The poem’s brevity belies its depth, utilizing a regular structure and shifting tone to capture the soldiers’ bittersweet emotions. While the initial celebratory mood reflects a send-off, the imagery foreshadows death, with soldiers adorned in white decorations reminiscent of those adorning the dead. This unique blend of form and content makes “The Send Off” a poignant reminder of the human cost of war.

Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way

To the siding-shed,

And lined the train with faces grimly gay.

Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray

As men’s are, dead.

Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp

Stood staring hard,

Sorry to miss them from the upland camp.

Then, unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp

Winked to the guard.

So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.

They were not ours:

We never heard to which front these were sent.

Nor there if they yet mock what women meant

Who gave them flowers.

Shall they return to beatings of great bells

In wild trainloads?

A few, a few, too few for drums and yells,

May creep back, silent, to still village wells

Up half-known roads.

Annotations of “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Line(s)	Annotation
Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way	The soldiers are departing down narrow, gloomy streets while singing. This creates a sense of dissonance as singing is usually associated with joy, but the darkening lanes suggest a more somber mood.
To the siding-shed,	They are heading towards a railway shed where trains are stored.
And lined the train with faces grimly gay.	The soldiers line up next to the train, their faces described as “grimly gay.” This oxymoron highlights the forced cheerfulness that masks their underlying fear.
Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray	Their chests are decorated with white flowers and foliage, similar to how the dead are adorned. This foreshadows their potential fate.
As men’s are, dead.	This line bluntly compares the soldiers’ decorations to those of the deceased.
Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp	Bystanders observe the departing soldiers. The porters seem indifferent, while the tramp seems slightly regretful about missing the action.
Stood staring hard,	The tramp stares intently at the soldiers.
Sorry to miss them from the upland camp.	The tramp feels he’s missing out on something, possibly the camaraderie or excitement of war (though Owen suggests otherwise).
Then, unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp	The departure is a routine event. The train signals and a lamp blink without any emotional response.
Winked to the guard.	This personifies the inanimate objects, suggesting a sense of inevitability and a lack of human concern.
So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.	The soldiers leave quietly, almost ashamed, as if their departure is something to be hidden. This emphasizes the sense of futility and secrecy surrounding the war.
They were not ours:	The speaker reveals he doesn’t belong to the same unit as these soldiers. This creates a sense of distance and anonymity.
We never heard to which front these were sent.	The destination of these soldiers remains unknown, adding to the feeling of uncertainty and lack of control.
Nor there if they yet mock what women meant	This line ponders whether the soldiers still value the flowers given by women, suggesting a potential loss of innocence and hope.
Who gave them flowers.	Women are shown as offering a gesture of hope and remembrance.
Shall they return to beatings of great bells	The poem questions if any of the soldiers will return to triumphant welcomes. Instead, “beatings” suggests a more chaotic and uncertain homecoming.
In wild trainloads?	The possibility of returning is phrased as a question, with “wild trainloads” hinting at the potential for disarray and casualties.
A few, a few, too few for drums and yells,	The speaker predicts that very few will return, not enough to warrant a celebratory parade.
May creep back, silent, to still village wells	The image of a silent return to a peaceful village well contrasts with the chaos of war.
Up half-known roads.	This final line emphasizes the uncertainty of their fate and the potential for their return to be anonymous and unnoticed.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. Alliteration: Repetitive consonant sounds at the beginning of words (e.g., “Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way”).
2. Assonance: Repetitive vowel sounds within a phrase (e.g., “beatings of great bells“).
3. Enjambment: Lines that run on without a pause at the end (appears throughout the poem).
4. Imagery: Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses (e.g., “grimly gay,” “breasts were stuck all white,” “wild trainloads”).
5. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality (e.g., soldiers singing while departing for war, white flowers symbolizing both life and death).
6. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas or images side-by-side (e.g., “grimly gay” faces vs. white flowers of death).
7. Metaphor: A comparison that does not use “like” or “as” (e.g., “signals nodded,” “lamp winked”).
8. Oxymoron: Two contrasting words used together (e.g., “grimly gay”).
9. Personification: Giving human qualities to inanimate objects (e.g., “signals nodded,” “lamp winked”).
10. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as” (not present in this poem).
11. Symbolism: Objects or colors that carry a deeper meaning (e.g., white flowers symbolizing both hope and death).
12. Understatement: Downplaying the severity of a situation (e.g., “A few, a few, too few for drums and yells”).
13. Zeugma: Linking two or more grammatically similar elements with a single verb (not present in this poem).
14. Assonance: Repeated vowel sounds within a phrase (e.g., “beatings of great bells“).

Functions of Literary Devices in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. Creating Vivid Imagery and Atmosphere

• Metaphor and Simile: Owen compares the soldiers’ departure to natural phenomena – “Their breasts were stuck as though a poppy clung.” This comparison between soldiers’ heavy hearts and the weight of flowers evokes a sense of oppression and foreshadows the bloodshed to come.
• Sensory Details: Lines like “dull porters” and “their blind eyes” paint a somber picture of the soldiers’ numbed state, highlighting the dehumanization of war.

Effect: These devices create a tangible sense of the poem’s bleak setting and the emotional toll of war on the departing soldiers.

2. Emphasizing the Contrast Between War and Civilian Life

• Juxtaposition: Owen juxtaposes images of wartime (“dull porters”, “darkening lanes”) with symbols of love and normalcy (“girls’ slight hands”, “their love is close”).
• Irony: Lines like “They were not ours” subtly express the ironic disconnect; the soldiers, sent out to die, become removed from the society they are supposed to protect.

Effect: This contrast makes the poem’s anti-war message more poignant. It exposes the falseness of the romanticized ideals with which wars are often initially sold to the public.

3. Conveying Emotion and the Poet’s Viewpoint

• Personification: The train is characterized with actions like “winked” and “grinned” giving it an almost sinister quality. This reflects Owen’s perception of the impersonal forces that propel men into war.
• Diction (Word Choice): Words like “dull,” “blind,” “grimly” emphasize the poem’s desolate tone. Owen’s language reveals his anger and sorrow at the senselessness of war.

Effect: These devices don’t just describe the scene; they imbue it with Owen’s own potent emotions and a strong critical message about the horrors of war.

4. Establishing Rhythm and Flow

• Repetition: The phrase “their breasts were stuck” emphasizes the collective burden of the soldiers.
• Alliteration and Assonance: The repeated ‘d’ sounds in “Down the dark lanes” create a slow, somber rhythm echoing the plodding departure.

Effect: These techniques prevent the poem from becoming a mere factual description. They give it an almost mournful, elegiac quality that suits its subject matter.

Themes in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

·  The Dehumanizing Nature of War

• “Dull porters watched them” – The word “dull” suggests the men are already losing their individuality to the machinery of war.
• “And none will know who dared or did” – Highlights the anonymity of their sacrifice and how easily their heroism will be lost.

·  The Disparity Between War Rhetoric and Reality

• “They were not ours: / We never heard to which front these were sent” – Emphasizes the disconnect between the soldiers risking their lives and the detached populace back home.
• “But cursed are dullards whom no cannon stuns” – A subtle jab at the armchair strategists and civilians who remain oblivious to the true horror of conflict.

·  The Futility of Sacrifice

• “Their breasts were stuck as though a poppy clung” – The poppy, a common symbol of remembrance for fallen soldiers, is linked to a sense of suffocation and foreshadows their death.
• “Shall they return to beatings of great bells/ In wild trainloads?” – This rhetorical question implies the pointlessness of their deaths, with only fanfare and impersonal transport awaiting them, dead or alive.

·  The Suppression of Emotion

• “Their blind eyes see not your tears” – Represents the soldiers’ forced numbness and emotional disconnect to survive what’s ahead.
• “Only a solemn man who brought him fruits / Thanked him” – There’s a lack of emotional display, even when faced with the potential of a final goodbye.

Literary Theories and “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Literary Theory	Application to “The Send-Off”	Relevant Quotations & Analysis
Marxist Criticism	Unveils class disparities and critiques of power systems.	* “Dull porters watched them” – The working-class figures are marginalized, reflecting the social stratification that war can perpetuate.
Feminist Criticism	Investigates gendered representations and women’s roles within wartime dynamics.	* “Shall they return to beatings of great bells…May creep back, silent, to still village wells” – Contrasts the public fanfare of war with the subdued, often overlooked suffering experienced in the domestic sphere by women.
New Historicism	Considers the specific historical period for contextualizing the poem’s meaning and influence.	* Written during WWI, the poem subverts the dominant romanticized portrayal of war, revealing a stark counter-narrative.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores subconscious motivations, symbolism, and the author’s potential psychological state.	* “So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went” – The clandestine departure may parallel Owen’s own repressed experiences of war’s horrors.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Topics

• The Experience of Departure:
• The psychological and emotional state of the soldiers as they leave for war.
• The Nature of Sacrifice: The poem’s exploration of the meaninglessness and futility of war deaths.
• The Civilian Perspective: The gap between those experiencing the war directly and those witnessing it from a distance.
• The Use of Anti-War Imagery: The ways Owen subverts patriotic tropes and employs bleak imagery to convey war’s horror.

Guiding Questions

• How does Owen’s choice of language and literary devices shape the poem’s tone and atmosphere?
• What does the poem suggest about the relationship between individual soldiers and the larger war machine?
• In what ways does the poem critique the glorification of war commonly found in propaganda?
• How does Owen utilize the contrast between the soldiers’ departure and their potential return to highlight the costs of war?

Thesis Statements

• Wilfred Owen’s “The Send-Off” employs vivid imagery and stark diction to expose the dehumanizing nature of war, emphasizing the futility of soldiers’ sacrifices.
• By juxtaposing the grim reality of the soldiers’ departure with the muted response of civilians, “The Send-Off” reveals a profound disconnect between wartime experience and the prevailing societal narratives.
• Through its depiction of the anonymous departure of soldiers, Wilfred Owen’s poem serves as a powerful critique of the machinery of war that subsumes individual identity and obscures the true cost of conflict.
• In “The Send Off,” Owen subverts traditional war tropes, replacing heroic imagery with a focus on bleakness and suppression of emotion, thereby challenging romanticized notions of conflict.

Short Question-Answers about “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Q1: How does Owen portray the soldiers’ emotional state?

A1: Owen depicts the soldiers with suppressed emotions. They have “faces grimly gay” and “blind eyes,” suggesting forced cheerfulness and an emotional numbness meant to cope with impending horrors. The line “Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray / As men’s are, dead” compares their burdened hearts to corpses, hinting at an awareness of their likely fate.

Q2: What does the poem convey about the public perception of war?

A2: The poem suggests a disconnect between the soldiers’ grim reality and the public’s view of war. The lines “They were not ours: / We never heard to which front these were sent” highlight this distance. The question “Shall they return to beatings of great bells / In wild trainloads?” implies an expectation of triumphant return, contrasting the poem’s focus on the grim likelihood of death.

Q3: How does the train imagery function within the poem?

A3: The train represents the impersonal machinery of war. It “winks” at the guard, implying a callous indifference to the human lives it carries. The description of being sent off “like wrongs hushed-up” emphasizes the soldiers’ lack of control and the secretive, almost shameful nature of their departure.

Q4: What is the effect of the final stanza’s focus on a potential return?

A4: The final stanza adds a layer of tragic despair. The focus on broken men “creeping back” undercuts any celebratory expectation and highlights war’s lasting, invisible damage. The closing line, “Up half-known roads,” suggests a loss of identity and alienation, foreshadowing these soldiers’ inability to fully reintegrate into society.

Literary Works Similar to “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” (Wilfred Owen): A companion piece by Owen, this poem graphically depicts the horrifying results of a gas attack, further challenging the notion that war is glorious.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” (Siegfried Sassoon): This fellow war poet’s work expresses deep grief over battlefield losses, utilizing potent imagery and challenging idealized portrayals of combat.
3. All Quiet on the Western Front (Erich Maria Remarque): Remarque’s novel provides an unflinching, first-person account of German soldiers in WWI, highlighting disillusionment, dehumanization, and the psychological cost of trench warfare.
4. The Sorrow of War (Bao Ninh): This Vietnamese novel depicts both the direct experience of combat and lingering psychological trauma from a soldier’s perspective, demonstrating the lasting wounds of war beyond specific conflicts or nationalities.
5. Regeneration (Pat Barker): The inaugural novel of Pat Barker’s WWI trilogy focuses on the psychological treatment of shell-shocked soldiers, emphasizing the invisible scars of combat that challenge simple narratives of victory and heroism.

Suggested Readings: “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Scholarly Articles

• Bergonzi, Bernard. “Wilfred Owen: Dulce et Decorum Est.” Heroes’ Twilight: A Study of the Literature of the Great War. 2nd ed., Constable & Co Ltd, 1980, pp.76-94.
• Kendall, Tim. “Wilfred Owen (1893-1918).” Poetry of the First World War. Edinburgh University Press, 2013, pp. 72-100.
• Silkin, Jon. “Wilfred Owen: The Evolution of Consciousness.” Out of Battle: The Poetry of the Great War. Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 99-153.

Websites

• Poetry Foundation: Wilfred Owen. Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/wilfred-owen.
• The Wilfred Owen Association: https://www.wilfredowen.org.uk

Books

• Hibberd, Dominic. Wilfred Owen: A New Biography. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
• Stallworthy, Jon. Wilfred Owen: The Complete Poems and Fragments. Chatto & Windus, 1983.