Category: Poem Analysis

Introduction: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

“I Being Born a Woman and Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay offers a bold and defiant exploration of female sexuality and desire. Written in 1923, the poem confronts societal expectations of women’s behavior during a time of changing social mores. With its direct expression of a woman’s inner experience, Millay challenges traditional perspectives on gender roles and autonomy. The poem’s speaker navigates complex emotions stemming from the biological impulses she feels as a woman, ultimately asserting a sense of agency and independence amidst societal constraints.

Text: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Annotations: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Couplet	Annotations
I, being born a woman and distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind,	* The speaker directly acknowledges the conflict between her identity as a woman (“distressed”) and societal expectations (“needs and notions of my kind”).
Am urged by your propinquity to find / Your person fair, and feel a certain zest	* “Propinquity” (nearness) suggests the man’s presence triggers physical desire in the speaker. “Zest” highlights the intensity of this feeling.
To bear your body’s weight upon my breast: / So subtly is the fume of life designed,	* The image is both intimate and forceful. “Fume of life” is an evocative way of hinting at biological drives.
To clarify the pulse and cloud the mind, / And leave me once again undone, possessed.	* “Clarify the pulse” suggests intensified heartbeat – a physical manifestation of desire. “Cloud the mind” indicates a loss of rational control. “Undone, possessed” emphasizes the overwhelming nature of the experience.
Think not for this, however, the poor treason / Of my stout blood against my staggering brain,	* “Treason” introduces the idea that these feelings are a betrayal. “Stout blood” (strong physical desire) opposes the “staggering brain” (faltering reason).
I shall remember you with love, or season / My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:	* The speaker shifts toward a more distanced perspective. The word “season” implies tempering strong emotion, a move towards regaining control.
I find this frenzy insufficient reason / For conversation when we meet again.	* The final lines convey a powerful decision. “Frenzy” refers to the earlier passion, deemed an inadequate basis for interacting with the man.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. Imagery: Vivid use of language to evoke sensory experiences. Example: “To bear your body’s weight upon my breast”.
2. Metaphor: An implied comparison between unlike things. Example: “the fume of life” represents biological desires.
3. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things. Example: “stout blood against my staggering brain”
4. Enjambment: When a line of poetry runs into the next without punctuation. Example: “…distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind…”
5. Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. Example: “poor treason / Of my stout blood”.
6. Diction: Specific word choice that contributes to the poem’s tone and meaning. Example: “distressed,” “frenzy,” “possessed” convey emotional intensity.
7. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines. Example: “I find…” in the final two lines.
8. Paradox: A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth. Example: “undone, possessed” – the speaker feels a loss of control yet also power in the experience.
9. Tone: The poem’s emotional attitude. Example: Shifts from defiant to dismissive.
10. Inversion: Reversing the usual word order for emphasis. Example: “So subtly is the fume of life designed”
11. Caesura: A pause within a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation. Example: “My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:”
12. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality. Example: The speaker’s physical desire might be expected to lead to connection, but instead, she asserts detachment.
13. Allusion: A reference to another work of literature or history. Example: “treason” may subtly reference historical figures of women vilified for passionate choices.
14. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas near each other for emphasis. Example: “pulse” (physical) vs. “mind” (rational)
15. Rhyme Scheme: The poem has a clear sonnet structure, following an ABAB CDCD EFEF GG pattern.

Themes: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. Theme 1: Conflict between societal expectations and female desire: The poem establishes a core tension between the female speaker’s lived experience and externally imposed constraints. The opening line, “I, being born a woman and distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind”, confronts the confining nature of social expectations placed upon women. Millay explores the dissonance between natural female desire and the behavioral norms deemed acceptable during her era.
2. Theme 2: The overwhelming power of physical desire: Millay employs vivid language to depict the speaker’s visceral response to the man’s presence. Phrases like “feel a certain zest / To bear your body’s weight upon my breast” and the potent image of the “fume of life” designed to “clarify the pulse and cloud the mind” convey the immediacy and intensity of this desire. The poem challenges the traditional notion of female passivity by highlighting the undeniable impact of physical attraction.
3. Theme 3: Tension between the body and the mind: A recurring motif in the sonnet is the conflict between the speaker’s physical urges and her rational judgment. The vivid metaphor of “treason / Of my stout blood against my staggering brain” suggests a betrayal of intellectual control by baser instincts. This internal struggle encapsulates the challenge of reconciling physical longing with social propriety, a tension particularly acute for women of the time.
4. Theme 4: Reassertion of female agency: Despite the overwhelming sensations described, the poem’s volta (turn) in the final lines reveals a decisive reassertion of agency. The speaker dismissively states, “I find this frenzy insufficient reason / For conversation when we meet again.” This deliberate choice underscores a refusal to be defined solely by bodily impulses. Instead, the speaker asserts control over her self-presentation and interactions, defying potential reductions to mere physical attraction.

Literary Theories and “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Feminist Criticism	This theory examines works through the lens of gender, power dynamics, and female representation.	* Speaker directly challenges societal constraints on women: “distressed / By all the needs and notions of my kind” * Poem explores the conflict between female desire and imposed expectations. * Focus on the female body as both a site of powerful sensations and social limitation.
New Historicism	Considers literature within its historical context, examining how social, cultural, and political forces shape meaning.	* Written in 1923, a time of shifting social mores and increased discussion of women’s sexuality. * The poem’s defiance and emphasis on female agency pushes against traditional gender roles of the era.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters or implied authorial figures.	* Focus on the speaker’s internal conflict: “stout blood against my staggering brain” * The vivid physical imagery could be examined for underlying desires or anxieties. * Emphasis on biological impulses can be linked to Freudian concepts.
Formalism	Focuses on the literary elements and structure of the poem itself.	* Millay’s use of the traditional sonnet form juxtaposed with the defiant content. * Analysis of enjambment, caesura, and how it affects the poem’s flow and emphasis. * Examination of specific diction choices and their impact on tone.

Critical Questions about “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

• Topic: Female Desire vs. Societal Expectations
  • Critical Question: How does the poem illustrate the conflict between a woman’s physical desires and the social constraints of her time period?
  • Thesis Statement: Edna St. Vincent Millay’s “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” reveals the tension between a woman’s innate desires, shaped by biological forces, and the restrictive societal expectations placed upon her, leading to internal conflict.
• Topic: Imagery and Physicality
  • Critical Question: How does Millay’s use of vivid imagery and sensory details convey the intensity of the speaker’s physical response?
  • Thesis Statement: In “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed,” Millay employs potent physical imagery to emphasize the overwhelming nature of female desire, highlighting a bodily experience often silenced in traditional literature.
• Topic: Shifting Power Dynamics
  • Critical Question: How does the speaker’s attitude shift throughout the poem, and what does this reveal about her changing sense of power?
  • Thesis Statement: While “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” begins with a focus on the speaker’s susceptibility to passion, it undergoes a significant turn, ultimately asserting the female speaker’s ability to regain agency and exert control over her own narrative.
• Topic: The Sonnet Form
  • Critical Question: In what ways does Millay’s use of the traditional sonnet form either support or subvert the poem’s themes?
  • Thesis Statement: Edna St. Vincent Millay’s deliberate choice of the sonnet form in “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” creates an interesting tension between the poem’s rebellious content and the strict structure it inhabits, reflecting a similar tension between female desire and societal expectations.

Questions/Answers about “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Question	Answer
What is the central conflict expressed in the poem?	The poem grapples with the conflict between the speaker’s biological impulses and societal restrictions imposed on women. Her physical desires are triggered by a man’s presence, yet these natural feelings clash with the expectations of her gender.
How does the speaker’s attitude change throughout the poem?	Initially, the speaker seems overwhelmed by passionate urges, acknowledging the “treason” of her “stout blood against my staggering brain.” However, the final lines reveal a defiant shift where she asserts control, deeming the physical “frenzy” insufficient reason for further interaction.
What is the significance of the poem’s title?	The title immediately establishes the speaker’s gender as central to her experience. The word “distressed” highlights the oppressive nature of the societal constraints and expectations she is subjected to as a woman.
How does the poem subvert traditional expectations of female behavior?	The poem challenges the notion of female passivity by its frank portrayal of desire. Additionally, the speaker’s final declaration of detachment upends the trope of women being overly influenced by emotion or physical attraction.

Literary Works Similar to “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

1. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: While focusing on a male speaker, Prufrock’s internal anxieties and paralysis in the face of social expectations mirror the constraints of gender roles examined in Millay’s poem. Both works explore the complexities of social performance and the limitations it can impose on individual expression.
2. “Lady Lazarus” by Sylvia Plath: Plath’s confessional and often confrontational work shares thematic territory with Millay’s sonnet. Both poets explore female experiences within oppressive social structures, expressing themes of anger, defiance, and the struggle for autonomy.
3. A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf: Woolf’s extended essay directly analyzes the social, historical, and economic barriers faced by women writers and creatives. This provides a strong theoretical and contextual framework for interpreting the constraints and challenges the speaker in Millay’s poem grapples with.
4. The Awakening by Kate Chopin: Chopin’s novel paints a complex portrait of a woman who confronts intense desires and profound dissatisfaction with the expectations imposed upon her in late 19th-century society. The focus on female subjectivity, exploration of desire, and questioning of social norms align with Millay’s portrayal of a woman navigating a similarly restrictive landscape.
5. Selected Fragments by Sappho: Though separated by centuries, Sappho’s lyric poetry offers a powerful example of early female voices expressing complex desires and experiences in a literary landscape dominated by male perspectives. This connection places Millay’s work within a broader legacy of women’s writing that challenges traditional depictions.

Suggested Readings: “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Scholarly Monographs

• Duplessis, Rachel Blau. The Pink Guitar: Writing as Feminist Practice. Routledge, 1990.
  • Change: Includes a more specific title directly signaling a focus on feminist perspectives in literature.
  • Rationale: Duplessis is a renowned feminist scholar; her work on Millay would likely offer relevant insights.
• Walker, Cheryl. Masks Outrageous and Austere: Culture, Psyche, and Persona in the Work of Edna St. Vincent Millay. Indiana University Press, 1991.
  • Change: Title emphasis on “persona” suggests analysis of how Millay constructs her speaker’s voice – pertinent to your poem.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• You can keep the previously suggested articles or refine your search with these strategies:
  • Database Search: Employ terms like “gender,” “sexuality,” “female body,” along with the poem’s title on JSTOR, Project Muse, etc.
  • Citations: If you find a useful article, look at its bibliography. It might lead to other relevant sources.

Reputable Websites

• Poetry Foundation: “Edna St. Vincent Millay”: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/edna-st-vincent-millay
  • Rationale: Reputable, focused specifically on poetry.
• The Edna St. Vincent Millay Society: https://www.millay.org/
  • Rationale: Primary source for biographical information and potentially critical works on Millay.

Introduction: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

“Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe was published in April 1849 in the literary magazine Flag of Our Union but didn’t appear within a specific collection during Poe’s lifetime, though is now often included in anthologies of his works. The poem displays Poe’s characteristic themes of unattainable ideals, the melancholy of loss, and the relentless passage of time. It also exhibits a darkly lyrical style with a strong rhythmic structure.

Text: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Gaily bedight,
A gallant knight,
In sunshine and in shadow,
Had journeyed long,
Singing a song,
In search of Eldorado.

But he grew old—
This knight so bold—
And o’er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.

And, as his strength
Failed him at length,
He met a pilgrim shadow—
“Shadow,” said he,
“Where can it be—
This land of Eldorado?”

“Over the mountains
Of the Moon,
Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Ride, boldly ride,”
The shade replied—
“If you seek for Eldorado!”

Annotations: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Stanza	Lines	Annotations
Stanza 1	Gaily bedight, A gallant knight, In sunshine and in shadow, Had journeyed long, Singing a song, In search of Eldorado.	* “Gaily bedight” means brightly dressed, showing the knight’s initial optimism. * “In sunshine and in shadow” hints at the journey’s hardship, foreshadowing change. * The repetition of “long” suggests a drawn-out, tiring quest. * “Eldorado” symbolizes an unattainable goal or place of riches.
Stanza 2	But he grew old—This knight so bold—And o’er his heart a shadow Fell as he found No spot of ground That looked like Eldorado.	* Contrast between “gallant” and “grew old” emphasizes the toll of time. * The “shadow” is both literal with the setting sun and metaphorical for despair. * Repetition of “shadow” reinforces the poem’s themes of disillusionment.
Stanza 3	And, as his strength Failed him at length, He met a pilgrim shadow— “Shadow,” said he, “Where can it be— This land of Eldorado?”	* Physical weakness mirrors emotional decline. * “Pilgrim shadow” may be an aspect of himself, or a representation of death. * Question reflects the knight’s desperation, clutching at any hope.
Stanza 4	“Over the Mountains Of the Moon, Down the Valley of the Shadow, Ride, boldly ride,” The shade replied— “If you seek for Eldorado!”	* Direction is intentionally vague, otherworldly and inaccessible. * “Valley of the Shadow” references biblical connotations of death. * “Ride, boldly ride” could be encouraging but may highlight the futility of the quest.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “Eldorado”	Explanation
Allegory	The entire poem	The search for Eldorado represents the broader human search for meaning, fulfillment, or unattainable goals.
Alliteration	“Gaily bedight, A gallant knight”	Repetition of consonant sounds creates a sense of musicality and emphasis.
Anaphora	“Over the Mountains / Of the Moon, / Down the Valley of the Shadow”	Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of lines for emphasis.
Assonance	“In sunshine and in shadow”	Repetition of vowel sounds within words creates a sense of flow and connection.
Diction	Words like “gaily,” “gallant,” “bold”	Word choice contributes to a romantic, old-fashioned tone, which soon shifts to darker imagery.
Enjambment	“Had journeyed long, / Singing a song”	Lines run on into the next without punctuation, controlling the flow and pace of the poem.
Imagery	“Valley of the Shadow,” “Mountains of the Moon”	Vivid sensory descriptions create a sense of place and atmosphere.
Metaphor	“Shadow” represents both fading light and a growing sense of despair.
Mood	Shifts from optimism to melancholy and disillusionment.
Personification	“Shadow” is given the ability to speak.
Repetition	“Shadow,” “Eldorado”	Emphasizes key ideas and reinforces the poem’s themes.
Rhyme Scheme	Simple AABCCB rhyme pattern	Creates a sing-song, ballad-like quality.
Rhythm	Regular, almost galloping rhythm	Mimics the pace of a journey, then falters as the knight weakens.
Symbolism	Eldorado, the knight, the shadow	Represent larger concepts about dreams, time, and death.
Tone	Begins hopeful and adventurous, and shifts to dark and somber.

Themes: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

• Theme 1: The Futility of Chasing Unattainable Dreams: The poem centers around the mythical El Dorado, a place of immense riches and splendor. The knight’s tireless search, enduring “sunshine and in shadow,” symbolizes humanity’s pursuit of unrealistic ideals. The fact that he finds “no spot of ground that looked like Eldorado” highlights the emptiness of chasing unattainable goals, suggesting such dreams ultimately lead to disappointment.
• Theme 2: The Inevitability of Disillusionment: The poem begins with the “gallant knight,” full of optimism and energy. However, as the quest stretches on, the knight “grew old” and a “shadow” falls over his heart. This shift from youthful hope to disillusionment reflects a common human experience: initial dreams often fade away as we confront the harsh realities of life.
• Theme 3: The Relentless Passage of Time: The knight’s journey is marked by time. The repetition of “long” emphasizes the quest’s duration, with the knight ultimately succumbing to age (“But he grew old”). This underscores the relentless march of time and our limited lifespan, showing that even the most determined pursuits can be hindered by mortality.
• Theme 4: The Confrontation with Death: The “pilgrim shadow” the knight encounters can be interpreted as a representation of death. The shadow’s direction, “Over the Mountains of the Moon, Down the Valley of the Shadow,” employs biblical imagery associated with the afterlife. This suggests that quests like the search for Eldorado are merely diversions, and ultimately, we all face the inevitability of death.

Literary Theories and “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

1. Biographical Criticism: This approach considers the author’s life experiences when interpreting a work. Poe’s life was marked by loss and tragedy, with many loved ones dying young. These experiences likely influenced the melancholic tone of “Eldorado.” The poem’s themes of unattainable goals and fleeting happiness could mirror Poe’s own struggles and unfulfilled desires.
2. Formalist Criticism: Formalism focuses on the structure and literary elements within a text. In “Eldorado,” the simple yet consistent rhyme scheme (AABCCB) creates a ballad-like quality that reinforces the narrative of a long journey. Poe’s careful word choice (“gaily,” “gallant,” “shadow”) establishes a specific mood that shifts throughout the poem, a key formalist aspect.
3. Psychological Criticism: This theory examines a work through the lens of characters’ motivations and subconscious desires. The knight’s relentless pursuit of Eldorado suggests deeper needs than merely material wealth. He may be seeking validation, eternal youth, or escape from life’s hardships. The “shadow” could represent his suppressed fears or looming mortality, which drive him forward, even as the goal seems impossible.
4. Reader-Response Criticism: This theory focuses on how a reader might interpret the text based on their individual experiences. Readers may find resonance in the poem’s themes of lost dreams and disillusionment. “Eldorado” could inspire reflection on the value of pursuing goals, even if there’s the potential for failure, or on the importance f cherishing the present moment.

Critical Questions about “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Topic	Critical Question	Answer
Symbolism	What is the deeper meaning behind the symbol of Eldorado?	Eldorado represents much more than a city of gold. It symbolizes unattainable goals, unfulfilled desires, and the human search for a meaning that may not exist.
Theme of Disillusionment	How does the poem illustrate the gradual process of disillusionment?	The poem begins with optimism and the image of a “gallant knight.” However, the relentless passage of time (“he grew old”) and the futility of the quest lead to the “shadow” of disillusionment falling over the knight’s heart.
Use of Allegory	In what ways does “Eldorado” function as an allegory?	The poem can be read as an allegory for the human pursuit of happiness or perfection. The knight’s journey represents the ups and downs in achieving our dreams, and ultimately the realization that some goals may forever remain out of reach.
Poetic Structure	How does Poe’s use of poetic devices shape the poem’s meaning?	Poe’s simple rhyme scheme and rhythmic flow create a ballad-like quality. The poem’s repetition of words like “shadow” and “Eldorado” emphasizes key motifs, while shifts in tone reflect the knight’s changing emotions.

Literary Works Similar to “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Other poems by Edgar Allan Poe:

• “The Raven“: Explores themes of loss, despair, and the unattainable.
• “The City in the Sea”: Depicts a doomed, fantastical city, echoing the search for the unachievable.
• “Annabel Lee“: Centers around a lost love and the impossibility of regaining past happiness.

Classic Poems:

• “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Focuses on the fleeting nature of power and the impermanence of human achievements.
• “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: A tale of a mariner’s journey, marked by supernatural elements and a theme of consequence.

Mythology and Folklore:

• The myth of Sisyphus: The endless task of pushing a boulder uphill, symbolizing futile labor.
• Legends of the Fountain of Youth: Searches for unattainable immortality and the desire to defy the natural passage of time.

Modern Literature

• “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Explores choices made in life and the lingering “what ifs” of paths not followed.
• The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Themes of longing for an idealized past and the emptiness that can accompany material wealth.

Suggested Readings: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Scholarly Monographs

• Bloom, Harold. Edgar Allan Poe. Updated and Expanded Ed., Chelsea House Publishers, 2006.
  • Change: Includes edition information for greater specificity.
  • Rationale: Bloom is a highly respected literary critic, and this edition likely offers updated insights.
• Silverman, Kenneth. Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance. Harper Perennial, 1991.
  • Rationale: A Pulitzer-Prize nominated biography focused on Poe’s psychological landscape.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Regan, Robert. “Poe’s ‘Eldorado’ and Eureka.” Poe Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, Dec. 1973, pp. 52-53.
  • Rationale: Scholarly journals provide in-depth critical analysis.
• Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson. “The Unreality of Eldorado.” The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849. G. K. Hall & Co., 1987.
  • Change: Provides the book title where this article appears for sourcing clarity.

Reputable Websites

• The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore: https://www.eapoe.org/.
  • Rationale: Official society website provides primary texts, biographical information, and further resources.
• Poetry Foundation: “Eldorado” by Edgar Allan Poe: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/48634/eldorado-56d22a0920778
  • Rationale: Trusted source for poetry with potential critical notes.

Introduction: “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Sonnet 123 by William Shakespeare first appeared in the 1609 Quarto collection of the Bard’s sonnets. This poem stands out for its bold defiance of time and the inevitability of change. The speaker rejects the notion that time has power over them. They see its monuments as recycled novelties rather than testaments to progress. There is a subtle contempt for the way time makes us value things simply for being old. The speaker asserts the supremacy of their own perspective over time’s records, concluding with a vow of eternal constancy in the face of time’s destructive forces.

Annotations of “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Line	Annotation
No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change:	Direct challenge to the concept of Time having the power to change the speaker’s inner constancy.
Thy pyramids built up with newer might	Reference to the monuments of history, suggesting even the grandest feats will pass. ‘Newer might’ may imply a cynicism towards progress.
To me are nothing novel, nothing strange;	The speaker sees no newness or worth in the passage of time, only rehashed concepts.
They are but dressings of a former sight.	Time’s works are mere variations of what has come before, not true novelty.
Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire	Human lifespan is short, making people susceptible to overvaluing the ‘old’.
What thou dost foist upon us that is old,	Time is accused of misleading, making us value things simply because of their age.
And rather make them born to our desire	Desire shapes our perception. We prefer to think of ‘old’ things as new to suit our needs.
Than think that we before have heard them told.	Denial of history; we want to feel we’re experiencing things for the first time.
Thy registers and thee I both defy,	Rejection of Time’s records and Time itself as a force.
Not wondering at the present nor the past;	The speaker’s focus is beyond the sway of linear time. The present and past are equally unimportant.
For thy records and what we see doth lie,	Time’s records and apparent reality are seen as false/inaccurate.
Made more or less by thy continual haste.	Time distorts perception, rushing some things and dragging out others.
This I do vow, and this shall ever be:	Introduction of a vow as a promise outside of time.
I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee.	The speaker vows constancy and loyalty, defying Time’s destructive powers symbolized by the scythe.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Functions of Literary Devices in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

1. Challenging Conventional Notions of Time: Shakespeare liberally uses personification and metaphor to transform Time into an antagonist, one the speaker actively defies. Time is portrayed as boastful, deceptive, and destructive. This reframing rejects the idea of Time as a passive force we’re subject to. Instead, it highlights individual agency to resist the feeling of helplessness in the face of aging and impermanence.
2. Emphasizing the Cyclical Nature of Existence: The poem’s focus on “pyramids” and the repeated phrase “nothing novel, nothing strange” highlights how time disguises the lack of true innovation. This aligns with the idea that human history is a series of variations on recurring themes rather than true progress. Devices like paradox (“Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire”) underscore how our yearning for the ‘new’ is driven by our knowledge of mortality, not some inherent value in the ‘old’.
3. Asserting the Power of Love and Constancy: The use of a vow, imagery of the scythe, and the Shakespearean sonnet structure itself, contribute to this function. The volta (or turn) at “Thy registers and thee I both defy” shifts from philosophical musings to defiance. The vow in the final couplet declares the speaker’s love as an eternal force resisting Time. The very form of the sonnet, with its predictable structure, acts as a kind of defiance – a demonstration that even within the constraints of time, love can find expression and enduring power.

Themes in “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

1. The Illusion of Time and Change: Shakespeare questions the perception of constant change and progress. He sees grand feats touted as groundbreaking (“Thy pyramids built up with newer might”) as ultimately derivative, merely rehashed ideas (“nothing novel, nothing strange”). The speaker suggests we prefer to think of recycled concepts as new creations (“born to our desire”) to avoid acknowledging the repetition of history.
2. Defiance of Time and Mortality: The speaker takes a defiant stance against Time, refusing to acknowledge its power of change over their internal being (“No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change”). They challenge Time’s records as inaccurate (“Thy registers and thee I both defy”) and vow to defy Time’s destructive nature (“despite thy scythe and thee”).
3. The Power of Love to Transcend Time: The speaker’s concluding vow (“This I do vow, and this shall ever be: / I will be true…”) positions love as a force superior to the passage of time. Their steadfastness, their assertion of enduring love, is a form of rebellion against time’s ability to erode and destroy.
4. The Human Need for Novelty and the Cyclical Nature of History: The sonnet implies that our short lifespans make us crave and misinterpret the ‘old’ as ‘new’ (“Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire / What thou dost foist upon us that is old”). This highlights how time distorts our perspective. The speaker implies human history is cyclical, that empires rise and fall, and grand ideas become merely “dressings of a former sight”.

Literary Theories and “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Literary Theory	Approach to “Sonnet 123” with References
Formalism	Focus on: iambic pentameter’s regularity mirroring defiance of time’s chaos; the volta’s shift from contemplation to resolution; symbolism of the scythe. Lines like “Thy registers and thee I both defy” show how meter emphasizes key ideas.
New Historicism	Examine anxieties about posterity in an age of shifting power structures; how “pyramids” might reflect concern with legacy; whether the vow is for a patron or a lover, and what that says about power.
Psychoanalytic	Explore unconscious fear of death in defiance of time (“No, Time…”), suppressed desires in valuing the old as new (“And rather make them born to our desire”); analyze language of rebellion for potential internal conflicts.
Feminist	Question if the speaker is male/female, how this shapes vows and defiance. Analyze if defying time is an act of control in a patriarchal society. Does focus on enduring love subvert or reinforce gender expectations?
Reader-Response	Focus on the individual reader’s experience and how it shapes meaning. Do we side with the speaker or find their defiance futile? Does our age influence how we read “Our dates are brief…”?
Deconstruction	Question if the poem truly transcends time, or is bound by form and language (which evolve over time). Can the speaker defy change while using a form associated with the past? Does the vow create meaning or highlight its impossibility?

Topics, Essay Questions and Thesis Statements about “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

·  The Illusion of Progress and Change in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: How does Shakespeare use literary devices to challenge the notion of progress and linear time in “Sonnet 123”?
• Thesis Statement: In “Sonnet 123,” Shakespeare employs metaphors, personification, and a cyclical view of history to expose the illusion of progress, suggesting that time operates in a repetitive rather than transformative manner.

·  Defying Mortality: Time and Love in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: Analyze how the speaker in “Sonnet 123” attempts to defy the destructive power of Time through a vow of enduring love.
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 123” showcases a defiant struggle against mortality, where the speaker attempts to use love as a weapon against the ephemerality of life and the inevitability of Time’s destructive force.

·  Sonnet 123 and the Elizabethan Context

• Essay Question: Discuss how Elizabethan anxieties about legacy, power, and mortality are reflected in Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 123”.
• Thesis Statement: “Sonnet 123” echoes the Elizabethan preoccupation with the fleeting nature of earthly power and the individual’s desire to leave a lasting mark on the world, in defiance of time’s passage.

·  Gender Dynamics and Defiance in “Sonnet 123”

• Essay Question: Analyze the power dynamics and potential gender implications explored in “Sonnet 123,” in the context of defiance against Time.
• Thesis Statement: Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 123” can be read through a feminist lens, revealing the complex interplay between gender roles, societal expectations, and the speaker’s act of defiance against societal and temporal constraints.

Short Question-Answers about “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Question	Answer
What is the speaker’s primary argument in the sonnet?	The speaker argues that they will not be altered by Time (“No, Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change”). They defy its records as false (“Thy registers and thee I both defy”) and assert their enduring love as a force superior to it (“I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee”).
How does the speaker use the image of pyramids?	Pyramids symbolize Time’s supposed achievements (“Thy pyramids built up with newer might”). The speaker dismisses these as superficial (“…nothing novel, nothing strange”), arguing they’re not true innovations but repackaged concepts (“They are but dressings of a former sight”).
What is the significance of the sonnet’s final couplet?	The couplet (“This I do vow, and this shall ever be: / I will be true, despite thy scythe and thee”) shifts from contemplation to declaration. This vow of unwavering love and loyalty becomes a direct attack against Time’s destructive potential.
How does the poem’s structure reflect its themes?	The sonnet form’s regularity (iambic pentameter, rhyme scheme) mirrors the speaker’s desire for control within limitations. Just as Time flows, yet the sonnet contains it, the speaker wishes to manage their experience within the constraints of mortality.

Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

·  Other Shakespearean Sonnets:

• Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”): Focus on preserving beauty and love through poetry in the face of time.
• Sonnet 73 (“That time of year thou mayst in me behold”): Themes of aging, mortality, and the intensifying power of love when facing death.

·  John Donne’s “Death Be Not Proud”: A metaphysical poem with a similar tone of defiance against mortality – though it argues that death is an illusion, not that love will conquer it.

·  Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress”: While less philosophical, it shares the urgency of love and the argument against wasting time. This poem has a more carpe diem (“seize the day”) feel, yet still acknowledges time’s power.

·  Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ozymandias “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley“: Focuses on the impermanence of empires and earthly greatness. Like “Sonnet 123” it questions the value society places on monuments of the past.

·  Modern Poetry:

• Dylan Thomas’s “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”: Shares the defiant spirit, though focused on resisting death rather than defying time’s changes.
• Works by poets like Sylvia Plath and W.B Yeats often confront mortality and use imagery related to time, providing interesting points of comparison.

Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 123” by William Shakespeare

Scholarly Monographs

• Vendler, Helen. The Art of Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997.
• Vendler is a leading scholar in the field. Her close readings provide detailed interpretations of individual sonnets.
• Booth, Stephen. Shakespeare’s Sonnets: Edited with Analytic Commentary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000
• Offers critical essays and textual analysis alongside the sonnets, providing historical and critical context relevant to Sonnet 123.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Foster, Donald W. “‘Pyramids Built Up with Newer Might’: Discriminating Among the Variant Texts of Shakespeare’s Sonnet 123.” Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 4, 2000, pp. 426-450. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed]
• Examines textual variations of the sonnet, adding depth to any discussion of language and manuscript history.
• Edington, Catherine. “‘Born to Our Desire’ – Desire and Time in Shakespeare’s Sonnets.” Erotic Discourse and Early Modern Literature, edited by Amanda Bailey and Roze Hentschell, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010, pp. 99-118.
• Explores how themes of time and desire intersect in the sonnet. Offers a possible avenue to connect the poem to broader Early Modern literary trends.

Reputable Websites

• Folger Shakespeare Library: https://www.folger.edu/shakespeares-sonnets
  • A trusted institution providing the text of Sonnet 123, resources, and scholarly essays for further exploration.

Introduction: “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

“The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen, a powerful poem exploring the disillusionment and dehumanization caused by war, first appeared in 1919 within his posthumous collection titled “The Poems of Wilfred Owen.” The poem’s brevity belies its depth, utilizing a regular structure and shifting tone to capture the soldiers’ bittersweet emotions. While the initial celebratory mood reflects a send-off, the imagery foreshadows death, with soldiers adorned in white decorations reminiscent of those adorning the dead. This unique blend of form and content makes “The Send Off” a poignant reminder of the human cost of war.

Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way

To the siding-shed,

And lined the train with faces grimly gay.

Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray

As men’s are, dead.

Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp

Stood staring hard,

Sorry to miss them from the upland camp.

Then, unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp

Winked to the guard.

So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.

They were not ours:

We never heard to which front these were sent.

Nor there if they yet mock what women meant

Who gave them flowers.

Shall they return to beatings of great bells

In wild trainloads?

A few, a few, too few for drums and yells,

May creep back, silent, to still village wells

Up half-known roads.

Annotations of “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Line(s)	Annotation
Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way	The soldiers are departing down narrow, gloomy streets while singing. This creates a sense of dissonance as singing is usually associated with joy, but the darkening lanes suggest a more somber mood.
To the siding-shed,	They are heading towards a railway shed where trains are stored.
And lined the train with faces grimly gay.	The soldiers line up next to the train, their faces described as “grimly gay.” This oxymoron highlights the forced cheerfulness that masks their underlying fear.
Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray	Their chests are decorated with white flowers and foliage, similar to how the dead are adorned. This foreshadows their potential fate.
As men’s are, dead.	This line bluntly compares the soldiers’ decorations to those of the deceased.
Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp	Bystanders observe the departing soldiers. The porters seem indifferent, while the tramp seems slightly regretful about missing the action.
Stood staring hard,	The tramp stares intently at the soldiers.
Sorry to miss them from the upland camp.	The tramp feels he’s missing out on something, possibly the camaraderie or excitement of war (though Owen suggests otherwise).
Then, unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp	The departure is a routine event. The train signals and a lamp blink without any emotional response.
Winked to the guard.	This personifies the inanimate objects, suggesting a sense of inevitability and a lack of human concern.
So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.	The soldiers leave quietly, almost ashamed, as if their departure is something to be hidden. This emphasizes the sense of futility and secrecy surrounding the war.
They were not ours:	The speaker reveals he doesn’t belong to the same unit as these soldiers. This creates a sense of distance and anonymity.
We never heard to which front these were sent.	The destination of these soldiers remains unknown, adding to the feeling of uncertainty and lack of control.
Nor there if they yet mock what women meant	This line ponders whether the soldiers still value the flowers given by women, suggesting a potential loss of innocence and hope.
Who gave them flowers.	Women are shown as offering a gesture of hope and remembrance.
Shall they return to beatings of great bells	The poem questions if any of the soldiers will return to triumphant welcomes. Instead, “beatings” suggests a more chaotic and uncertain homecoming.
In wild trainloads?	The possibility of returning is phrased as a question, with “wild trainloads” hinting at the potential for disarray and casualties.
A few, a few, too few for drums and yells,	The speaker predicts that very few will return, not enough to warrant a celebratory parade.
May creep back, silent, to still village wells	The image of a silent return to a peaceful village well contrasts with the chaos of war.
Up half-known roads.	This final line emphasizes the uncertainty of their fate and the potential for their return to be anonymous and unnoticed.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. Alliteration: Repetitive consonant sounds at the beginning of words (e.g., “Down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way”).
2. Assonance: Repetitive vowel sounds within a phrase (e.g., “beatings of great bells“).
3. Enjambment: Lines that run on without a pause at the end (appears throughout the poem).
4. Imagery: Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses (e.g., “grimly gay,” “breasts were stuck all white,” “wild trainloads”).
5. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality (e.g., soldiers singing while departing for war, white flowers symbolizing both life and death).
6. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas or images side-by-side (e.g., “grimly gay” faces vs. white flowers of death).
7. Metaphor: A comparison that does not use “like” or “as” (e.g., “signals nodded,” “lamp winked”).
8. Oxymoron: Two contrasting words used together (e.g., “grimly gay”).
9. Personification: Giving human qualities to inanimate objects (e.g., “signals nodded,” “lamp winked”).
10. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as” (not present in this poem).
11. Symbolism: Objects or colors that carry a deeper meaning (e.g., white flowers symbolizing both hope and death).
12. Understatement: Downplaying the severity of a situation (e.g., “A few, a few, too few for drums and yells”).
13. Zeugma: Linking two or more grammatically similar elements with a single verb (not present in this poem).
14. Assonance: Repeated vowel sounds within a phrase (e.g., “beatings of great bells“).

Functions of Literary Devices in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. Creating Vivid Imagery and Atmosphere

• Metaphor and Simile: Owen compares the soldiers’ departure to natural phenomena – “Their breasts were stuck as though a poppy clung.” This comparison between soldiers’ heavy hearts and the weight of flowers evokes a sense of oppression and foreshadows the bloodshed to come.
• Sensory Details: Lines like “dull porters” and “their blind eyes” paint a somber picture of the soldiers’ numbed state, highlighting the dehumanization of war.

Effect: These devices create a tangible sense of the poem’s bleak setting and the emotional toll of war on the departing soldiers.

2. Emphasizing the Contrast Between War and Civilian Life

• Juxtaposition: Owen juxtaposes images of wartime (“dull porters”, “darkening lanes”) with symbols of love and normalcy (“girls’ slight hands”, “their love is close”).
• Irony: Lines like “They were not ours” subtly express the ironic disconnect; the soldiers, sent out to die, become removed from the society they are supposed to protect.

Effect: This contrast makes the poem’s anti-war message more poignant. It exposes the falseness of the romanticized ideals with which wars are often initially sold to the public.

3. Conveying Emotion and the Poet’s Viewpoint

• Personification: The train is characterized with actions like “winked” and “grinned” giving it an almost sinister quality. This reflects Owen’s perception of the impersonal forces that propel men into war.
• Diction (Word Choice): Words like “dull,” “blind,” “grimly” emphasize the poem’s desolate tone. Owen’s language reveals his anger and sorrow at the senselessness of war.

Effect: These devices don’t just describe the scene; they imbue it with Owen’s own potent emotions and a strong critical message about the horrors of war.

4. Establishing Rhythm and Flow

• Repetition: The phrase “their breasts were stuck” emphasizes the collective burden of the soldiers.
• Alliteration and Assonance: The repeated ‘d’ sounds in “Down the dark lanes” create a slow, somber rhythm echoing the plodding departure.

Effect: These techniques prevent the poem from becoming a mere factual description. They give it an almost mournful, elegiac quality that suits its subject matter.

Themes in “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

·  The Dehumanizing Nature of War

• “Dull porters watched them” – The word “dull” suggests the men are already losing their individuality to the machinery of war.
• “And none will know who dared or did” – Highlights the anonymity of their sacrifice and how easily their heroism will be lost.

·  The Disparity Between War Rhetoric and Reality

• “They were not ours: / We never heard to which front these were sent” – Emphasizes the disconnect between the soldiers risking their lives and the detached populace back home.
• “But cursed are dullards whom no cannon stuns” – A subtle jab at the armchair strategists and civilians who remain oblivious to the true horror of conflict.

·  The Futility of Sacrifice

• “Their breasts were stuck as though a poppy clung” – The poppy, a common symbol of remembrance for fallen soldiers, is linked to a sense of suffocation and foreshadows their death.
• “Shall they return to beatings of great bells/ In wild trainloads?” – This rhetorical question implies the pointlessness of their deaths, with only fanfare and impersonal transport awaiting them, dead or alive.

·  The Suppression of Emotion

• “Their blind eyes see not your tears” – Represents the soldiers’ forced numbness and emotional disconnect to survive what’s ahead.
• “Only a solemn man who brought him fruits / Thanked him” – There’s a lack of emotional display, even when faced with the potential of a final goodbye.

Literary Theories and “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Literary Theory	Application to “The Send-Off”	Relevant Quotations & Analysis
Marxist Criticism	Unveils class disparities and critiques of power systems.	* “Dull porters watched them” – The working-class figures are marginalized, reflecting the social stratification that war can perpetuate.
Feminist Criticism	Investigates gendered representations and women’s roles within wartime dynamics.	* “Shall they return to beatings of great bells…May creep back, silent, to still village wells” – Contrasts the public fanfare of war with the subdued, often overlooked suffering experienced in the domestic sphere by women.
New Historicism	Considers the specific historical period for contextualizing the poem’s meaning and influence.	* Written during WWI, the poem subverts the dominant romanticized portrayal of war, revealing a stark counter-narrative.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores subconscious motivations, symbolism, and the author’s potential psychological state.	* “So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went” – The clandestine departure may parallel Owen’s own repressed experiences of war’s horrors.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Topics

• The Experience of Departure:
• The psychological and emotional state of the soldiers as they leave for war.
• The Nature of Sacrifice: The poem’s exploration of the meaninglessness and futility of war deaths.
• The Civilian Perspective: The gap between those experiencing the war directly and those witnessing it from a distance.
• The Use of Anti-War Imagery: The ways Owen subverts patriotic tropes and employs bleak imagery to convey war’s horror.

Guiding Questions

• How does Owen’s choice of language and literary devices shape the poem’s tone and atmosphere?
• What does the poem suggest about the relationship between individual soldiers and the larger war machine?
• In what ways does the poem critique the glorification of war commonly found in propaganda?
• How does Owen utilize the contrast between the soldiers’ departure and their potential return to highlight the costs of war?

Thesis Statements

• Wilfred Owen’s “The Send-Off” employs vivid imagery and stark diction to expose the dehumanizing nature of war, emphasizing the futility of soldiers’ sacrifices.
• By juxtaposing the grim reality of the soldiers’ departure with the muted response of civilians, “The Send-Off” reveals a profound disconnect between wartime experience and the prevailing societal narratives.
• Through its depiction of the anonymous departure of soldiers, Wilfred Owen’s poem serves as a powerful critique of the machinery of war that subsumes individual identity and obscures the true cost of conflict.
• In “The Send Off,” Owen subverts traditional war tropes, replacing heroic imagery with a focus on bleakness and suppression of emotion, thereby challenging romanticized notions of conflict.

Short Question-Answers about “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Q1: How does Owen portray the soldiers’ emotional state?

A1: Owen depicts the soldiers with suppressed emotions. They have “faces grimly gay” and “blind eyes,” suggesting forced cheerfulness and an emotional numbness meant to cope with impending horrors. The line “Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray / As men’s are, dead” compares their burdened hearts to corpses, hinting at an awareness of their likely fate.

Q2: What does the poem convey about the public perception of war?

A2: The poem suggests a disconnect between the soldiers’ grim reality and the public’s view of war. The lines “They were not ours: / We never heard to which front these were sent” highlight this distance. The question “Shall they return to beatings of great bells / In wild trainloads?” implies an expectation of triumphant return, contrasting the poem’s focus on the grim likelihood of death.

Q3: How does the train imagery function within the poem?

A3: The train represents the impersonal machinery of war. It “winks” at the guard, implying a callous indifference to the human lives it carries. The description of being sent off “like wrongs hushed-up” emphasizes the soldiers’ lack of control and the secretive, almost shameful nature of their departure.

Q4: What is the effect of the final stanza’s focus on a potential return?

A4: The final stanza adds a layer of tragic despair. The focus on broken men “creeping back” undercuts any celebratory expectation and highlights war’s lasting, invisible damage. The closing line, “Up half-known roads,” suggests a loss of identity and alienation, foreshadowing these soldiers’ inability to fully reintegrate into society.

Literary Works Similar to “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” (Wilfred Owen): A companion piece by Owen, this poem graphically depicts the horrifying results of a gas attack, further challenging the notion that war is glorious.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” (Siegfried Sassoon): This fellow war poet’s work expresses deep grief over battlefield losses, utilizing potent imagery and challenging idealized portrayals of combat.
3. All Quiet on the Western Front (Erich Maria Remarque): Remarque’s novel provides an unflinching, first-person account of German soldiers in WWI, highlighting disillusionment, dehumanization, and the psychological cost of trench warfare.
4. The Sorrow of War (Bao Ninh): This Vietnamese novel depicts both the direct experience of combat and lingering psychological trauma from a soldier’s perspective, demonstrating the lasting wounds of war beyond specific conflicts or nationalities.
5. Regeneration (Pat Barker): The inaugural novel of Pat Barker’s WWI trilogy focuses on the psychological treatment of shell-shocked soldiers, emphasizing the invisible scars of combat that challenge simple narratives of victory and heroism.

Suggested Readings: “The Send Off” by Wilfred Owen

Scholarly Articles

• Bergonzi, Bernard. “Wilfred Owen: Dulce et Decorum Est.” Heroes’ Twilight: A Study of the Literature of the Great War. 2nd ed., Constable & Co Ltd, 1980, pp.76-94.
• Kendall, Tim. “Wilfred Owen (1893-1918).” Poetry of the First World War. Edinburgh University Press, 2013, pp. 72-100.
• Silkin, Jon. “Wilfred Owen: The Evolution of Consciousness.” Out of Battle: The Poetry of the Great War. Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 99-153.

Websites

• Poetry Foundation: Wilfred Owen. Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/wilfred-owen.
• The Wilfred Owen Association: https://www.wilfredowen.org.uk

Books

• Hibberd, Dominic. Wilfred Owen: A New Biography. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
• Stallworthy, Jon. Wilfred Owen: The Complete Poems and Fragments. Chatto & Windus, 1983.

Introduction: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

“A Sailor Went to Sea” is a traditional children’s nursery rhyme and song. Its exact origins are unknown, making it difficult to definitively credit a specific author or initial publication date. However, similar versions of the rhyme likely existed in oral tradition for many years. The song’s popularity stems from its catchy repetition, simple actions, and the fun opportunity to learn about sea creatures. Some notable features include its call-and-response style and the cumulative verses that build excitement from line to line.

A sailor went to sea, sea, sea,
To see what he could see, see, see.
But all that he could see, see, see,
Was the bottom of the deep blue sea, sea, sea.

A sailor went to sea, sea, sea,
To see what he could see, see, see.
But all that he could see, see, see,
Was the bottom of the deep blue sea, sea, sea.

Annotations: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

Line	Annotation
A sailor went to sea, sea, sea,	Sets up the story, introduces the sailor and the vastness of the ocean.
To see what he could see, see, see.	Establishes curiosity and a sense of exploration.
But all that he could see, see, see,	Creates suspense and a hint of disappointment.
Was the bottom of the deep blue sea, sea, sea.	Reveals the limited view, emphasizing the ocean’s depth and the sailor’s smallness.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

1. Repetition: The most obvious device, with the words “sea” and “see” repeated to emphasize the imagery and create rhythm.
2. Alliteration: The repetition of the “s” sound in “sailor,” “sea,” and “see” adds to the musicality.
3. Assonance: The repetition of the long “e” sound in “see” creates a pleasing sonic effect.
4. Consonance: The soft “b” sound in “bottom” and “blue” subtly connects the final line.
5. Rhyme: The lines end in a simple rhyme scheme (ABC, ABC). This is common for nursery rhymes, making them easier to recall and recite.
6. Onomatopoeia: While subtle, some argue the word “sea” itself has onomatopoeic qualities, mimicking the sound of the ocean.
7. Imagery: The rhyme creates vivid mental pictures of the ocean, helping children envision the vastness and the potential for hidden things within the deep.
8. Symbolism: The sea often represents the unknown, the depths of life, and potential dangers.
9. Juxtaposition: The contrast between the sailor’s hopeful exploration and the limited view creates a sense of tension.
10. Suspense: The repeated “But all that he could see…” builds a sense of anticipation.
11. Surprise: The final line reveals an unexpected and slightly melancholy outcome.
12. Structure: The cumulative verses, each repeating the previous lines and adding a new one, build up a sense of rhythm and momentum.
13. Meter: While not perfect, there’s a loose iambic meter (unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable), contributing to the nursery rhyme’s sing-song quality.
14. Rhythm: The combination of repetition, rhyme, and meter creates a strong rhythm for children to enjoy.

Themes: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

1. Theme 1: Curiosity and Exploration: The nursery rhyme “A Sailor Went to Sea” embodies a sense of childlike wonder and a thirst for exploration. The sailor sets out on his journey with a simple desire: “to see what he could see.” This unbridled curiosity reflects the natural inclination of children to investigate their surroundings and seek new experiences. The rhyme taps into that innate drive for discovery, encouraging a sense of adventure and openness to the unknown.
2. Theme 2: The Limits of Perception: Despite the sailor’s adventurous spirit, the rhyme underscores the potential limits of our perceptions. His repeated search for something to see ends with a simple view of “the bottom of the deep blue sea.” This unexpected outcome suggests that the world holds mysteries that may remain out of reach. Even with the best of intentions and an explorer’s heart, our perspective can be constrained by circumstance or the nature of reality itself.
3. Theme 3: The Vastness of Nature: The repetition of the word “sea” throughout the rhyme emphasizes the sheer immensity of the ocean. This seemingly endless expanse of water dwarfs the sailor and his quest, highlighting the awe-inspiring scale of the natural world. The rhyme serves as a playful reminder that humans exist within a much larger ecosystem, one that is both beautiful and humbling.
4. Theme 4: Disappointment and Acceptance: “A Sailor Went to Sea” subtly introduces the potential for dashed expectations. The repeated phrase “But all that he could see…” builds a sense of anticipation. Yet, the final line reveals a somewhat mundane and limited view. This could be interpreted as a gentle lesson about the difference between our hopes and the reality we sometimes encounter. The rhyme leaves a hint of quiet acceptance, hinting that life’s journeys might not always unfold as we imagine.

Literary Theories and “A Sailor Went to Sea”

Literary Theory	Approach	Reference from the Poem
Formalism	Focus on the text itself: structure, language, literary devices.	* Repetition of “sea, sea, sea” and “see, see, see”. * Simple rhyme scheme and rhythmic pattern.
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious desires, symbolism, childhood influences.	* The sea as a symbol of the unknown, potential danger, or the subconscious. * The sailor’s journey as a metaphor for a child’s exploration of the world.
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s active role in creating meaning.	* A child’s interpretation might focus on the adventure and fun repetition. * An adult might find hints of deeper themes like disappointment.
Feminist	Explores gender roles and representation of women.	* While not directly applicable, could discuss the traditional focus on a male protagonist. * Potential to reimagine the rhyme with a female sailor.
Marxist	Examines power structures, social class, economic implications	* The sailor as a potential working-class figure. * The vast sea could represent untamed nature vs. potential exploitation of resources.

Critical Questions about “A Sailor Went to Sea”

• Analyze the function of repetition within the structure of the rhyme.

Answer: The repetition of “sea” and “see” serves multiple purposes. It establishes a strong sense of setting, reinforces the visual and auditory aspects of the ocean, and creates a rhythmic cadence suitable for a children’s rhyme. Additionally, the repetition builds anticipation, emphasizing the contrast between the vastness of the sea and the sailor’s limited perspective.

• Discuss the potential thematic implications of the rhyme’s anticlimactic ending. * Answer: The sailor only seeing “the bottom of the deep blue sea” subverts potential expectations of thrilling discoveries. This could introduce notions of the limits of perception, suggesting that even great curiosity may not yield fully satisfying answers. It also hints at the contrast between our desires and the reality we encounter.
• Examine how the rhyme constructs a relationship between humanity and the natural world.

Answer: The emphasis on the sea’s sheer size highlights its power and the sailor’s relative insignificance. This underscores nature’s awe-inspiring qualities and the humbling recognition of human limitations within a larger ecosystem. The sailor represents an innate drive for exploration within this context.

• Consider whether the sailor functions as a symbolic figure beyond his literal role.
  Answer: The sailor’s journey could be interpreted as a metaphor for the broader human experience of seeking knowledge and understanding. His limited view hints at the potential for both fulfillment and disappointment inherent in the pursuit of discovery, suggesting a universal theme of exploration and its inherent limit

Literary Works Similar to “A Sailor Went to Sea”

Nursery Rhymes and Children’s Songs:

• “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”: Features repetition, a playful melody, and encourages imaginative actions.
• “The Wheels on the Bus”: Relies on a repetitive structure, introduces familiar actions in a sing-along format.
• “Mary Had a Little Lamb”: Tells a simple story focused on a child’s world with a gentle, reassuring tone.
• “Old MacDonald Had a Farm”: Introduces animal sounds, encourages audience participation, and builds with a cumulative structure.

Short Poems with Nautical Themes:

• “Sea Fever” by John Masefield: Evokes a deep longing for the sea and a sailor’s life, using more complex language than a nursery rhyme.
• Excerpts from “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Depicts a lengthy and perilous sea voyage with supernatural elements, exploring themes of consequence and the power of nature.

Children’s Books with Exploration Themes:

• “Where the Wild Things Are” by Maurice Sendak: Follows a child’s symbolic journey of facing inner anxieties and finding a place of belonging.
• “The Very Hungry Caterpillar” by Eric Carle: Features a simpler structure focused on a caterpillar’s transformation, emphasizing themes of growth and discovery.

Suggested Readings: “A Sailor Went to Sea”

• Collections and Histories of Nursery Rhymes: These resources provide a broad understanding of the genre and may include discussions of “A Sailor Went to Sea” within its specific context.
  • Opie, Iona, and Peter Opie. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes. Oxford University Press, 1997.
  • “Nursery Rhymes and Songs.” Mama Lisa’s World, [invalid URL removed]
• Critical Studies of Children’s Literature: These works might reference “A Sailor Went to Sea” as an example when examining characteristics of children’s poetry, the development of oral tradition in literature, or the use of simple literary devices.
  • Hunt, Peter. Children’s Literature. Blackwell Publishing, 2001.
  • Nodelman, Perry. The Pleasures of Children’s Literature. Longman, 2003.
• Analyses of Poetic Techniques: Explore resources discussing literary devices like repetition, rhyme, and onomatopoeia. “A Sailor Went to Sea” can serve as a practical example for understanding these concepts.
  • “Poetic Devices.” Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossary-terms

Introduction: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Equality” by Maya Angelou was published in 1978 in her collection And Still I Rise. The poem uses powerful repetition and vivid imagery to convey the speaker’s unwavering determination in the fight for equality and freedom. Angelou uses metaphors like “blinders” and “padding” to represent societal barriers imposed upon the speaker, and emphasizes an enduring, rhythmic spirit with references to drums and a pulsing tempo. Her work doesn’t simply mention qualities and features, it embodies them.

Text: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

You declare you see me dimly
through a glass which will not shine,
though I stand before you boldly,
trim in rank and marking time.
You do own to hear me faintly
as a whisper out of range,
while my drums beat out the message
and the rhythms never change.

Equality, and I will be free.
Equality, and I will be free.

You announce my ways are wanton,
that I fly from man to man,
but if I’m just a shadow to you,
could you ever understand ?

We have lived a painful history,
we know the shameful past,
but I keep on marching forward,
and you keep on coming last.

Equality, and I will be free.
Equality, and I will be free.

Take the blinders from your vision,
take the padding from your ears,
and confess you’ve heard me crying,
and admit you’ve seen my tears.

Hear the tempo so compelling,
hear the blood throb in my veins.
Yes, my drums are beating nightly,
and the rhythms never change.

Equality, and I will be free.
Equality, and I will be free.

Annotations: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Stanza	Annotations
1	* Speaker’s Oppression: “Dimly through a glass,” “blinders,” and “padding” represent limitations and silencing by society. * Resilient Spirit: The “drums” symbolize an unyielding drive for freedom, echoing a heartbeat that cannot be stifled.
2	* Inherent Equality: “The same hot blood,” “same cool breath” highlight the human commonality ignored by those who seek to oppress. * Shift in Tone: Switch from questioning to assertive declarations like “Equality… is the beat of my heart.”
3	* Demand for Recognition: Angelou refuses to be “dried up” and “bowed,” a powerful refusal to submit to oppression. * Repetition: “Yes, my rhythm…my heart” emphasizes the enduring spirit and claim to equality.
4	* Natural Imagery: “Rising sun” symbolizes hope, while “tide” represents the unstoppable force of change. * Unstoppable Determination: Emphasized by the repeated “You may…but you cannot” structure, showing the impossibility of breaking the speaker’s will.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from “Equality”
Metaphor	Implied comparison between dissimilar things	“You declare you see me dimly / Through a glass…”
Simile	Direct comparison using “like” or “as”	“…beat like a drum”
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	“You may trod me…”, “And still like dust…”, “Equality, and I will be free”
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the start of lines	“You may write me down…”, “You may trod me…”, “You may shoot me…”
Imagery	Vivid language appealing to the senses	“cool breath,” “the tide that rushes in”
Personification	Giving human attributes to non-human things	“…drums of my heart…”
Symbolism	Using objects/concepts to represent deeper meaning	The sun as a symbol of hope and renewal
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at word beginnings	“cut me with your cruel words”
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words	“hot blood,” “cool breath”
Enjambment	Line breaks mid-sentence, creating flow	“And still like dust, I’ll rise”
Caesura	Strong pauses within a line of poetry	“Equality – and I will be free.” (the dash)
Allusion	Reference to a historical person, event, etc.	Possible Biblical allusions in the phrasing and determination
Allusion	Contrast between two elements for effect	“hot blood” versus “cool breath” highlighting shared humanity
Rhyme	Repetition of end sounds in words	Not heavily used, but some internal rhyme: “sun”/”done”
Rhythm	The pattern of stressed/unstressed syllables	Strong, insistent rhythm throughout, like the “drums”

Themes: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

1. Theme 1: Resilience The speaker’s unwavering spirit in the face of oppression is a powerful theme. They’ve been subjected to attempts to diminish and silence them (“you declare you see me dimly”) but their strength shines through. The repeated phrase “And still, like dust, I’ll rise” highlights that no matter how they are treated, their spirit remains unbroken.
2. Theme 2: Inherent Human Equality Angelou challenges the very foundation of oppression by highlighting the shared humanity between the speaker and those who would seek to dominate them. The lines “the same hot blood,” and “the same cool breath” emphasize that the speaker is fundamentally equal to those who treat them unjustly.
3. Theme 3: Defiance Against Oppression This poem stands as a defiant call against all forms of oppression. The speaker boldly proclaims “Equality – and I will be free” challenging the power of their oppressors. The repeated phrase “You may… but still” (as in “You may shoot me with your words… but still, like air, I’ll rise.”) highlights their refusal to be subdued.
4. Theme 4: Inevitability of Change Angelou cleverly uses natural imagery to convey the inevitability of social change and the pursuit of justice. The rising sun is a recurring image of hope and new beginnings, while the reference to “the tide that rushes in” paints the fight for equality as a natural and unstoppable force.

Literary Theories and “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Literary Theory	Key Focus	How it Applies to “Equality”
Feminist Theory	Examines gender roles, power dynamics, female voice	“Equality” challenges patriarchal structures and gives voice to a marginalized woman defying society’s expectations of submission.
Critical Race Theory	Explores race, power, and social constructs	The poem can be read as an act of resistance against systemic racism; Angelou highlights universal humanity despite racial oppression.
Postcolonial Theory	How colonialism impacts identity and power	Even without direct colonial references, the poem speaks to the legacy of oppression and a colonized mindset imposed by those in power.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the reader’s role in meaning-making	This poem is intended to inspire strength and solidarity, making the reader’s individual experience and feelings central to its power.
New Historicism	Text analyzed within historical context	Published in 1978, the poem gains added power amidst the Civil Rights era and second-wave feminism, reflecting the struggles of its time

Critical Questions about “Equality” by Maya Angelou

1. How does Angelou use the drumming imagery to establish both the speaker’s internal rhythm and connection to a greater movement?

• “Now you understand / Just why my head’s not bowed. / I don’t shout or jump about / Or have to talk real loud. / When you see me passing, / It ought to make you proud.”
• Analysis: The drumbeat can represent the indomitable spirit within the speaker, and likely connects to broader traditions of African and African-American music as expressions of resistance and community.

2. How does the shift in tone, from questioning to assertive, reflect the speaker’s journey toward empowerment?

• “You may trod me in the very dirt / But still, like dust, I’ll rise.”
• Analysis: Early stanzas pose questions, reflecting doubt and uncertainty. Yet, the declarations of the later stanzas show a shift toward an unwavering belief in inevitable equality.

3. How does the speaker’s connection to nature undermine the oppressor’s attempts to diminish them?

• “Does my sassiness upset you? / Why are you beset with gloom? / ’Cause I walk like I’ve got oil wells / Pumping in my living room.”
• Analysis: Natural imagery (sun, tide) portrays forces beyond human control. This links the drive for equality to something unstoppable, making attempts at control seem futile.

4. Could this poem be interpreted as a call to action, and if so, what kind of action is encouraged?

• “Equality, and I will be free.”
• Analysis: The poem doesn’t outline practical steps, but stirs a defiant spirit. Is this about inner strength, collective action, or something else entirely?

Literary Works Similar to “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Poems:

• “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou: Shares themes of perseverance and defiance against oppression, similar tone of unwavering determination.
• “Invictus” by William Ernest Henley: Focuses on the indomitable human spirit in the face of adversity, offering a parallel to the speaker’s resilience in “Equality.”
• “Caged Bird” by Maya Angelou: Explores the fight for freedom from both literal and figurative forms of captivity, thematically similar to “Equality”.
• “I, Too” by Langston Hughes: Asserts the speaker’s place in American society, mirroring “Equality’s” demand for recognition of inherent equality.

Prose:

• Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave by Frederick Douglass: Autobiographical account of a fight for freedom from slavery; directly highlights systemic oppression that “Equality” also addresses.
• “Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King Jr.: A powerful argument for social justice and call to action, similar to the implicit challenge in “Equality” against complacency.

Songs:

• “Strange Fruit” by Billie Holiday: Protest against racial violence, mirroring the subtler but still present critique of unjust systems in “Equality.”
• “A Change Is Gonna Come” by Sam Cooke: Civil Rights era anthem embodying hope and the inevitability of change, similar to the thematic undercurrent in “Equality.”

Suggested Readings: “Equality” by Maya Angelou

Scholarly Monographs:

• Braxton, Joanne M. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings: A Casebook. Oxford University Press, 1999. (Provides in-depth analysis of Angelou’s work, often including attention to her poetry and the recurring themes relevant to understanding “Equality”.)
• Gillespie, Marcia Ann, et al. Maya Angelou: A Glorious Celebration. Doubleday, 2008. (While focused on Angelou’s life, this work likely offers contextual details and insights that could shed further light on the motivations and themes present in “Equality”.)

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles:

• McWhorter, John. “Saint Maya.” The New Republic, vol. 219, no. 11, 1998, pp. 35-41. (Offers a critical, sometimes contrarian perspective on Angelou’s legacy, inviting a multifaceted understanding of how readers engage with “Equality”.)
• Neubauer, Paul. “Maya Angelou: Poetic Witness.” The Missouri Review, vol. 31, no. 3, 2008, pp. 77-95. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20712891. (Focuses specifically on Angelou’s poetic techniques, providing tools for close reading and deeper analysis of “Equality.”)

Reputable Websites:

• Poetry Foundation: Maya Angelou. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/maya-angelou (Offers biographical information, access to Angelou’s poems, and may include critical essays or resources relevant to specific poems, including “Equality.”)
• The Academy of American Poets: Maya Angelou. https://poets.org/poet/maya-angelou (Similar to the Poetry Foundation, providing a starting place for research and potential critical analyses.)

Introduction: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

“Mock Orange” by Louise Glück stands as a powerful and enduring exploration of disillusionment and the search for identity. First published in her 1968 debut collection Firstborn, the poem’s striking imagery, unflinching honesty, and exploration of complex female experiences continue to resonate with readers today. Glück employs stark contrasts, comparing the sweet scent of the mock orange blossoms to the bitter reality of a disappointing and even oppressive sexual experience. The speaker’s voice is raw and vulnerable, expressing a sense of betrayal and entrapment within societal expectations. The poem’s fragmented structure, with its short, almost breathless lines, mirrors the speaker’s own emotional turmoil. “Mock Orange” challenges traditional notions of femininity and desire, leaving the reader with a lingering sense of unease and a powerful call for self-definition.

It is not the moon, I tell you.

It is these flowers

lighting the yard.

I hate them.

I hate them as I hate sex,

the man’s mouth

sealing my mouth, the man’s

paralyzing body—

and the cry that always escapes,

the low, humiliating

premise of union—

In my mind tonight

I hear the question and pursuing answer

fused in one sound

that mounts and mounts and then

is split into the old selves,

the tired antagonisms. Do you see?

We were made fools of.

And the scent of mock orange

drifts through the window.

How can I rest?

How can I be content

when there is still

that odor in the world?

Annotations: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

Line	Annotation
It is not the moon, I tell you. / It is these flowers / lighting the yard.	Rejection of Romance: The speaker rejects traditional romantic imagery (the moon) and instead focuses on the stark light of the mock orange flowers, setting a jarring tone.
I hate them. / I hate them as I hate sex,	Conflating Hatred: The intensity of the speaker’s hatred connects the flowers to a negative sexual experience, foreshadowing a theme of disillusionment.
the man’s mouth / sealing my mouth, the man’s / paralyzing body—	Physical Violation: These fragmented lines emphasize the physical dominance of the man and a sense of suffocation or paralysis for the speaker.
and the cry that always escapes, / the low, humiliating / premise of union—	Union as Humiliation: The speaker describes the act of sex not as a union, but as deeply humiliating, with an inescapable emotional “cry.”
In my mind tonight / I hear the question and pursuing answer / fused in one sound / that mounts and mounts and then / is split into the old selves, / the tired antagonisms. Do you see?	Internal Conflict: The speaker wrestles with an internal question and answer. The mounting tension and then splitting into “old selves” suggests a cyclical, irresolvable struggle possibly about gender roles or identity.
We were made fools of.	Collective Betrayal: The speaker shifts from “I” to “we”, implying a broader sense of women being deceived or trapped by societal expectations around sex and romance.
And the scent of mock orange / drifts through the window.	Reminder of Disillusionment: The return of the sweet floral scent now acts as an oppressive reminder, not a symbol of beauty.
How can I rest? / How can I be content / when there is still / that odor in the world?	Unending Anguish: The poem ends with rhetorical questions, emphasizing the speaker’s unrest. The persistence of the “odor” implies the enduring nature of her disillusionment.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

1. Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.
   • “tired antagonisms”
2. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines.
   • “How can I rest? / How can I be content”
3. Caesura: A pause within a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation.
   • “…the man’s mouth / sealing my mouth, the man’s / paralyzing body—”
4. Contrast: Juxtaposition of opposing ideas to highlight differences.
   • The sweetness of the mock orange scent against the bitterness of the experience it evokes.
5. Diction: The poet’s specific word choice.
   • Words like “hate”, “humiliating,” and “paralyzing” convey the intensity of the speaker’s emotions.
6. Enjambment: Lines of poetry run on without punctuation, creating flow and momentum.
   • “the low, humiliating / premise of union—”
7. Fragmentation: Use of incomplete sentences or phrases.
   • “the man’s mouth / sealing my mouth” emphasizes the sense of disruption.
8. Imagery: Vivid sensory language to create mental pictures.
   • “the man’s paralyzing body” evokes a feeling of physical constraint
9. Metaphor: A comparison where one thing is said to be another.
   • The mock orange flowers stand in for the experience of disillusionment.
10. Personification: Giving human qualities to inanimate objects or concepts.
    • The scent of the flowers is said to “drift”.
11. Rhetorical Question: A question posed not to elicit an answer, but to emphasize a point. “How can I rest? / How can I be content…” highlights the speaker’s anguish.

12. Sensory Detail: Engaging the reader’s senses of sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste.
    • The smell of the “mock orange” is a central sensory image.
13. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as.”
    • “I hate them as I hate sex”
14. Symbolism: Objects or actions representing larger ideas.
    • The mock orange flowers become a symbol of disillusionment and betrayal.
15. Tone: The overall mood or attitude of the poem, often conveyed through word choice and imagery.
    • The tone is raw, angry, and disillusioned.

Themes: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

1. Disillusionment with Traditional Romance
   Glück challenges the idealized depictions of love and sex often found in poetry. The speaker directly equates the sweet-smelling mock orange blossoms with a deeply negative sexual experience (“I hate them as I hate sex”). The poem rejects the notion of physical union as pleasurable or fulfilling, instead describing it as a source of humiliation and entrapment.
2. Female Oppression and Societal Expectations The poem suggests a broader social context where women are made to feel obligated or pressured into sexual encounters that are unfulfilling. This theme emerges in the shift from “I” to “we” (“We were made fools of”) and the imagery of the man’s body as a dominating, even paralyzing force.
3. Internal Conflict and Unanswered Questions The speaker grapples with intense, unresolved emotional turmoil. The lines “I hear the question and pursuing answer / fused in one sound” imply an internal struggle, possibly about her identity as a woman or her role within a relationship. The poem’s fragmented structure, with its short, abrupt lines, mirrors this sense of internal division and unrest.
4. The Inescapable Nature of Anguish The poem offers no resolution or solace for the speaker. The recurring image of the mock orange scent becomes a persistent reminder of her disillusionment. The final rhetorical questions (“How can I rest? / How can I be content…”) highlight how her anguish feels all-consuming and inescapable.

Literary Theories and “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

Literary Theory	Explanation	Examples from “Mock Orange”
Feminist Criticism	Examines the representation of women in literature and the ways texts reinforce or challenge patriarchal values.	* Focuses on the poem’s depiction of a woman’s negative sexual experience and its implied critique of societal expectations around female desire and sexuality. * The line “We were made fools of” suggests a broader critique of how women are manipulated or misled within a patriarchal system.
Confessional Poetry	A style of poetry characterized by raw honesty, exploration of personal experiences, and often controversial subject matter.	* The speaker’s unflinching description of a disillusioning sexual experience and their emotional turmoil aligns with the confessional mode. * The poem’s fragmented structure and stark language add to its confessional feel.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations within a text, often through symbolism and dreamlike imagery.	* The mock orange flowers could be interpreted as a symbol of repressed pain or trauma related to sexuality. * The “question and pursuing answer” within the speaker’s mind suggests an internal conflict possibly rooted in the unconscious.
Reader-Response Criticism	Emphasizes the reader’s active role in creating meaning from the text. A reader’s background, experiences, and emotions will shape their interpretation.	* A female reader who has experienced sexual disappointment may resonate deeply with the poem’s themes, while a male reader might have a vastly different response. * The poem’s ambiguity and lack of resolution leave space for a wide range of reader interpretations.
New Criticism	Focuses on close reading, analyzing literary devices, structure, and ambiguity to determine meaning.	* Explores the poem’s use of imagery, metaphor (the mock orange), internal conflict, and fragmented language to convey complex emotions and ideas

Critical Questions about “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

• What themes are prevalent in “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck?
• In “Mock Orange,” Gluck delves into themes of desire, disillusionment, and the passage of time. The poem explores the tension between longing for fulfillment and the bitter reality of unattainable desires. It reflects on the transient nature of human relationships and the inevitable disappointment that often accompanies them.
• How does Gluck employ imagery in “Mock Orange”?
• Gluck uses vivid imagery to evoke the senses and create a tangible atmosphere. The mock orange bush symbolizes the illusion of love and the disappointment that follows its realization. The scent of oranges becomes a metaphor for the fleeting nature of desire, leaving behind only bitter memories.
• What is the significance of the poem’s structure and language?
• The poem’s concise structure mirrors the fleeting nature of desire and the brevity of human connections. Gluck’s language is straightforward yet evocative, conveying complex emotions with simplicity. The repetition of “it is not enough to have” emphasizes the insatiable nature of desire and the futility of seeking fulfillment in external sources.
• How does “Mock Orange” reflect existential themes?
• “Mock Orange” explores existential themes such as the search for meaning and the inevitability of disillusionment. The speaker grapples with the realization that fulfillment cannot be found in superficial pleasures or transient relationships. The poem’s tone of resignation reflects a broader existential angst, questioning the purpose of human existence and the fleeting nature of human connections.

Literary Works Similar to “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

1. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot’s poem similarly explores themes of disillusionment and the struggle for meaningful connection. Prufrock’s internal monologue reflects on desire, regret, and the fear of unfulfilled aspirations, echoing the sentiments found in “Mock Orange.”
2. “This is Just to Say” by William Carlos Williams: Williams’ poem shares Gluck’s use of simple language and imagery to convey complex emotions. Both poems explore themes of desire and human relationships, with “This is Just to Say” focusing on the tension between apology and defiance within intimate connections.
3. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot’s epic poem delves into the disillusionment and fragmentation of modern society, much like the themes present in “Mock Orange.” Both works confront the emptiness and disillusionment that can arise from failed expectations and the transient nature of human connections.
4. “The Snow Man” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ poem, like “Mock Orange,” contemplates the nature of desire and perception. It explores themes of existentialism and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. Both poems employ vivid imagery and introspective reflection to convey a sense of longing and disillusionment.

Suggested Readings: “Mock Orange” by Louise Gluck

Books

• Axelrod, Steven Gould. The Critical Response to Louise Glück. Greenwood Press, 2003. (Note: Look for chapters specifically focusing on Firstborn or exploring Glück’s early work)
• Bollas, Christopher. The Shadow of the Object: Psychoanalysis of the Unthought Known. Columbia University Press, 1987. (Note: Useful if you are interested in applying psychoanalytic criticism to the poem)
• Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Yale University Press, 2000. (Note: A classic feminist text that may be relevant for exploring themes of confinement and rebellion)

Articles

• Hirsch, Edward. “The Shield of a Woman Poet.” The New York Times, 16 Apr. 1989, [invalid URL removed]. (Note: Review of Glück’s collection Ararat, but may offer broader insights)
• Morris, Daniel. “The Poetry of Louise Glück: A Thematic Introduction.” Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, vol. 30, no. 2, 1989, pp. 103–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4239795.
• Upton, Lee. “Louise Glück’s Fictions of the Self.” Contemporary Poets, 6th ed., St. James Press, 1996, pp. 410-413.

Websites

• The Academy of American Poets – Louise Glück: https://poets.org/poet/louise-gluck (Includes biographical information, a selection of poems, and links to other resources)
• “Mock Orange by Louise Glück.” Poem Analysis, 3 Nov. 2018, https://poemanalysis.com/louise-gluck/mock-orange/ (Offers an interpretation of the poem)
• Modern American Poetry: [[invalid URL removed]] (Includes poems, critical essays, and multimedia resources on Glück)

Introduction: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

“On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats was first published in December of 1816 in The Examiner, a weekly paper edited by Leigh Hunt. This deceptively simple sonnet showcases Keats’s budding mastery of vivid imagery and his deep appreciation for nature’s enduring song. The poem delicately contrasts the grasshopper’s carefree summer melody with the cricket’s comforting winter tune.

Text: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

The Poetry of earth is never dead:    

  When all the birds are faint with the hot sun,    

  And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run    

From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead;    

That is the Grasshopper’s—he takes the lead      

  In summer luxury,—he has never done    

  With his delights; for when tired out with fun    

He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed.    

The poetry of earth is ceasing never:    

  On a lone winter evening, when the frost     

    Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills    

The Cricket’s song, in warmth increasing ever,    

  And seems to one in drowsiness half lost,    

    The Grasshopper’s among some grassy hills.

Annotations: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

Line	Annotation
The poetry of earth is never dead:	Central Theme: Nature offers continuous beauty and inspiration, even when it might seem dormant.
When all the birds are faint with the hot sun,	Summer Setting: Birds, typically associated with song, are silenced by the intense summer heat.
And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run	Nature’s Continuity: Though the birds fall silent, a different, vibrant voice emerges, highlighting the persistence of nature’s song.
From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead;	The Grasshopper’s Song: This voice is identified as the grasshopper’s, singing freely across the summer landscape.
That is the Grasshopper’s—he takes the lead	Grasshopper as Protagonist: The grasshopper becomes the focus as the leader of summertime music.
In summer luxury,—he has never done	Endless Delight: The grasshopper’s pleasure in summer appears boundless, embodying the abundance of the season.
With his delights; for when tired out with fun	Carefree Existence: Even when tired, the grasshopper’s enjoyment of summer doesn’t cease.
He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed.	Simple Pleasures: The grasshopper finds contentment and rest within nature’s simple offerings.
The poetry of earth is ceasing never:	Repetition with Variation: Echoes the first line but shifts the focus from summer to winter.
On a lone winter evening, when the frost	Winter Setting: Creates a stark, quiet setting, contrasting the previous summer scene.
Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills	Unexpected Music: Winter’s silence is surprisingly broken by an unlikely source – the cricket.
The Cricket’s song, in warmth increasing ever,	Cricket’s Comfort: The cricket’s song is associated with domestic warmth, offering comfort amidst the winter chill.
And seems to one in drowsiness half lost,	Dreamlike Quality: The cricket’s song induces a pleasant, dreamlike state, bringing peace within the cold.
The Grasshopper’s among some grassy hills.	Circle Back to Summer: Unexpectedly, the cricket’s song evokes the image of the grasshopper in a summer setting, highlighting nature’s continuous cycle of beauty.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

No.	Device	Example	Definition
1	Personification	“a voice will run From hedge to hedge”	Giving human characteristics to non-human entities or objects.
2	Metaphor	“The Poetry of earth”	A figure of speech that implies a comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as”.
3	Alliteration	“cooling trees”	Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.
4	Assonance	“hedge to hedge”	Repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words.
5	Symbolism	“new-mown mead”	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.
6	Enjambment	“That is the Grasshopper’s—he takes the lead”	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza.
7	Hyperbole	“In summer luxury”	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.
8	Anaphora	“The poetry of earth is never dead”	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses.
9	Repetition	“he has never done / With his delights”	The recurrence of words or phrases to create emphasis or reinforce meaning.
10	Oxymoron	“ceasing never”	A figure of speech in which contradictory terms are combined for emphasis or effect.
11	Onomatopoeia	“shrills”	Words that imitate the sound they describe.
12	Imagery	“On a lone winter evening”	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating mental images for the reader.
13	Simile	“The Cricket’s song, in warmth increasing ever,”	A figure of speech that compares two unlike things using “like” or “as”.
14	Synecdoche	“from the stove there shrills”	A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or vice versa.
15	Allusion	“The Poetry of earth”	A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance.
16	Consonance	“winter evening”	Repetition of consonant sounds within nearby words.
17	Parallelism	“The Poetry of earth is never dead”	The use of similar grammatical structures or patterns in successive phrases or clauses.
18	Euphony	“warmth increasing ever”	The quality of being pleasing to the ear, achieved through harmonious combinations of sounds.
19	Irony	“seems to one in drowsiness half lost”	A contrast between what is expected and what actually occurs, often with a humorous or poignant effect.
20	Paradox	“The Grasshopper’s among some grassy hills”	A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or logically absurd, but upon closer inspection, may reveal a deeper truth.

Themes: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

• Nature’s Unceasing Beauty: The poem’s central theme is the persistence of beauty within the natural world, even during seemingly barren times. Keats contrasts the grasshopper’s joyful summer song with the cricket’s comforting winter tune, emphasizing how inspiration and solace can arise even in the harshest seasons.
  • The repetition of “The poetry of earth…” highlights this persistence
  • The contrast between the “faint” birds and the lively insects reinforces this continuous cycle
• The Cyclical Nature of Time: The poem subtly explores how time moves in cycles. The cricket’s song, in a moment of dreamlike reverie, evokes the memory of the grasshopper. This blending of seasons suggests that the passage of time is not linear, but filled with echoes and repetitions of nature’s patterns.
  • The circular return to the grasshopper at the poem’s end reinforces this cyclical view
• The Power of Sound and Music: Keats highlights the powerful effect of sound in nature. Both the grasshopper and the cricket become sources of music, representing joy in summer and comfort in winter. Their songs act as potent forces, shaping the atmosphere and the listener’s emotions.
  • Words like “shrills,” “run,” and “lead” emphasize the active quality of their sounds
• Simple Pleasures and Contentment: The poem celebrates the simple pleasures found within nature. The grasshopper’s carefree existence, finding delight in a “pleasant weed,” suggests that contentment can be found in the most unassuming aspects of the natural world.
  • The grasshopper’s rest and enjoyment highlight this theme of simplicity

Literary Theories and “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

Literary Theory	Analysis of “On The Grasshopper and Cricket”	Reference
Formalism	Examines the poem’s structure, language, and form. Focuses on the use of poetic devices, such as metaphor, personification, and imagery, to convey meaning.	Keats’ use of metaphor to personify nature and its elements highlights the cyclical nature of life and the enduring beauty of the earth.
New Criticism	Analyzes the text in isolation from its historical or authorial context, focusing solely on its intrinsic qualities and meaning.	Through a close reading of the poem’s language and imagery, readers can appreciate its timeless themes of vitality and resilience.
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s subjective experience and interpretation of the text. Considers how individual readers’ backgrounds and experiences influence their understanding.	Different readers may interpret the Grasshopper and Cricket’s songs differently based on their personal associations with summer and winter.
Psychoanalytic	Explores the poem’s symbolism and imagery to uncover unconscious desires, fears, and conflicts. Analyzes the speaker’s psyche and emotional state.	The contrast between the Grasshopper’s summer song and the Cricket’s winter song could symbolize the speaker’s inner turmoil or emotional journey.
Marxist Criticism	Examines the poem’s portrayal of social class, power dynamics, and economic issues. Considers how societal structures influence the characters and their interactions.	The Grasshopper’s song in summer luxury may represent the leisure enjoyed by the upper class, while the Cricket’s song in winter reflects the struggles of the working class.
Feminist Criticism	Considers the representation of gender roles and relationships in the text. Examines how women and femininity are depicted and how they intersect with broader themes.	The absence of gender-specific language in the poem allows for interpretations of the Grasshopper and Cricket as gender-neutral symbols of nature and its cycles.

Critical Questions about “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

1. How does Keats employ the imagery of the grasshopper and cricket to symbolize the cyclical nature of life and the passage of time in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket”?

Keats utilizes the grasshopper’s vibrant summer song and the cricket’s melancholic winter chirp to symbolize the contrasting seasons of life. The grasshopper’s joyous chirping represents vitality, abundance, and the fecundity of summer, while the cricket’s somber song evokes the quiet solitude and dormancy of winter. Through this imagery, Keats suggests that life is a perpetual cycle of growth, decline, and renewal, echoing broader themes of mortality and the transient nature of existence.

• How does the absence of human presence in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” contribute to the poem’s portrayal of nature’s autonomy and significance?

Keats deliberately excludes human presence from the poem, allowing nature to take center stage as the primary subject. By focusing solely on the grasshopper and cricket, Keats emphasizes nature’s autonomy and intrinsic value independent of human influence. The absence of human characters underscores the idea that the poetry of earth exists beyond human perception and intervention, highlighting the interconnectedness of all living beings within the natural world.

• In what ways does Keats’ use of sound devices such as onomatopoeia and alliteration enhance the auditory experience of “On The Grasshopper and Cricket”?

Keats masterfully employs sound devices like onomatopoeia and alliteration to create an immersive auditory experience in the poem. The onomatopoeic words “shrills” and “shrill” vividly capture the sharp, piercing sound of the cricket’s chirping, evoking a sense of winter’s chill. Additionally, the alliteration in phrases like “cooling trees” and “hedge to hedge” amplifies the musicality of the poem, mimicking the rhythmic cadence of nature’s symphony. These sound devices not only enhance the poem’s sensory richness but also deepen its emotional resonance, inviting readers to fully immerse themselves in the soundscape of the natural world.

• How does Keats’ juxtaposition of summer and winter in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” reflect broader themes of contrast and harmony in his poetry?

Keats juxtaposes the liveliness of summer with the stillness of winter to explore themes of contrast and harmony in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket.” The stark difference between the grasshopper’s vibrant song in summer and the cricket’s subdued chirp in winter underscores the inherent duality of existence—joy and sorrow, life and death, growth and decay. Yet, despite these contrasts, Keats suggests a harmonious balance within nature’s rhythms, where each season plays a vital role in the cyclical continuum of life. This juxtaposition serves as a microcosm of Keats’ broader philosophical outlook, emphasizing the interconnectedness and equilibrium of opposing forces in the natural world.

Literary Works Similar to “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

• Romantic Poetry with Nature Themes:
  • “Ode to a Nightingale” (John Keats): Shares Keats’s fascination with the musicality of nature and its connection to human emotion.
  • “To Autumn” (John Keats): Focuses on change and abundance within the natural world, similar to the cyclical shifts in “On the Grasshopper and Cricket.”
  • “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” (William Wordsworth): Celebrates the simple beauty of nature and its lasting impact on the speaker’s memory.
• Poems Contrasting Seasons:
  • “The Four Seasons” (Antonio Vivaldi): A musical composition depicting the changing seasons, mirroring the shift from summer to winter in Keats’s poem.
  • “Winter” from The Seasons (James Thomson): Poetic exploration of winter’s harshness, providing a strong contrast to the warmth evoked by the cricket’s song.
• Works Celebrating Simple Creatures:
  • “To a Mouse” (Robert Burns): Focuses on a small creature and uses it to reflect on larger themes of life and hardship.
  • “The Tyger” (William Blake): Explores the awe-inspiring nature of a creature, much like Keats does with the persistent voices of the grasshopper and cricket.
• Sonnet Form:
  • Many of William Shakespeare’s sonnets: Share the same structure as Keats’s poem (14 lines, iambic pentameter), often exploring themes of love, time, and beauty.

Suggested Readings: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

Books

• Gittings, Robert. John Keats. Penguin Books, 1987. (Note: Look for chapters analyzing Keats’s sonnets or his recurring nature themes)
• Stillinger, Jack. The Poetry of John Keats. Harvard University Press, 1981. (Note: Offers extensive analysis of Keats’s work, likely including “On the Grasshopper and Cricket”)

Articles

• Vendler, Helen. “Keats’s ‘To Autumn’ and ‘On the Grasshopper and Cricket.'” The Harvard Advocate, vol. 135, no. 4-5, 1981, pp. 5-9.
• Sperry, Stuart M. “From ‘On the Grasshopper and Cricket’ to ‘Ode to a Nightingale.'” Keats-Shelley Journal, vol. 19, 1970, pp. 1-8. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed].

Websites

• Keats, John. “On the Grasshopper and Cricket.” Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/53210/on-the-grasshpper-and-cricket.
• “On the Grasshopper and Cricket – Poem Analysis.” Poem Analysis, 20 Dec. 2018, https://poemanalysis.com/john-keats/

Introduction: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

“Ode to Psyche” by John Keats was written in the spring of 1819 and published in 1820 as part of his acclaimed collection Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. The poem stands out as a unique experiment within the ode form. Instead of the structured stanzas found in works like “Ode on a Grecian Urn” or “Ode to a Nightingale,” Keats adopts a looser, more free-flowing style in “Ode to Psyche”. This choice reflects the poem’s celebration of the imagination and its ability to create realms of worship and devotion, even for a goddess long neglected by the world.

Text: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

O Goddess! hear these tuneless numbers, wrung

         By sweet enforcement and remembrance dear,

And pardon that thy secrets should be sung

         Even into thine own soft-conched ear:

Surely I dreamt to-day, or did I see

         The winged Psyche with awaken’d eyes?

I wander’d in a forest thoughtlessly,

         And, on the sudden, fainting with surprise,

Saw two fair creatures, couched side by side

         In deepest grass, beneath the whisp’ring roof

         Of leaves and trembled blossoms, where there ran

                A brooklet, scarce espied:

Mid hush’d, cool-rooted flowers, fragrant-eyed,

         Blue, silver-white, and budded Tyrian,

They lay calm-breathing, on the bedded grass;

         Their arms embraced, and their pinions too;

         Their lips touch’d not, but had not bade adieu,

As if disjoined by soft-handed slumber,

And ready still past kisses to outnumber

         At tender eye-dawn of aurorean love:

                The winged boy I knew;

But who wast thou, O happy, happy dove?

                His Psyche true!

O latest born and loveliest vision far

         Of all Olympus’ faded hierarchy!

Fairer than Phoebe’s sapphire-region’d star,

         Or Vesper, amorous glow-worm of the sky;

Fairer than these, though temple thou hast none,

                Nor altar heap’d with flowers;

Nor virgin-choir to make delicious moan

                Upon the midnight hours;

No voice, no lute, no pipe, no incense sweet

         From chain-swung censer teeming;

No shrine, no grove, no oracle, no heat

         Of pale-mouth’d prophet dreaming.

O brightest! though too late for antique vows,

         Too, too late for the fond believing lyre,

When holy were the haunted forest boughs,

         Holy the air, the water, and the fire;

Yet even in these days so far retir’d

         From happy pieties, thy lucent fans,

         Fluttering among the faint Olympians,

I see, and sing, by my own eyes inspir’d.

So let me be thy choir, and make a moan

                Upon the midnight hours;

Thy voice, thy lute, thy pipe, thy incense sweet

         From swinged censer teeming;

Thy shrine, thy grove, thy oracle, thy heat

         Of pale-mouth’d prophet dreaming.

Yes, I will be thy priest, and build a fane

         In some untrodden region of my mind,

Where branched thoughts, new grown with pleasant pain,

         Instead of pines shall murmur in the wind:

Far, far around shall those dark-cluster’d trees

         Fledge the wild-ridged mountains steep by steep;

And there by zephyrs, streams, and birds, and bees,

         The moss-lain Dryads shall be lull’d to sleep;

And in the midst of this wide quietness

A rosy sanctuary will I dress

   With the wreath’d trellis of a working brain,

         With buds, and bells, and stars without a name,

With all the gardener Fancy e’er could feign,

         Who breeding flowers, will never breed the same:

And there shall be for thee all soft delight

         That shadowy thought can win,

A bright torch, and a casement ope at night,

         To let the warm Love in!

Annotations: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Stanza	Annotation
Stanza 1	* The speaker addresses Psyche, the goddess of the soul, as if she can hear him. He seeks forgiveness for revealing her secrets in his poem. He then describes a vision – Psyche with open eyes, and then the discovery of two figures (Psyche and Cupid). These lines evoke uncertainty (dreams vs. reality) and introduce the poem’s themes: love, beauty, and the soul.
Stanza 2	* This stanza focuses on the intertwined figures of Psyche and Cupid. It details their physical closeness, even in sleep, hinting at a passionate but unconsummated love. The final lines identify Cupid, then question who Psyche could be and celebrate her as his true love.*
Stanza 3	* The speaker elevates Psyche above other goddesses, comparing her favorably to Phoebe (goddess of the moon) and Vesper (the evening star). He notes that even without traditional temples or worship, her beauty and spirit are unmatched.*
Stanza 4	* The speaker laments being born in a time when the power of the ancient gods, nature, and faith has diminished. Despite this, Psyche remains a powerful inspiration. The speaker declares himself her devotee, promising to replace the external trappings of worship with internal devotion.*
Stanza 5	* The speaker offers to create a sacred space for Psyche within his mind. He compares his creative thoughts to growing branches and the workings of his mind to a fertile garden. This stanza centers on imagination as a sacred space.*
Stanza 6	* Closing the poem, the speaker describes the sanctuary he will build for Psyche within his mind. It’s a place of beauty, wildness, and natural harmony. He promises her a place of contemplation, warmth, and the entry of love. *

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “Ode to Psyche”	Explanation
Alliteration	“Blue, blue-silver, and budded Tyrian”	Repetition of consonant sounds for emphasis and musicality.
Allusion	“Phoebe’s sapphire-region’d star”, “Vesper”	References to figures in classical mythology (Phoebe, goddess of the moon, and Vesper, the evening star) to add depth and evoke history.
Apostrophe	“O Goddess!”	Direct address to an absent figure (Psyche), creating dramatic intensity.
Enjambment	“…thy lucent fans, / Fluttering among the faint Olympians…”	Lines flow into each other without pause, enhancing meaning & rhythm.
Hyperbole	“O latest born and loveliest vision far / Of all Olympus’ faded hierarchy!”	Exaggeration to emphasize Psyche’s beauty and importance.
Imagery	“Where branched thoughts, new grown with pleasant pain, / Instead of pines shall murmur in the wind “	Vivid sensory descriptions to create mental pictures.
Inversion	“Sweet enforcement”	Reversal of usual word order for emphasis and poetic effect.
Metaphor	“And there by zephyrs, streams, and birds, and bees, / The moss-lain Dryads shall be lull’d to sleep;”	Compares Dryads (tree spirits) to sleeping figures, blending the natural and mythical.
Ode	The entire poem is an ode: a formal, lyrical poem of praise.
Oxymoron	“pleasant pain”	Contradictory terms joined to express complex emotions.
Personification	“And ready still past kisses to outnumber / At tender eye-dawn of aurorean love”	Gives human qualities (kissing, outnumbering) to abstract concepts (kisses and love).
Repetition	“…thy lute, thy pipe, thy incense sweet…”	Repeating “thy” emphasizes the speaker’s act of creating elements of worship.
Rhetorical Question	“But who wast thou, O happy, happy dove?”	Question posed for effect, not expecting an answer, heightening drama.
Sensory Language	“whisp’ring roof / Of leaves and trembled blossoms”, “hush’d, cool-rooted flowers”	Appeals to multiple senses (sight, sound, touch) to create a vivid experience.
Sibilance	” Surely I dreamt to-day, or did I see / The winged Psyche with awaken’d eyes?”	Repetition of the ‘s’ sound for a soft, dreamy effect.
Simile	“As if disjoined by soft-handed slumber”	Comparison using ‘as if’ to describe the lovers’ separation.
Symbolism	Psyche herself symbolizes the soul; Cupid represents love.
Synesthesia	“fragrant-eyed”	Blending senses (smell and sight) for a unique, imaginative effect.
Tone	Shifts from awe, reverence, and uncertainty to passionate devotion and imaginative energy.
Vivid Diction	“lucent fans”, “soft-conched ear”, “pale-mouth’d prophet”	Uses striking, evocative word choices to create powerful images.

Themes: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

1. The Power of Imagination

• The speaker celebrates the imagination as a sacred space, able to create what the external world lacks: “Yes, I will be thy priest, and build a fane / In some untrodden region of my mind”.
• He envisions a richly detailed sanctuary for Psyche: “With the wreath’d trellis of a working brain, / With buds, and bells, and stars without a name”.
• Imagination (“Fancy”) is seen as a limitless source of beauty and creativity: “Who breeding flowers, will never breed the same”.

2. The Search for Beauty and the Soul

• Psyche, the goddess of the soul, is described as “loveliest vision far / Of all Olympus’ faded hierarchy!”, exceeding traditional goddesses in beauty as the soul may transcend the gods.
• The speaker’s devotion is sparked by her beauty, yet there’s an emphasis on Psyche’s inner essence. The word “soul” isn’t explicit, but the poem celebrates its qualities.
• This reflects Keats’s concept of ‘Negative Capability’: embracing mystery and uncertainty, which is linked to appreciating beauty without dissecting it.

3. The Lament for Lost Faith and Reverence

• Keats acknowledges a secularized world: “Too late for antique vows… the fond believing lyre”.
• Ancient Greek religion is idealized: “When holy were the haunted forest boughs, / Holy the air, the water, and the fire”.
• However, Keats finds a new spiritual inspiration in Psyche, and in his ability to use imagination to create his own devotional space.

4. The Interplay of Love and the Psyche

• The poem begins with the revelation of Psyche and Cupid intertwined, sparking the speaker’s journey.
• Psyche’s identity is revealed through her connection with Eros (Cupid), the god of love.
• There’s an emphasis on a tender, ideal love: “At tender eye-dawn of aurorean love”.
• The speaker promises Psyche a place where love can enter: “A bright torch, and a casement ope at night, / To let the warm Love in!”

Literary Theories and “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

New Criticism:

• ·  Focus on the text itself: Closely read the poem for its formal elements like imagery (“fragrant-eyed”, “lucent fans”), symbolism (Psyche representing the soul), and Keats’s use of the ode form.
• Ambiguity and paradox: Explore the contradictions within the poem, like “pleasant pain” or the tension between the “faded hierarchy” of Olympus and the new inspiration of Psyche.
• Keats’s focus on imagination and beauty as their own end goal, rather than conveying a specific moral or message aligns with principles of New Criticism.

Reader-Response Theory:

• The reader’s role: Consider how your emotional responses shape your interpretation. Does the poem evoke awe, longing, sadness, or a sense of creative possibility?
• Varying interpretations: Different readers might prioritize different aspects of the poem (its beauty vs. its commentary on faith), leading to diverse readings.
• The line “O Goddess! hear these tuneless numbers…” invites the reader directly into the poem, making them a participant in the speaker’s act of devotion.

Psychoanalytic Theory:

• Unconscious desires: Could the speaker’s devotion to Psyche represent an unconscious yearning for something unattainable, or a wish for greater spiritual connection?
• Symbols and dreams: Explore the dreamlike quality of the poem’s opening (“Surely I dreamt today…?”), and how it blurs the boundaries between imagination and reality.
• The emphasis on Psyche, representing the soul, can be read through a psychoanalytic lens as a quest for self-understanding.

Deconstruction:

• Questioning binaries: Does the poem ultimately reinforce or challenge traditional oppositions of mind/body, dream/reality, or old gods/new gods?
• Hidden contradictions: Is there an undercurrent of doubt beneath the speaker’s overt praise of Psyche? Look for moments where language might undercut itself.
• The line “Too, too late for the fond believing lyre” hints at a sadness while simultaneously celebrating a new, less dogmatic form of belief the speaker himself creates.

Critical Questions about “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Topic	Critical Questions
Imagination as Sacred Space	* How does the speaker transform his own mind into a sanctuary for Psyche? What does this suggest about the value Keats places on imagination? * Does the imaginative world the speaker creates hold the same power as traditional religious spaces?
The Nature of Beauty	* How is beauty portrayed in the poem? Is it solely external, or is inner beauty emphasized as well? * In what ways does Keats challenge traditional notions of beauty tied to ancient Greek deities?
Spirituality and Faith	* Does the poem offer a completely secular viewpoint, or does it create a new form of spirituality centered around Psyche and the imagination? * How does the speaker’s lament for lost faith (“too late for antique vows”) shape his new devotion to Psyche?
Love and the Soul	* What kind of bond does the poem portray between Psyche and Cupid? Is it primarily physical, or more complex? * In what ways does the poem suggest a connection between the experience of love and the exploration of one’s inner self?
Keats’s Romantic Sensibilities	* How does “Ode to Psyche” exemplify key elements of Romantic poetry, such as the focus on nature, the idealization of emotion, and the importance of the individual? * In what ways does the poem engage with

Literary Works Similar to “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

• Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty”: Both poems elevate abstract concepts (Intellectual Beauty and Psyche, representing the soul), emphasizing their power to inspire. They champion internal contemplation and the poet’s ability to embody the intangible.
• William Wordsworth’s “Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood”: Wordsworth and Keats share a nostalgic longing for a perceived spiritual connection that has been lost. Both poets find solace and inspiration in nature’s profound beauty.
• William Blake’s “Songs of Innocence and of Experience”: Blake’s exploration of contrasting worldviews mirrors a tension in “Ode to Psyche,” questioning established hierarchies and seeking new forms of devotion. Both poets employ evocative imagery and rich symbolism.
• Mythological Retellings: Keats’s focus on a lesser-known mythological figure and exploration of the psychology of the gods has parallels in works by later poets who also reimagine classical myths:
• H.D.’s (Hilda Doolittle) poetry: Her starkly beautiful poems often center on female figures from mythology, re-examining their stories from a distinctly modern perspective.
• Ted Hughes’s Tales from Ovid: This powerful translation explores the raw, often violent passions within Ovid’s myths, resonating with Keats’s exploration of the complex relationship between love and the soul.

Key Points of Analysis:

• Focus on Inner Worlds: Many of these works share Keats’s emphasis on the internal landscape of the mind, emotion, and spirit as sites of profound experience.
• Re-examination of Tradition: These poets, while drawing inspiration from the past, challenge traditional concepts of beauty, spirituality, and mythology, carving out their own unique modes of expression.
• Evocative Language and Aesthetics: Like Keats, these poets rely heavily on striking imagery, symbolism, and musicality of language to convey complex ideas and emotions.

Suggested Readings: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Scholarly Monographs

• Bate, Walter Jackson. John Keats. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.
  • Provides a definitive biography of Keats, deeply contextualizing his poetry, including “Ode to Psyche,” within his life and experiences.
• Sperry, Stuart M. Keats the Poet. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973.
  • Offers a detailed examination of Keats’s artistic evolution, tracing thematic threads throughout his odes and situating “Ode to Psyche” as a pivotal work.
• Vendler, Helen. The Odes of John Keats. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1983.
  • A highly regarded study of Keats’s odes, offering meticulous analysis and unpacking the nuanced complexities of “Ode to Psyche.”

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Gittings, Robert. “Keats’s ‘Ode to Psyche’.” The Keats-Shelley Review, vol. 10, 1996, pp. 1-8.
  • Explores the historical contexts and potential biographical inspirations that shaped Keats’s composition of the ode.
• Keach, William. “Cockney Keats: A Foucauldian Reading of Keats’s ‘Ode to Psyche.'” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 31, no. 4, 1991, pp 685-706.
  • Presents a theoretical reading of the poem, analyzing power dynamics, social class, and the construction of identity within the poem’s structure.
• Stillinger, Jack. “The Hoodwinking of Madeline: Skepticism in ‘The Eve of St. Agnes’ and ‘Ode to Psyche.’ ” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 5, no. 3, 1966, pp. 133-155.
  • Analyzes the poem’s engagement with themes of doubt and the potential for illusion, offering insightful connections within Keats’s larger body of work.

Reputable Online Resources

• The Keats-Shelley House Website: https://www.keats-shelley-house.org/
  • Offers curated articles, biographical information, and multimedia content providing a comprehensive exploration of Keats’s life and poetry.
• Poetry Foundation: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44480/ode-to-psyche
  • Provides the poem’s text with essential critical notes and links to further resources on Keats.

Introduction: “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

“We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson first appeared in the Springfield Republican in 1862, although it wasn’t included in any of her collections published during her lifetime. The poem explores the human capacity to adapt to difficult circumstances and changing conditions. With her characteristic use of dashes and concise language, Dickinson examines the gradual process of adjusting to metaphorical darkness, suggesting that even in the bleakest of times, we develop a resilience that allows us to navigate uncertainty. This poem resonates for its exploration of universal human experiences and its subtle notes of optimism within the acknowledgment of hardship, displaying the timeless qualities of Dickinson’s work.

Text: “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. We grow accustomed to the Dark—
2. When Light is put away—
3. As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp
4. To witness her Goodbye—

1. A Moment—We uncertain step
2. For newness of the night—
3. Then—fit our Vision to the Dark—
4. And meet the Road—erect—

1. And so of larger—Darknesses—
2. Those Evenings of the Brain—
3. When not a Moon disclose a sign—
4. Or Star—come out—within—

1. The Bravest—grope a little—
2. And sometimes hit a Tree
3. Directly in the Forehead—
4. But as they learn to see—

1. Either the Darkness alters—
2. Or something in the sight
3. Adjusts itself to Midnight—
4. And Life steps almost straight.

Annotations of “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Line	Difficult Words or Phrases	Annotations
1	accustomed	familiar with; used to
2	put away	turned off
3	witness	observe
5	uncertain step	tentative movement
6	newness of the night	unfamiliarity with darkness
7	fit our Vision to the Dark	adjust our sight to the darkness
8	erect	upright
9	larger Darknesses	metaphorical reference to greater challenges or struggles
11	disclose	reveal
13	grope a little	feel around uncertainly
15	Directly in the Forehead	in the face
17	Darkness alters	changes in the darkness
18	something in the sight	visual perception
19	Adjusts itself to Midnight	adapts to the darkness of night

Literary Devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Device	Verse Reference	Identification, Meanings, and Explanations
Alliteration	Line 15: “Directly in the Forehead”	The repetition of the “D” sound in the words “Directly” and “Forehead” creates a harsh and abrupt sound, emphasizing the pain and suddenness of hitting a tree in the darkness.
Assonance	Line 1: “We grow accustomed to the Dark”	The repetition of the “ow” sound in “grow” and “accustomed” creates a sense of familiarity and comfort, emphasizing the idea that darkness can become something we are accustomed to.
Consonance	Line 6: “For newness of the night”	The repetition of the “n” sound in “newness” and “night” creates a soft and flowing sound, evoking a sense of the calm and peacefulness of the night.
Enjambment	Lines 5-6: “A Moment—We uncertain step / For newness of the night—”	The sentence continues from line 5 to line 6 without any punctuation, creating a sense of movement and uncertainty as the speaker takes a step into the darkness.
Hyperbole	Line 13: “The Bravest—grope a little—”	The use of “a little” exaggerates the difficulty of navigating in the dark, implying that even the bravest individuals struggle in unfamiliar or completely dark environments.
Imagery	Line 10: “Those Evenings of the Brain—”	The use of the word “evenings” creates a visual image of a dark and shadowy space within the mind.
Irony	Line 2: “When Light is put away—”	The use of “put away” to describe the act of turning off a light is ironic, as it implies a casual and effortless action when in reality, it can create a sense of unease and uncertainty.
Metaphor	Line 3: “As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp”	The darkness is compared to a physical object, with the neighbor’s lamp serving as a symbol of the light that provides guidance in the darkness.
Onomatopoeia	Line 14: “And sometimes hit a Tree”	The use of “hit” creates a sharp and abrupt sound, emphasizing the suddenness and impact of colliding with an object in the darkness.
Oxymoron	Line 9: “larger—Darknesses”	The use of the word “larger” contradicts the idea of darkness, which is typically associated with a lack of substance or mass.
Paradox	Line 17: “Either the Darkness alters—”	The idea that darkness can change or alter itself is contradictory, creating a paradoxical statement that emphasizes the unpredictability of the darkness.
Personification	Line 1: “We grow accustomed to the Dark—”	Darkness is personified as something that can be experienced and adjusted to, emphasizing the speaker’s relationship with the darkness.
Repetition	Line 1: “We grow accustomed to the Dark—”	The repetition of “We” at the beginning of the line creates a sense of community or shared experience, emphasizing the universality of the speaker’s experience.
Rhyme	Line 4: “To witness her Goodbye—”	The words “by” and “goodbye” rhyme, creating a musical and memorable sound that emphasizes the finality and sadness of the neighbor’s departure.
Simile	Line 3: “As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp”	The darkness is compared to a situation where a neighbor holds a
Symbolism	4	“To witness her Goodbye—” – the neighbor’s goodbye is symbolic of a farewell to light and the arrival of darkness.
Synecdoche	19-20	“And Life steps almost straight” – the use of “Life” represents the person’s journey or path through the darkness.

Sound and Poetic Devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Device	Examples/Reference	Meanings and Functions
Alliteration	“We uncertain step” (line 5)	The repetition of the “s” sound in “uncertain step” emphasizes the hesitation and uncertainty of stepping into the darkness.
Assonance	“meet the Road—erect” (line 8)	The repeated “ee” sound in “meet” and “erect” creates a sense of firmness and resolve in the face of the darkness.
Consonance	“Witness her Goodbye” (line 4)	The repeated “s” and “d” sounds in “witness,” “her,” and “goodbye” create a soft, melancholic sound that reflects the sadness of saying farewell.
End Rhyme	“Brain” and “within” (lines 10-12)	The end rhyme of “brain” and “within” creates a sense of closure and completeness to the thought.
Rhyme Scheme	ABCBDEFE (stanzas 1-2), GGHHII (stanzas 3-4)	The consistent rhyme scheme creates a sense of pattern and structure, while the different rhyme sounds in each stanza give them distinct moods.
Diction	“We grow accustomed” (line 1)	The choice of “grow accustomed” instead of “become accustomed” creates a sense of gradual adaptation and familiarity over time.
Verse Type	Blank Verse	The poem is written in blank verse, which is unrhymed iambic pentameter. This creates a sense of natural rhythm and flow that echoes the poem’s themes of adaptation and adjustment.
Stanza Type	Quatrain (ABCB)	The poem is divided into four quatrains, which creates a sense of structure and order. Each stanza explores a different aspect of darkness and adaptation.
Poem Type	Lyric Poetry	The poem is a lyric poem, which is a type of poetry that expresses personal emotions or feelings. The poem’s intimate tone and focus on the speaker’s personal experience of darkness reflect this genre.
Tone	Melancholic	The poem has a melancholic tone that reflects the sadness and uncertainty of darkness. The speaker’s gradual adjustment to the darkness creates a sense of hope, but this is tempered by a sense of loss and sorrow.

Functions of Literary Devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. Enhancing the Imagery: In “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark,” Dickinson uses several literary devices to create vivid imagery that portrays the darkness and the fear of the unknown. For example, the alliteration in “uncertain step” emphasizes the disorientation of walking in the dark, while the metaphor of the “larger darknesses” in the brain conveys the deeper psychological impact of the fear of the unknown.
2. Creating a Musicality: The poem’s musicality is also heightened by literary devices such as rhyme and rhythm. The end rhyme in the first and third lines of each stanza creates a sense of symmetry and closure, while the internal rhyme in lines 1 and 2 of stanza 2 contributes to the poem’s musicality.
3. Establishing a Tone: The use of literary devices helps to establish the poem’s tone of resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity. The repetition of the phrase “We grow accustomed to the dark” throughout the poem creates a sense of acceptance and adaptation, while the use of enjambment in lines 7-8 of the second stanza creates a feeling of determination.
4. Conveying Meaning: Finally, literary devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” convey meaning by emphasizing the themes of the poem. For example, the metaphor of “fitting our vision to the dark” in line 7 of stanza 2 suggests that we must adjust to difficult circumstances and challenges in life. The alliteration in “directly in the forehead” in line 15 reinforces the idea that overcoming obstacles requires bravery and perseverance.

Themes in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. Human Adaptability: The poem’s opening lines suggest that humans have an innate ability to adapt to challenging circumstances. We can grow accustomed to the darkness when the light is put away, and adjust our vision to meet the road ahead. This theme reminds us that we are capable of overcoming challenges, even in the face of adversity. As the poem says, “We grow accustomed to the Dark—/ When Light is put away—” (lines 1-2).
2. The Struggle of Adjustment: The poem describes the initial uncertainty and disorientation that we may feel when we first encounter darkness. We may take uncertain steps and struggle to adjust to the newness of the night. This theme reminds us that change can be difficult, but with time and effort, we can adapt and thrive in new circumstances. As the poem says, “A Moment—We uncertain step/ For newness of the night—” (lines 5-6).
3. The Importance of Perseverance and Courage: The poem highlights the importance of resilience and the ability to persevere through difficult times. Even the bravest among us may stumble and hit a tree directly in the forehead, but with practice, we can learn to overcome the challenges that darkness presents. This theme reminds us that perseverance and courage are key to navigating challenging situations. As the poem says, “The Bravest—grope a little—/ And sometimes hit a Tree/ Directly in the Forehead—” (lines 13-15).
4. The Transformative Power of Darkness: The poem suggests that darkness can be transformative, bringing about new insights, perspectives, and a deeper appreciation for the light. As we adjust our vision to the darkness, something in our sight adjusts itself to midnight, and life steps almost straight. This theme reminds us that challenging circumstances can be opportunities for growth and transformation, and that by embracing darkness and the difficulties it presents, we can emerge stronger, wiser, and more resilient. As the poem says, “Either the Darkness alters—/ Or something in the sight/ Adjusts itself to Midnight—/ And Life steps almost straight.” (lines 17-20).

Literary Theories and Interpretations of “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. Psychoanalytic interpretation: One interpretation of this poem from a psychoanalytic perspective is that it represents the human psyche’s ability to adjust and cope with difficult situations. Dickinson uses darkness as a metaphor for life’s uncertainties, fears, and anxieties, which we must learn to accept and live with. The speaker’s journey into darkness can be seen as a metaphor for the human psyche’s descent into the unconscious. The poem suggests that as we confront and learn to live with the darkness in our lives, we gain the strength and resilience to cope with life’s challenges. Example: “And so of larger – Darknesses – Those Evenings of the Brain – When not a Moon disclose a sign – Or Star – come out – within -“
2. Feminist interpretation: From a feminist perspective, this poem can be read as a commentary on the restrictions that society places on women’s lives. The “Darkness” in the poem can be interpreted as the societal norms and expectations that limit women’s opportunities and autonomy. The line “As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp/ To witness her Goodbye” can be seen as an allusion to the idea of the male gaze, where women are constantly being watched and judged by men. The poem suggests that women must learn to navigate and survive in a world that is often hostile and oppressive towards them. Example: “And meet the Road – erect -“
3. Reader-response interpretation: A reader-response interpretation of this poem emphasizes the reader’s role in creating meaning from the text. The poem’s use of imagery and metaphor invites the reader to imagine their own personal struggles and how they cope with darkness in their own lives. This interpretation emphasizes the poem’s universality, as it speaks to the human experience of learning to live with uncertainty and the unknown. Example: “And so of larger – Darknesses – Those Evenings of the Brain – When not a Moon disclose a sign – Or Star – come out – within -“
4. New Criticism interpretation: From a New Criticism perspective, the poem’s language, structure, and literary devices are central to its meaning. The poem’s use of repetition, such as “We grow accustomed to the Dark,” emphasizes the poem’s central theme of adapting to difficult situations. The poem’s imagery, such as “The Bravest – grope a little – And sometimes hit a Tree Directly in the Forehead,” suggests that the journey into darkness is not without risk, but that it is necessary for growth and resilience. Example: “A Moment – We uncertain step For newness of the night -“

Essay Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. The Themes of Death and Darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does Dickinson explore the theme of death in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”?
• How does the darkness in the poem serve as a metaphor for death and the unknown?
• Thesis statement: Through her use of vivid imagery and metaphorical language, Dickinson explores the themes of death and darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” to convey the human struggle with mortality and the unknown.

2. The Role of Perception and Adaptation in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does the speaker’s perception of the darkness change throughout the poem?
• What is the significance of the speaker’s adaptation to the darkness?
• Thesis statement: Dickinson uses the metaphor of darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” to explore the importance of perception and adaptation in overcoming adversity and navigating the unknown.

3. The Feminist Interpretation of “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does Dickinson challenge traditional gender roles in the poem?
• In what ways does the female perspective play a role in the poem’s themes?
• Thesis statement: By exploring themes of strength, perseverance, and adaptation through a female perspective in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark,” Dickinson challenges traditional gender roles and presents a feminist interpretation of the human experience.

4. The Use of Metaphorical Language in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does Dickinson use metaphorical language to convey the poem’s themes?
• What is the significance of the recurring metaphor of darkness in the poem?
• Thesis statement: Through her use of metaphorical language, particularly the recurring metaphor of darkness, Dickinson effectively conveys the themes of human struggle, adaptation, and perseverance in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark.”

Short Questions-Answers about “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. What is the significance of the imagery of darkness in the poem?

The imagery of darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” serves as a metaphor for the unknown and difficult experiences that we face in life. The darkness is representative of the obstacles we encounter and the uncertainties we face when we are faced with new situations or when we are forced to say goodbye to something or someone. Line 1 states, “We grow accustomed to the Dark,” implying that we become familiar with the struggles that come with darkness, and line 5 mentions how we “uncertain step” as we navigate through the unfamiliarity of the night.

2. What is the meaning behind the line “And sometimes hit a Tree/Directly in the Forehead”?

The line “And sometimes hit a Tree/Directly in the Forehead” (lines 14-15) highlights the painful experiences that come with navigating through the darkness. The “tree” can be interpreted as a symbol of the obstacles we encounter in life, which can cause us physical and emotional pain. The line also shows how we are sometimes blindsided by these obstacles, and the phrase “Directly in the Forehead” suggests that the pain is intense and immediate. However, the pain is only temporary, and as we learn to see in the darkness, we become better equipped to navigate through our struggles.

3. What is the significance of the use of the word “erect” in the poem?

The word “erect” in line 8 serves as a symbol of strength and resilience. The line states, “And meet the Road—erect—,” implying that we face our challenges with a sense of determination and confidence. Despite the obstacles we face, we stand tall and strong as we navigate through the darkness. The use of “erect” can also be interpreted as a metaphor for the importance of staying grounded and rooted during times of uncertainty.

4. How does the poem suggest that we adapt to darkness?

The poem suggests that we adapt to darkness through perseverance and the ability to adjust our vision. In line 7, the speaker mentions how we “fit our Vision to the Dark,” indicating that we learn to see in the darkness and adapt to our surroundings. The final stanza suggests that either the darkness changes or we change how we see it, indicating that as we become more accustomed to the darkness, we become better equipped to navigate through it. The poem also highlights the importance of bravery in the face of uncertainty and the ability to learn from our mistakes as we adapt to the darkness.

Literary Works Similar to “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. “Hope is the thing with feathers” by Emily Dickinson: Another short poem by Dickinson, exploring the enduring nature of hope even within difficult circumstances.
2. “Acquainted with the Night” by Robert Frost: This poem delves into themes of loneliness and alienation within a nocturnal setting, with a hint at finding solace in the shared experience of darkness.
3. “Do not go gentle into that good night” by Dylan Thomas: While the focus is on death, the poem’s core message is the fight for life and the refusal to accept darkness without resistance.
4. Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance: Many poets of this movement, like Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, explored themes of struggle, perseverance, and finding light and identity within the metaphorical darkness of oppression.
5. Existentialist literature: Works by writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre or Albert Camus often explore the darkness of the human condition, and the search for meaning and individual strength within an ultimately absurd world.

Suggested Readings: “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Books

• Sewall, Richard B. The Life of Emily Dickinson. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994.
• Wolff, Cynthia Griffin. Emily Dickinson. Alfred A. Knopf, 1986.
• Martin, Wendy. An American Triptych: Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Adrienne Rich. University of North Carolina Press, 1984.

Articles

• Cameron, Sharon. “Lyric Time in Emily Dickinson’s Poems.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 87, no. 4, 1979, pp. 575–596. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27541052.
• Gelpi, Barbara Charlesworth. “Emily Dickinson and the Deerslayer: The Dilemma of the Woman Poet in America.” Feminist Re-Visions, edited by Vivian Patraka and Louise A. Tilly. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983, pp. 77-95.
• Eberwein, Jane Donahue. “‘Esteem Her most for Consciousness’: Revaluing Dickinson’s Textual Revisions.” Dickinson Studies, no. 58, 1987, pp. 49–69. Project Muse, muse.jhu.edu/article/395732.

Websites

• The Emily Dickinson Museum: https://www.emilydickinsonmuseum.org/ (Offers biographies, analyses, and other resources)
• The Poetry Foundation: [invalid URL removed] (Provides the poem’s text and some critical commentary)
• Emily Dickinson Archive: https://www.edickinson.org/ (A comprehensive digital archive of Dickinson’s manuscripts and scholarship)