Category: Literary Theory

Introduction to Deconstruction Literary Theory

The common term used in academic discourse is “Deconstruction” or “Deconstruction literary theory.” While both “Deconstructionism” and “Deconstruction” are occasionally used interchangeably, “Deconstruction” is the more widely recognized and accepted term when referring to the critical theory associated with thinkers like Jacques Derrida. It is used to describe the analytical approach that seeks to uncover the inherent contradictions, ambiguities, and complexities within texts.

Etymology of Deconstruction

The term “deconstruction” originates from the French word déconstruction, which itself has its roots in the Latin language. The Latin term “de-” means “to undo” or “to reverse,” while construere means “to build” or “to construct.” Therefore, “deconstruction” is understood as the process of “unbuilding” or “undoing” the structures or assumptions underlying a text or concept.

Meanings of Deconstruction

1. Textual Subversion: Deconstruction involves the subversion of traditional notions of meaning and interpretation within texts, emphasizing the instability and multiplicity of meanings inherent in language.
2. De-centering Binary Opposites: It challenges binary oppositions and hierarchies present in language and culture, revealing how terms like “good” and “evil” are interconnected and dependent on each other.
3. Différance: Deconstruction introduces the concept of “différance,” highlighting the constant deferral and difference in meaning, where meanings are deferred from one signifier to another.
4. Undecidability: It emphasizes the undecidability of language, suggesting that complete and fixed interpretations are impossible, leading to a perpetual play of signifiers.
5. Textual Playfulness: Deconstruction often employs strategies of wordplay, irony, and paradox to disrupt conventional interpretations and reveal hidden complexities.
6. Contextualization: Deconstruction considers the historical, cultural, and linguistic context of a text as crucial for understanding its multiple interpretations.
7. Reader Involvement: It acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning and views interpretation as a collaborative and subjective process.
8. Critique of Logocentrism: Deconstruction critiques “logocentrism,” the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language, by highlighting its inherent contradictions.
9. Non-foundationalism: It rejects the idea of foundational truths or fixed meanings, promoting a view that meaning is contingent and always open to revision.
10. Interdisciplinary Influence: Deconstruction has influenced various fields beyond literature, including philosophy, linguistics, cultural studies, and the social sciences.

Deconstruction Literary Theory and Deconstructionism: Comparison and Contrast

Deconstruction Literary Theory	Deconstructionism
Developed by Jacques Derrida in the late 1960s and early 1970s.	A broader term encompassing deconstruction as a literary theory and its wider implications.
A response to structuralism, a dominant approach to literary analysis at the time.	Influenced by Jacques Derrida’s ideas.
Seeks to reveal and challenge underlying assumptions and binary oppositions within a text.	Extends beyond literature to other fields like philosophy, social sciences, art, and architecture.
Exposes inherent instabilities and contradictions within texts.	Incorporates deconstructive thought across various disciplines.
Emphasizes the instability of language and the constructed nature of meaning.	Explores the instability of language and meaning in diverse contexts.
Analyzes how texts deconstruct themselves through contradictions and aporias.	Challenges hierarchical binaries and traditional conceptual frameworks.
Questions hierarchical binaries and traditional notions of truth and authorial intention.

Deconstruction Literary Theory/Deconstructionism: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

• Emerged in the mid-20th century as a philosophical and literary movement, primarily associated with French thinker Jacques Derrida.

Theorists:

• Jacques Derrida: The foremost proponent and theorist of Deconstruction, Derrida’s works, such as Of Grammatology and “Writing and Difference,” laid the foundation for the theory.

Works:

• Of Grammatology (1967): In this seminal work, Derrida explores the nature of writing and its relationship to speech, challenging the hierarchical distinctions between the two.
• Writing and Difference (1967): Derrida discusses the concepts of différance, the play of signifiers, and the deconstruction of metaphysical oppositions in language and thought.

Arguments:

• De-centering of Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction argues against fixed binary oppositions in language, revealing how terms like presence/absence, good/evil, and speech/writing are interconnected and mutually dependent.
• Différance: The concept of “différance” underscores the constant deferral and difference in meaning, suggesting that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred to other signifiers.
• Undecidability: Deconstruction asserts the undecidability of language, challenging the idea of a definitive interpretation and highlighting the perpetual play of signifiers.
• Reader Involvement: It emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning and acknowledges that interpretations are subjective and context-dependent.
• Critique of Logocentrism: Deconstruction critiques “logocentrism,” the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language, by exposing its contradictions and the absence of a stable foundation.

Principles of Deconstructionism

These principles guide the deconstructionist approach to literary analysis, highlighting the destabilizing and subversive nature of the theory.

Principles	Main Points
1. Language and Meaning	Language is inherently unstable and lacks fixed or objective meanings. Meanings are constructed through a network of differences and relationships. Traditional notions of truth and stable meaning are questioned and challenged.
2. Binary Oppositions and Hierarchies	Deconstruction focuses on revealing and questioning binary oppositions present in texts. Examples of binary oppositions include presence/absence, speech/writing, and literal/metaphorical. Hierarchical structures and dualistic thinking are deconstructed and destabilized.
3. Contradictions and Aporias	Deconstruction aims to expose contradictions and aporias (unresolvable tensions) within texts. It reveals the inherent instabilities and ambiguities that undermine the coherence of a text. These contradictions challenge the notion of a single, fixed interpretation or meaning.
4. Authorial Intention and Textual Autonomy	The author’s intention is not the ultimate determinant of a text’s meaning. The text has its own autonomy and can generate multiple interpretations. Deconstruction emphasizes the importance of the reader’s active engagement in constructing meaning.
5. Uncovering Assumptions and Ideologies	Deconstruction aims to uncover and interrogate the underlying assumptions and ideologies within a text. It exposes how language and texts reinforce power structures and dominant ideologies. Deconstruction seeks to disrupt and challenge these power dynamics.
6. Playful and Subversive Reading	Deconstruction encourages a playful and subversive approach to reading and interpretation. It involves examining the gaps, silences, and contradictions within a text. Multiple interpretations and perspectives are explored, disrupting fixed meanings.
7. Contextual and Intertextual Analysis	Deconstruction emphasizes the importance of considering the broader context and intertextuality of a text. It examines how texts relate to and influence each other, revealing the interconnectedness of meaning. Contextual and intertextual analysis helps to unveil hidden assumptions and challenge dominant discourses.

Suggested Readings Deconstruction Literary Theory

1. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
2. Derrida, Jacques. Positions. Translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press, 1981.
3. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
4. Fletcher, John. Introduction to Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2018.
5. Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 2002.
6. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan, editors. Literary Theory: An Anthology. 3rd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
7. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues. Routledge, 1990.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

• Social Construction
• Social Constructionism
• Theory of Irony as Literary Theory
• Theory of Irony in Literature

Introduction to Deconstructionism

Deconstructionism in literature is a critical theory that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily associated with the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. It challenges traditional notions of meaning and interpretation within texts by de-centering binary oppositions and revealing the instability and multiplicity of meanings inherent in language.

Deconstructionism introduces the concept of “différance,” emphasizing the constant deferral and difference in meaning, which leads to undecidability and perpetual play of signifiers. It also acknowledges the reader’s role in constructing meaning and critiques “logocentrism,” advocating a view that meaning is contingent and always open to revision.

Deconstructionism: Reaction to Structuralism

• Limitations of Structuralism: Deconstruction emerged as a response to the limitations and assumptions of structuralism, a dominant approach to literary analysis at the time.
• Challenge to Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction sought to reveal and question the binary oppositions present in texts, which were often emphasized in structuralist analysis.
• Interrogation of Hierarchies: Deconstruction aimed to deconstruct and destabilize hierarchical structures and dualistic thinking prevalent in structuralist theory.
• Critique of Fixed Meanings: Deconstruction questioned the idea of fixed and stable meanings proposed by structuralism, emphasizing the inherent instability of language.
• Exploration of Language’s Constructed Nature: Deconstruction emphasized the constructed nature of meaning, challenging the structuralist view of language as a transparent and objective system.
• Unveiling Inherent Instabilities: Deconstruction exposed the inherent instabilities and contradictions within texts, undermining the coherence and unity assumed by structuralism.
• Subversion of Authorial Intention: Deconstruction challenged the notion of the author’s intention as the ultimate determinant of a text’s meaning, countering the author-centered approach of structuralism.

Criticism Against Deconstructionism

Here are some common criticisms of deconstructionism:

Criticism	Explanation
1. Lack of Objectivity	Deconstructionism’s rejection of objective truth can be seen as a challenge to traditional notions of interpretation. Critics argue that this approach may lead to relativism and subjectivity, making it challenging to establish meaningful interpretations of a text.
2. Overemphasis on Language	Deconstructionism’s strong emphasis on language has been criticized for disconnecting theory from the real world. Critics argue that this can hinder the application of deconstructionist theory to other fields, such as politics or economics.
3. Obscurity	Critics argue that deconstructionist texts can be excessively complex and difficult to understand. This level of complexity can create barriers for readers to engage with the theory and apply it to their own reading practices.
4. Political Neutrality	Deconstructionism has faced criticism for its perceived lack of political commitment. Critics argue that this detachment from real-world issues may hinder meaningful political action and engagement.
5. Incoherence	Critics argue that deconstructionism can lead to a fragmented approach to texts, where meanings are constantly in flux and difficult to establish. This lack of coherence may make it challenging to arrive at clear and stable interpretations of a text.
6. Lack of Empirical Evidence	Deconstructionism has been criticized for being based on abstract and speculative ideas rather than empirical evidence. Critics argue that this can make it difficult to evaluate the validity and reliability of deconstructionist claims.

These criticisms and explanations provide a balanced perspective on some of the key concerns raised regarding deconstructionism.

Examples of Deconstructionism

Here are some examples of deconstructionist literary analysis:

1. Jacques Derrida’s Of Grammatology

It is a classic example of deconstructionist literary theory. In this seminal work, Derrida argues that language is inherently unstable and meaning is constantly shifting. He famously asserts, “The meaning of the outside was always present within the inside, imprisoned outside the outside, and vice versa” (32). By emphasizing the ever-changing nature of meaning, Derrida challenges the notion that a fixed interpretation of a text is a possibility. He urges readers to critically engage with the complex interplay of signifiers, unraveling the inherent contradictions and ambiguities within a text. Of Grammatology exemplifies Derrida’s radical departure from traditional approaches to interpretation, inviting a more fluid and dynamic understanding of literary works through deconstructionist principles.

2. From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

“To be or not to be, that is the question” from Hamlet, when analyzed through the lens of deconstructionist literary theory, reveals the inherent instability and fluidity of meaning. In deconstructionist terms, this iconic phrase challenges the binary opposition between existence and non-existence, suggesting that the distinction between the two is not fixed or objectively determinable. Instead, the line embodies a play of contradictions, as the concept of being is constantly in flux. The word “question” itself introduces doubt and ambiguity, questioning the possibility of a definitive answer. It also shows the multiplicity of interpretations and the various layers of meaning within this line, unveiling the complexities and contradictions that underlie seemingly straightforward statements. By deconstructing the oppositions and hierarchies embedded in the phrase, we recognize that its meaning is not fixed but rather subject to a continuous process of interpretation, reflection, and recontextualization.

3. From Beloved by Toni Morrison

The statement “Freeing yourself was one thing, claiming ownership of that freed self was another” from Beloved challenges the binary opposition between freedom and ownership. It suggests that they are not easily separable or mutually exclusive. In deconstructionist terms, the extract highlights the instability of these concepts and questions the fixed meanings attributed to them. The phrase “freeing yourself” implies an act of liberation, but the subsequent statement complicates this notion by introducing the idea of “claiming ownership.” The use of “claiming” suggests an active effort to assert control and possess something, in this case, the liberated self. However, the juxtaposition of “claiming ownership” with “that freed self” raises questions about the nature of this self and the limits of ownership. Does true ownership of the self exist, or is it an illusion? Furthermore, the extract implies that freedom and self-ownership are not straightforward achievements but rather ongoing processes that entail struggles and negotiations. Deconstructionist analysis encourages us to critically examine the language, assumptions, and power dynamics at play in this extract, challenging fixed interpretations and inviting a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of freedom and selfhood in Morrison’s “Beloved.”

4. From Jorge Luis Borges’ “The Garden of Forking Paths”

Extract: “This web of time – the strands of which approach one another, bifurcate, intersect or ignore each other through the centuries – embraces every possibility. We do not exist in most of them. In some you exist and not I, while in others I do, and you do not.”

A deconstructionist reading of this paragraph reveals the inherent instability and multiplicity of possibilities within the concept of time. The passage suggests a complex web of temporal strands that continuously interact, diverge, converge, or disregard each other throughout the centuries. It implies that this web of time encompasses every conceivable possibility. Also, it challenges the notion of fixed existence by asserting that we do not exist in most of these possibilities. This undermines the idea of a singular, objective reality and highlights the contingent nature of our existence. The passage further disrupts traditional binary oppositions by presenting various scenarios where either the speaker or the listener exists while the other does not.

Keywords in Deconstructionism

1. Différance: A central concept in Deconstruction, it refers to the constant deferral and difference in meaning within language, highlighting that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred to other signifiers.
2. Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction challenges traditional binary pairs (e.g., good/evil, presence/absence) by revealing their interconnectedness and mutual dependence, blurring the boundaries between opposites.
3. Undecidability: Deconstructionism literary theory asserts the undecidability of language, suggesting that complete and fixed interpretations are impossible, leading to a perpetual play of signifiers and meanings.
4. Logocentrism: It critiques the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language and thought, exposing the contradictions and absence of a stable foundation in linguistic and philosophical systems.
5. De-centering: Deconstruction de-centers established hierarchies and challenges the authority of any single interpretation or perspective, emphasizing the need to consider multiple viewpoints.
6. Textual Subversion: Deconstructionism literary theory involves subverting conventional interpretations of texts, emphasizing their inherent contradictions and ambiguities, often through strategies of wordplay and irony.
7. Reader-Response: Deconstruction acknowledges the reader’s active role in constructing meaning, highlighting the subjectivity of interpretation and the importance of individual perspectives.
8. Play of Signifiers: It emphasizes the fluidity of language, where words and symbols continually interact and shift in meaning, making fixed interpretations elusive.
9. Difficult Reading: Deconstruction often involves complex and challenging readings of texts, requiring readers to engage deeply with the layers of meaning and ambiguity within a text.
10. Metaphysics of Presence: Deconstructionism literary theory questions the traditional metaphysical assumption that meaning is grounded in a stable, present reality, instead revealing the inherent instability of language and thought.

Suggested Readings

1. Barthes, Roland. Image-Music-Text. Translated by Stephen Heath, Hill and Wang, 1977.
2. Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Cornell University Press, 1982.
3. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
4. Derrida, Jacques. Writing and Difference. Translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press, 1978.
5. Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 2002.
6. Waugh, Patricia. Feminine Fictions: Revisiting the Postmodern. Routledge, 1992.
7. Wolfreys, Julian. Deconstruction: Derrida and the Humanities. Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

Introduction to Comparative Literature Courses

Comparative Literature courses are academic programs that explore the interdisciplinary study of literature, emphasizing the analysis of literary texts from diverse cultures, languages, and historical contexts. These courses equip students with critical skills to examine commonalities, differences, and interactions between literary traditions, employing various theoretical frameworks and fostering an appreciation for cultural diversity.

Additionally, Comparative Literature courses promote the contextualization of literature within broader historical, social, and global perspectives, encouraging intellectual engagement and the development of research and analytical writing skills.

Elements of Comparative Literature Courses

Element	Explanation
Multilingual Literature Study	– Explanation: This element involves analyzing literary works in their original languages and their translated versions. It allows students to gain insights into the nuances of language, cultural context, and the challenges and opportunities of translation in comparative analysis.
Cross-Cultural Analysis	– Explanation: Comparative Literature courses emphasize the examination of texts from different cultures and languages to identify common themes, differences, and the ways in which literature reflects diverse cultural traditions. Students explore the universal and unique aspects of literary expressions.
Literary Theory Application	– Explanation: Students learn to apply various literary theories, such as formalism, structuralism, and postcolonial theory, to analyze and interpret texts critically. This element deepens their understanding of the theoretical frameworks that shape literary analysis in a comparative context.
Historical Contextualization	– Explanation: Placing literature within its historical and cultural contexts is essential. It enables students to appreciate how societal and cultural forces influence literary production and interpretation. This contextualization enriches their analysis and comprehension of texts.
Comparative Methodology	– Explanation: Comparative methodology involves the systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts, exploring similarities and disparities between them. It equips students with the skills to conduct rigorous comparative analyses and identify patterns across texts.
Interdisciplinary Approaches	– Explanation: Comparative Literature often draws from other disciplines such as history, anthropology, and philosophy to gain a comprehensive understanding of texts. Students engage in interdisciplinary dialogues, expanding their perspectives and analytical tools for literary analysis.
Critical and Theoretical Debates	– Explanation: Courses delve into key critical and theoretical debates within Comparative Literature. Students engage in discussions and critical thinking exercises, exploring contemporary issues and evolving perspectives in the field. This fosters intellectual engagement and critical analysis.
Postcolonial and Global Perspectives	– Explanation: Comparative Literature courses explore postcolonial literature and global perspectives in literary analysis. Students examine the impact of colonialism, globalization, and diaspora on literary production, enriching their understanding of cultural dynamics and literary representation.
Cultural Diversity and Inclusivity	– Explanation: Promoting the study of literature from diverse cultures and voices is central. Students are encouraged to appreciate the richness of global literary traditions, fostering intercultural understanding, and recognizing the importance of inclusivity and diverse perspectives in literary analysis.
Research and Writing Skills	– Explanation: Developing research and analytical writing skills is a fundamental aspect. Students learn to conduct scholarly research, analyze texts critically, and communicate their findings effectively through academic writing. These skills are essential for producing high-quality comparative literary analysis.

Criticism Against Comparative Literature

While Comparative Literature is a widely respected and valuable field of study, there are some criticisms that have been leveled against it. Here are a few examples:

1. Eurocentrism and Cultural Bias: Critics argue that Comparative Literature has historically been Eurocentric, focusing primarily on Western literary traditions. This bias can marginalize non-Western cultures and fail to represent a truly global perspective.
2. Lack of Defined Methodology: Some critics contend that Comparative Literature lacks a consistent and well-defined methodology, making it challenging to establish standardized approaches to literary analysis across cultures.
3. Reductionism and Oversimplification: Comparative Literature can sometimes oversimplify complex cultural and historical contexts, reducing literary works to mere textual comparisons without fully considering the intricacies of their origins and interpretations.
4. Ethnocentrism and Stereotyping: Critics assert that Comparative Literature courses may inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes and ethnocentric viewpoints, especially when analyzing works from non-Western cultures, leading to misrepresentations and biases.
5. Relevance and Practicality: Skeptics question the practicality and relevance of Comparative Literature in today’s rapidly changing academic landscape, suggesting that it may struggle to address contemporary global issues and interdisciplinary demands effectively.

It’s important to note that these criticisms are not universally accepted and that Comparative Literature continues to evolve and address these concerns as the field develops.

Examples of Comparative Literature Courses

1. Comparative Literature Survey: A foundational course that provides an overview of major literary traditions, movements, and theories from different cultures and time periods. Students analyze texts from various regions and examine cross-cultural themes.
2. World Literature in Translation: This course explores significant literary works from around the world, typically focusing on texts translated into a common language. It allows students to delve into global literature while emphasizing translation issues.
3. Postcolonial Literature and Theory: This course examines literature from former colonized regions and explores postcolonial theory. Students analyze how colonialism and decolonization have shaped literary production and representation.
4. Literary Genres Across Cultures: Courses in this category focus on a particular genre, such as the novel, poetry, drama, or short story, and compare how it has evolved in different cultures and literary traditions.
5. Literature and Film Comparative Analysis: Combining literature and film, this course explores how literary works are adapted into films. Students analyze both the written and visual narratives, considering the challenges and opportunities of adaptation.
6. Literature and the Environment: Comparative Literature courses may delve into the intersection of literature and the environment, exploring how different cultures and literary traditions represent and engage with ecological issues.
7. Gender and Sexuality in Comparative Literature: These courses examine representations of gender and sexuality across cultures, addressing themes such as feminism, LGBTQ+ literature, and gender identity in diverse literary contexts.
8. Classical Literature Comparative Studies: Courses in classical literature might compare ancient Greek, Roman, Chinese, Indian, or other classical traditions, highlighting the enduring impact of classical works on global literature.
9. Multilingual Poetry Workshop: Practical courses may focus on creative writing and translation,

Examples of Literary Works in Comparative Literature Courses

1. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: This novel is frequently studied because it combines elements of magical realism with a deep exploration of Latin American history and culture. It allows students to analyze how a unique literary style can convey complex themes and historical narratives, making it a prime example for cross-cultural analysis.
2. The Odyssey by Homer: An ancient epic that forms a foundational text for Western literature, The Odyssey is often included to illustrate the enduring impact of classical literature on global storytelling. Comparative Literature courses use it to explore themes of heroism, adventure, and the journey in various cultural contexts.
3. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe: This novel is a significant work in postcolonial literature and is included to examine the effects of colonialism on African societies. It serves as a starting point for discussions on cultural identity, imperialism, and the clash of cultures, making it an essential text for comparative analysis.
4. The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka: Kafka’s work is a prime example of existential literature and surrealism. Comparative Literature courses often include it to explore the portrayal of alienation, identity, and absurdity in different cultural and linguistic contexts.
5. Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes: This classic novel is studied to examine the themes of chivalry, madness, and self-delusion. It is included in Comparative Literature to demonstrate how a single work can be interpreted and reinterpreted across cultures, illustrating the global reach of a literary masterpiece.

Keywords in Comparative Literature Courses

1. Cross-Cultural Analysis: The examination of literary texts from different cultures to identify commonalities and differences, often focusing on how cultures influence and reflect each other through literature.
2. Multilingualism: The recognition of the importance of studying and appreciating literature in multiple languages, including both original and translated texts.
3. Interdisciplinarity: The incorporation of insights from various academic disciplines, such as history, anthropology, and philosophy, to gain a comprehensive understanding of literary texts and their contexts.
4. Global Perspective: The recognition of literature within a global context, emphasizing the interactions and influences between different literary traditions and cultures.
5. Comparative Methodology: The systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts and their contexts, aiming to identify similarities, differences, and interactions between texts.
6. Cultural Diversity: The appreciation of diverse literary traditions and the study of literature from various cultures and languages, fostering intercultural understanding and dialogue.
7. Literary Theory: The utilization of various theoretical frameworks (e.g., formalism, structuralism, postcolonial theory) to analyze and interpret literary texts.
8. Contextualization: The emphasis on placing literary texts within their historical, cultural, and social contexts, recognizing that literature is shaped by societies and cultures.
9. Critical Analysis: The in-depth analysis of formal, thematic, and stylistic elements of literary texts, considering historical and cultural forces that shape the texts.
10. Postcolonial Literature: The examination of literary works from formerly colonized regions, often exploring themes related to colonialism, identity, and cultural representation.

Suggested Readings

Books:

1. Apter, Emily. Against World Literature: On the Politics of Untranslatability. Verso, 2013.
2. Damrosch, David. What Is World Literature?. Princeton University Press, 2003.
3. Fokkema, Douwe W., and Elrud Ibsch. Comparative Literature and Cultural Studies. Rodopi, 2003.
4. Franco Moretti, Distant Reading. Verso, 2013.
5. Lefevere, André. Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. Routledge, 1992.
6. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Death of a Discipline. Columbia University Press, 2003.
7. Steiner, George. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1975.

Courses:

• Culler, Jonathan. Comparative Literature: Theory, Method, Application. Modern Language Association, 1993.
• Leitch, Vincent B., et al. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. W.W. Norton & Company, 2018.

Introduction to Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary academic field centered on analyzing and comparing literary texts, typically from various languages and cultures. Its primary goal is to examine common themes, motifs, and aesthetic principles that transcend national and linguistic boundaries, showcasing the interconnectedness of literary traditions and the influence of cultural exchange on literary creation. Comparative Literature scholars utilize cross-cultural examinations to gain insights into the broader human condition and the rich diversity of human experiences.

Features of Comparative Literature

Feature	Explanation
Interdisciplinary Study	Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field that combines elements of literary analysis, cultural studies, linguistics, and more.
Cross-Cultural Analysis	It involves the comparison of literary texts from different cultures and languages to identify commonalities and differences.
Exploration of Themes	Comparative Literature examines shared themes, motifs, and aesthetic elements present in literature across cultures.
Cultural Exchange	It highlights the influence of cultural exchange on literary production and how literature reflects interactions between cultures.
Human Experience	The field seeks to gain insights into the broader human condition and the diversity of human experiences through the study of literature.
Global Perspective	It offers a global perspective on literary works, emphasizing the importance of multilingualism and multiculturalism in literary analysis.
Transcending Boundaries	Comparative Literature transcends national and linguistic boundaries, promoting a broader understanding of literature as a global phenomenon.

Comparative Literature: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

• Emerged in the 19th century as an academic discipline.
• Rooted in the European tradition of studying literature from multiple languages and cultures.

Prominent Theorists:

• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Notable for his interest in world literature and early comparative approaches, making him an influential figure in the field.
• Leo Spitzer: Known for his work on literary stylistics and the concept of literary morphology.
• Erich Auerbach: Renowned for his book Mimesis, which explores the representation of reality in Western literature.
• René Wellek and Austin Warren: Authors of Theory of Literature, a foundational text in the field.
• Edward Said: Pioneered the study of post-colonial literature and introduced the concept of Orientalism.
• Franz Fanon: Known for his influential works on post-colonialism and identity.

Significant Works:

• Mimesis by Erich Auerbach: Examines the representation of reality in literature from ancient to modern times.
• Theory of Literature by René Wellek and Austin Warren: Discusses the nature of literature, criticism, and theory.
• Orientalism by Edward Said: Critiques Western representations of the East in literature and culture.
• The Wretched of the Earth by Franz Fanon: Addresses the psychological effects of colonialism and the struggle for liberation.
• Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: A seminal work that explores universal themes and serves as a rich source for comparative analysis.

Key Arguments:

• Cross-Cultural Analysis: Comparative Literature involves the examination of literary texts from different cultures and languages to identify common themes and differences.
• Literary Morphology: Leo Spitzer’s concept of literary morphology suggests recurring patterns and structures in literature across cultures.
• Post-Colonial Critique: Edward Said’s work encourages the critical examination of colonial and post-colonial literature to understand power dynamics and cultural representations.
• Identity and Liberation: Franz Fanon’s writings highlight the complex intersections of identity, colonialism, and the struggle for independence in post-colonial societies.
• Globalization: Contemporary Comparative Literature addresses the challenges and opportunities posed by globalization, including digital technologies and multiculturalism.

Principles of Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on the analysis of literary texts and their cultural, historical, and social contexts. The principles of Comparative Literature include:

Principal	Explanation	Example
Cross-Cultural Analysis	Cross-Cultural Analysis involves the examination of literary works originating from diverse cultures, languages, and genres. Its purpose is to discern the influences, interactions, and reflections of distinct literary traditions on one another.	For instance, a cross-cultural analysis might entail a comparative exploration of themes of love and honor in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and the Persian epic Layla and Majnun, offering insights into the diverse cultural expressions of romance.
Comparative Methodology	Comparative Methodology encompasses the systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts along with their respective historical and cultural contexts. Its aim is to identify both commonalities and disparities, fostering a deeper understanding of the texts and their interplay.	An illustrative example involves an analysis of symbolism in Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick and Yann Martel’s Life of Pi, examining how authors employ symbolic elements to convey intricate layers of meaning.
Literary Theory	Literary Theory entails the utilization of various theoretical frameworks such as formalism and structuralism to analyze and interpret literary texts.	For instance, the application of postcolonial theory to scrutinize Chinua Achebe’s works, including Things Fall Apart, offers insights into the repercussions of colonialism on African literature.
Multilingualism	Multilingualism underscores the importance of acquiring proficiency in multiple languages and encourages the exploration of literature in its original and translated forms. It places value on the insights derived from multilingualism and intercultural exchange.	An exemplification of this principle involves reading Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s Cien años de soledad in its original Spanish, facilitating a nuanced understanding of language intricacies and cultural contexts.
Interdisciplinarity	Interdisciplinarity entails the engagement with various academic disciplines, such as history, anthropology, and philosophy, to attain a comprehensive grasp of literary works and their contextual underpinnings. It recognizes the interrelatedness of different fields of knowledge.	A practical application involves the incorporation of historical analysis to examine Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist, illuminating its resonance with the socio-cultural milieu of Victorian England.
Contextualization	Contextualization underscores the significance of situating literary texts within their historical, cultural, and social contexts, acknowledging that literature is profoundly shaped by the societies and cultures in which it emerges.	For instance, a contextualization approach might entail an examination of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart within the backdrop of Nigerian colonial history and the profound impact of European imperialism.
Critical Analysis	Critical Analysis entails the comprehensive scrutiny of formal, thematic, and stylistic elements within literary texts, taking into consideration the historical and cultural forces that shape them.	An illustrative case involves the analysis of symbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, delving into its allegorical representations of Puritan society and its cultural context.
Cultural Diversity	Cultural Diversity emphasizes the recognition of the importance of diverse cultures and the appreciation of various literary traditions. It encourages the study of literature emanating from a multitude of cultures and languages, fostering intercultural understanding and dialogue.	Exploration of works by poets like Pablo Neruda and Rabindranath Tagore exemplifies the richness and diversity of Latin American and South Asian literature, contributing to a broader appreciation of global literary traditions.
Global Perspective	Global Perspective acknowledges literature within a worldwide context, aiming to comprehend the interactions and influences among diverse literary traditions. It places value on the insights gained from a global viewpoint.	An investigative approach might involve an exploration of the impact of Japanese haiku poetry on the evolution of American imagist poetry during the early 20th century, demonstrating the significance of global literary perspectives.
Intellectual Engagement	Intellectual Engagement places importance on active participation in literary seminars, conferences, and discussions, promoting critical thinking, creativity, and curiosity. It recognizes the value of lifelong learning and the pursuit of knowledge.	Participating in scholarly dialogues and debates, as well as engaging in discussions during literary seminars and conferences, exemplifies intellectual engagement, fostering the exchange of ideas and the cultivation of critical thinking skills among scholars and peers.

Suggested Readings

1. Damrosch, David. What Is World Literature?. Princeton University Press, 2003.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
3. Fokkema, Douwe W., and Elrud Ibsch. Theories of Literature in the Twentieth Century: Structuralism, Marxism, Aesthetics of Reception, Semiotics. Croom Helm, 1984.
4. Posnett, Hutcheson Macaulay. Comparative Literature. Vol. 54. D. Appleton & Company, 1892.
5. Sherbert, Garry, Annie Gérin, and Sheila Petty, eds. Canadian Cultural Poesis: Essays on Canadian Culture. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 2006.
6. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
7. Saussy, Haun, ed. Comparative Literature in an Age of Globalization. JHU Press, 2006.
8. Wellek, René. Concepts of Criticism. Yale University Press, 1963.
9. Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2003.

Introduction to Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is an analytical approach that centers on the literature and narratives produced by Indigenous authors and communities. It seeks to deconstruct and challenge colonial representations and stereotypes in literary works, aiming to highlight Indigenous voices, perspectives, and cultural nuances.

This theory emphasizes the importance of respecting Indigenous storytelling traditions and promoting Indigenous self-expression within the realm of literature.

Indigenous Critical Theory and Indigenous Disciplines

Indigenous Disciplines	Indigenous Critical Theory
Recognition of Indigenous knowledge systems	Deconstruction of colonialism and colonial narratives
Decolonization of academic disciplines	Recognition of the ongoing effects of colonization
Incorporation of traditional Indigenous methodologies	Empowerment of Indigenous peoples and communities
Respect for Indigenous protocols and ethics	Critique of Western epistemologies and knowledge production
Emphasis on community collaboration and engagement	Analysis of power structures and systemic oppression
Reclamation and revitalization of Indigenous languages and cultural practices	Intersectionality and understanding of the interconnectedness of various forms of oppression
Centering Indigenous perspectives, experiences, and voices	Advocacy for self-determination and sovereignty
Addressing power imbalances and promoting equity in research and education	Reclaiming and preserving Indigenous languages, cultures, and identities
Valuing holistic and interconnected approaches to knowledge	Challenging Eurocentric frameworks and paradigms
Emphasizing land-based and place-based learning	Development of alternative frameworks for social, cultural, and political analysis from Indigenous perspectives

Criticism Against Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

1. Essentialism: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be essentialist in its emphasis on the unique perspectives and experiences of Indigenous peoples. They argue that this emphasis on identity can obscure the diversity and complexity of Indigenous communities and reinforce a static notion of Indigenous identity.
2. Lack of generalizability: Because Indigenous Critical Literary Theory centers on Indigenous perspectives and experiences, some critics argue that it may not be generalizable to other contexts or communities. They argue that this focus on Indigenous knowledge and experience may not be relevant to other groups or communities.
3. Limited engagement with non-Indigenous frameworks: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be insular and isolated from other academic frameworks, particularly those developed in non-Indigenous contexts. They argue that this can limit the potential for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding.
4. Political bias: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is inherently political and biased, and that it lacks the objectivity and neutrality that is valued in other academic disciplines. They argue that this can undermine the legitimacy of Indigenous Critical Theory as an academic framework.
5. Lack of practical solutions: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be overly focused on critique and analysis, and that it may not offer practical solutions to the challenges faced by Indigenous peoples. They argue that this can limit the potential for Indigenous Critical Theory to effect real change.

Examples of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Work and Author	Literary Example with Features of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory
Ceremony by Leslie Marmon Silko	Ceremony, a novel by Leslie Marmon Silko tells the story of a young Laguna man named Tayo who returns home from World War II with post-traumatic stress disorder. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Silko centers Laguna Pueblo perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and racism, and elevates Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing.
Monkey Beach by Eden Robinson	Monkey Beach, a novel by Eden Robinson, tells the story of a young Haisla woman named Lisa who returns to her ancestral village in British Columbia to search for her missing brother. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Robinson centers Haisla perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and cultural imperialism, and advocates for Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination.
Tracks by Louise Erdrich	Tracks, a novel by Louise Erdrich, tells the story of two Anishinaabe families in North Dakota in the early 20th century. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Erdrich centers Anishinaabe perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and racism, and elevates Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing.
“Eulogy for a Native” by Sherman Alexie	Sherman Alexie is a Spokane/Coeur d’Alene writer and poet whose work often explores the experiences of contemporary Indigenous peoples in the United States. “Eulogy for a Native,” a poem, honors the life of a Native American man who has died of alcoholism and challenges the cultural and historical forces that have contributed to his struggles. The poem can be analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens to explore how Indigenous peoples have been impacted by colonization, cultural genocide, and systemic oppression.
“My Heart is a Phoenix” by Louise Bernice Halfe	Louise Bernice Halfe is a Cree poet from Canada whose work often explores the experiences of Indigenous women. “My Heart is a Phoenix,” a poem, uses imagery from Cree culture to explore the themes of survival and resilience. The poem can be analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens to explore how Indigenous women have been impacted by colonialism, racism, and gender-based violence, and to celebrate the strength and resistance of Indigenous women.

Keywords in Indigenous Critical Theory Literary Theory

1. Decolonization: It is the process of undoing the cultural, political, and economic impacts of colonialism, and reclaiming Indigenous knowledges, identities, and ways of being.
2. Sovereignty: It means the right of Indigenous peoples to govern themselves and determine their own futures, free from outside interference and domination.
3. Indigenous epistemologies: It means the ways of knowing and understanding the world that are rooted in Indigenous cultures, languages, and histories, and that challenge Western ways of knowing and understanding.
4. Cultural imperialism: It mans the process by which dominant cultures impose their values, beliefs, and practices on subordinate cultures, often leading to the erasure or marginalization of Indigenous cultures and identities.
5. Positionality: It means how an individual’s social, cultural, and historical location shapes their experiences, perspectives, and understandings.
6. Resilience: It means the ability of Indigenous peoples to resist and survive the impacts of colonialism and oppression, often through the revitalization and reclamation of Indigenous knowledges, languages, and practices.
7. Oral tradition: It means the transmission of cultural knowledge and history through spoken word, often through storytelling, song, or ceremony.
8. Indigenous futurisms: It means the imagining of Indigenous futures that are rooted in Indigenous knowledges, languages, and cultures, and that challenge Western notions of progress and development.
9. Intersectionality: It means the recognition that multiple forms of oppression (e.g. racism, sexism, colonialism) intersect and reinforce each other, and that an individual’s experiences are shaped by multiple and overlapping identities.
10. Land-based knowledges: It means the ways of knowing and being that are rooted in Indigenous relationships with the land, and that challenge the Western separation of humans from nature.

Suggested Readings

1. Deloria Jr., Vine. Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. University of Oklahoma Press, 1988.
2. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States. Beacon Press, 2014.
3. Kimmerer, Robin Wall. Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants. Milkweed Editions, 2013.
4. Robinson, Eden. Monkey Beach. Vintage Canada, 2001.
5. Simpson, Leanne Betasamosake. As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom Through Radical Resistance. University of Minnesota Press, 2017.
6. Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. Zed Books, 2012.
7. Tagaq, Tanya. Split Tooth. Viking, 2018.
8. Womack, Craig. Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism. University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Cognitive poetics in the realm of literary theory is an interdisciplinary approach that seeks to understand how readers’ cognitive processes, including perception, memory, and imagination, interact with and shape their interpretation of literary texts. By examining the mental activities involved in the comprehension and emotional engagement with literature, Cognitive Poetics aims to elucidate the cognitive mechanisms underlying the production and reception of literary meaning, shedding light on the intricate interplay between language, cognition, and aesthetics.

Cognitive Poetics: Critics, Works, and Argument against It

Critics	Critique	Works
New Critics and Formalists	Argue against reducing literature to cognitive processes and psychological analysis, emphasizing intrinsic analysis of formal elements.	The New Criticism by Cleanth Brooks The Intentional Fallacy by W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe C. Beardsley
Poststructuralist and Postmodern Critics	Criticize the essentialist approach and fixed meanings in literary analysis, expressing concerns about privileging authorial intent and reader cognition.	“The Death of the Author” by Roland Barthes Of Grammatology by Jacques Derrida
Reader-Response Theorists	Reject the notion of universal cognitive structures in literary interpretation, emphasizing the role of individual reader subjectivity.	The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response by Wolfgang Iser Aesthetic Response and the Nature of Literary Criticism by Norman N. Holland
Historical Materialists	Point out the ahistorical and apolitical focus in cognitive analysis, advocating for considering social and historical contexts.	Literary Theory: An Introduction by Terry Eagleton The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays by E.P. Thompson
Feminist and Gender Critics	Raise concerns about overlooking gendered aspects of literary representation and limited focus on gender issues in cognitive approaches.	The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination by Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity  y Judith Butler
Postcolonial Critics	Criticize universal cognitive universals that neglect cultural diversity and emphasize the impact of colonial history on literary production.	Orientalism by Edward Said The Location of Culture by Homi K. Bhabha
Deconstructionists	Challenge fixed meanings and binary oppositions in cognitive approaches, advocating for destabilizing linguistic and conceptual constructs.	Of Grammatology by Jacques Derrida Derrida: A Very Short Introduction by Simon Glendinning
Cultural Studies Scholars	Express concerns about overemphasis on individual cognitive processes and advocate exploring collective and cultural dimensions of interpretation.	Cultural Studies and the Study of Popular Culture: Theories and Methods by John Storey The Production of Culture: Media and the Urban Arts by Richard A. Peterson
Posthumanist Critics	Criticize anthropocentrism in cognitive analysis of literary works, emphasizing the importance of considering non-human agency and perspectives.	Cyborgs, Coyotes, and Dogs: A Kinship of Feminist Science Fiction by Donna HarawayThe Posthuman by Rosi Braidotti
Psychoanalytic Theorists	Point out the reductionist view of the mind in cognitive approaches, emphasizing the role of unconscious processes and desires in literature.	The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud The Mirror and the Mask: On Narcissism and Psychoanalytic Growth by Marion Milner

Examples of Critique in Cognitive Poetics

Example	Critique in Cognitive Poetics
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot	Analysis of how the use of mental imagery in the poem shapes the reader’s interpretation of the speaker’s anxiety and alienation. Cognitive Poetics highlights how the vivid mental images in the poem evoke emotions and cognitive responses in the reader, allowing them to empathize with the speaker’s psychological state and delve into the complexities of human consciousness.
“The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe	Analysis of how the use of repetition and sound in the poem creates a sense of unease and contributes to the reader’s cognitive response to the text. Cognitive Poetics examines how the rhythmic and repetitive elements in the poem engage the reader’s mind, intensifying their emotional experience and influencing the interpretation of the eerie atmosphere and the narrator’s descent into madness.
“A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner	Analysis of how the use of narrative perspective and structure in the story shapes the reader’s understanding of the characters’ mental states and perceptions. Cognitive Poetics analyzes how the narrative choices impact the reader’s mental simulation and empathy, helping them navigate the complex psychology of the characters and their perspectives on the unfolding events in the story.
“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost	Analysis of how the use of metaphor and mental imagery in the poem shapes the reader’s response to the speaker’s contemplation of mortality and the natural world. Cognitive Poetics explores how the metaphors and vivid imagery in the poem prompt mental simulations and emotional responses in readers, allowing them to connect with the speaker’s introspection on life’s transience and the allure of nature.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman	Analysis of how the use of metaphor and mental imagery in the story shapes the reader’s understanding of the narrator’s mental state and experiences. Cognitive Poetics scrutinizes how the metaphors and mental imagery allow readers to enter the narrator’s cognitive world, providing insights into her declining mental health and the oppressive nature of her environment, leading to a heightened emotional engagement.
“The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost	Analysis of how the use of metaphor and mental imagery in the poem shapes the reader’s response to the speaker’s decision-making process. Cognitive Poetics examines how the metaphors and mental simulations trigger contemplation in readers, inviting them to ponder their own life choices, reflecting on the complexities of decision-making and its emotional consequences.
“The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe	Analysis of how the use of metaphor and mental imagery in the story shapes the reader’s understanding of the narrator’s mental state and perception of reality. Cognitive Poetics explores how the story’s vivid imagery and metaphors immerse readers in the narrator’s mind, enabling them to grasp the distorted perspective and emotional turmoil of an unreliable narrator, thus enhancing their cognitive engagement with the text.
“Araby” by James Joyce	Analysis of how the use of sensory details in the story shapes the reader’s understanding of the character’s emotional experiences. Cognitive Poetics focuses on how the sensory descriptions elicit readers’ sensory and emotional responses, allowing them to empathize with the protagonist’s emotional journey and engage more deeply with the themes of desire and disillusionment in the story.
“Diving into the Wreck” by Adrienne Rich	Analysis of how the use of metaphor and mental imagery in the poem shapes the reader’s response to the speaker’s exploration of the self and identity. Cognitive Poetics examines how the metaphors and mental simulations invite readers to experience the speaker’s introspection, encouraging them to reflect on their own identities and emotional transformations while navigating the poetic landscape of self-discovery.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	Analysis of how the use of complex imagery and fragmented structure in the poem shapes the reader’s interpretation and contributes to their cognitive response to the text. Cognitive Poetics delves into how the intricate imagery and fragmented narrative structure challenge readers’ cognitive processes, inviting them to actively reconstruct meaning and engage with the poem’s multi-layered themes and emotions.

These examples illustrate how Cognitive Poetics Literary Theory offers insights into the cognitive processes involved in the reader’s engagement with literature, enabling a deeper understanding of the emotional and intellectual impact of literary works.

Cognitive Poetics and English Studies

Cognitive Poetics and English Studies share a symbiotic relationship, as the former enriches the latter with a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes involved in the reading and interpretation of literary texts. By integrating cognitive insights into the analysis of literature, English Studies gain valuable tools to explore the complexities of human thought and emotion, providing novel perspectives on the creation and reception of literary meaning. Through this interdisciplinary collaboration, Cognitive Poetics enhances the study of English literature by offering a comprehensive framework that bridges the gap between language, cognition, and aesthetics, ultimately fostering a more profound appreciation and interpretation of literary works.

Suggested Readings

1. Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Basic Books, 2002.
2. Gavins, Joanna. Text World Theory: An Introduction. Edinburgh University Press, 2007.
3. Gibbs, Raymond W. Embodiment and Cognitive Science. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
4. Hogan, Patrick Colm. Cognitive Science, Literature, and the Arts: A Guide for Humanists. Routledge, 2003.
5. Semino, Elena, and Jonathan Culpeper. Cognitive Stylistics: Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. John Benjamins Publishing, 2002.
6. Stockwell, Peter. Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction. Routledge, 2002.
7. Turner, Mark. The Literary Mind: The Origins of Thought and Language. Oxford University Press, 1996.
8. Turner, Mark, and Gilles Fauconnier. The Way We Read Now: Cognitive Poetics and Literary Studies. Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
9. Van Peer, Willie, and Seymour Chatman. New Perspectives on Narrative Perspective. State University of New York Press, 2001.
10. Zunshine, Lisa. Why We Read Fiction: Theory of Mind and the Novel. The Ohio State University Press, 2006.