Literary Theory Archives - Page 21 of 22

New Criticism

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Introduction to New Criticism Literary Theory

When formalism was witnessing its heydays in the Soviet Socialist Republic pf Russia, New Criticism emerged in the United States as an alternative literary theory. The main emphasis of this theoretical concept was on the closed reading, specifically, of the poetic texts. The point was that a literary piece was self-referential having its own interpretations and meanings. As it was different from general criticism, it was named as “New Criticism.”

Meanings of “New Criticism” Literary Theory

New criticism means a new way to critique literary texts. This movement emerged during the half of the 20^th century when formalism or Russian Formalism was also seeing its good days. The main point of this new criticism was to look at the poetic texts from a new angle by analyzing the language, literary terms, and linguistic features of the language. It means that it has stressed the idea of seeing relationships between form and text.

Origin of “New Criticism” Literary Theory

This literary theory borrowed its name from John Crowe Ransom’s book about criticism titled New Criticism which appeared in 1941. Later, T. S. Eliot also joined this movement of new criticism by writing about the tradition and talent of individual literary figures in his essay “Tradition and Individual Talent” and writing a critique of Hamlet, the popular Shakespearean play. His concept of “objective correlative” and critique of metaphysical poetry further fueled this movement. It was actually a reaction to philological and literary history schools which were dominant at that time in the United States.

Principles of New Criticism

A text is an independent and autonomous entity, having its own existence after it is written.
A text derives its meanings from its form and structure which are intimately connected with each other.
Readers need to be adept in close reading to draw meanings from the text.
The focus of the attention should be literary terms or devices such as irony, metaphors, conflicts, and tensions including paradoxes used in the text.
This literary theory involves “intentional fallacy (author’s assumption), affective fallacy (error of judgment), the heresy of paraphrase and ambiguity.

Criticism Against New Criticism

It only focuses on the text and excludes all other external factors impacting the production of the text.
It does not seem suitable for all types of writing.
It supposes or assumes that one reading is enough and correct to draw certain meanings.
It ignores the readers and their cultural understanding and background.

Examples of New Criticism

Example # 1

From “Ars Poetica” by Archibald MacLeish

A poem should be palpable and mute

As a globed fruit,

Dumb

As old medallions to the thumb,

Silent as the sleeve-worn stone

Of casement ledges where the moss has grown—

A poem should be wordless

As the flight of birds.

A poem should be motionless in time

As the moon climbs,

Leaving, as the moon releases

Twig by twig the night-entangled trees

Archibald MacLeish has beautifully summed up how New Criticism literary theory is applied in letter and spirit to a point in this part of his poem “Ars Poetica.” The very first line defines what a poem should be, what it should say, and what it should look like. In fact, he is stating how a reader should perceive a poem, though, it seems that he is advising the poets on how to see their poems.

Example # 1

From Practical Criticism by I. A. Richards

“Since so many readers did not succeed in applying their intelligence, a paraphrase kindly supplied by one writer may be inserted here. It will help moreover to bring out an interesting double-reading that the seventh line of the poem lends itself to.

It is difficult to understand this poem first. After thinking about it a good deal I have come to the conclusion that this is the meaning of it – an elderly man, experienced in such matters, has found a girl grieving at the falling of leaves in autumn.”

These lines occur in Practical Criticism, a book of I. A. Richards. Although the poem he is referring to is not given here, a reader can easily perceive that he is referring to “heresy of paraphrase” that a reader can depend on the paraphrase of the main idea done by some other reader. This is the main point of New Criticism literary theory.

Example # 2

From “The Language of Paradox” by Cleanth Brooks

“Few of us are prepared to accept the statement that the language of poetry is the language of paradox. Paradox is the language of sophistry, hard, bright, witty; it is hardly the language of the soul. We are willing to allow that paradox is a permissible weapon which a Chesterton may on occasion exploit. We may permit it in epigram, a special subvariety of poetry; and in satire, which though useful, we are hardly willing to allow to be poetry at all. Our prejudices force us to regard paradox as intellectual rather than emotional, clever rather than profound, rational rather than divinely irrational.”

This passage occurs in The Language of Paradox, an essay by Cleanth Brooks in which he has discussed some points of New Criticism literary theory. Using paradox is one of them. He clearly discusses here the benefits of using paradoxes and how a paradox and its understanding help the readers to comprehend a poem. He also points out that it is our prejudice as a reader that does not understand a paradox which is a point of intellectualism rather than simple emotions.

Example # 3

From Metaphysical Poetry by T. S. Eliot

His fate was destined to a barren strand,
A petty fortress, and a dubious hand;
He left a name at which the world grew pale,
To point a moral, or adorn a tale.

“Where the effect is due to a contrast of ideas, different in degree but the same in principle, as that which Johnson mildly reprehended. And in one of the finest poems of the age (a poem which could not have been written in any other age), the Exequy of Bishop King, the extended comparison is used with perfect success: the idea and the simile become one, in the passage in which the Bishop illustrates his impatience to see his dead wife, under the figure of a journey.”

This stanza and its explanation occur in Metaphysical Poetry, an essay by T. S. Eliot. He points out the contrast of ideas, and their impact, referring to comparison and use of similes to point out how these structural features of verses help the readers to understand them easily.

Example # 4

From Seven Types of Ambiguity by William Empson

“One feels the conceit must have arisen, in a mood of moral causitry, from a sense of the oddity in that reliance on convention which gives us different reactions to killing at different times; murder as well as soldiering, therefore, were in mind of the speaker, and are suggested to the audience.”

These lines written by William Empson in his book, Seven Types of Ambiguity, show how the lines from Macbeth are to be interpreted from their structural features. These lines are ‘findes thee in stought Norweyan Rankee, / Nohting affeard of what thyselfe didst make, / Strange images of death.”

Keywords in New Criticism Literary Theory

New Criticism, affective fallacy, intentional fallacy, close reading, heresy of paraphrase, ambiguity, structural features, metaphorical language, metaphorical features

Suggested Readings

Abrams, M.H. “New Criticism.” A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999. 180-182.

Grafe, Gerald. “What Was New Criticism? Literary Interpretation And Scientific Objectivity.” Salmagundi, no. 27, 1974, pp. 72–93. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40546822. Accessed 22 June 2021.

Lynn, Steven. Texts and Contexts: Writing About Literature with Critical Theory. 2nd ed. NY: Longman, 1998. Murfin, Ross, and Supriya M. Ray. The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms. Boston: Bedford Books, 1997.

Postmodernism

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Etymology and Meanings of “Postmodernism” Literary Theory

Etymologically, postmodernism comprises two words, post- and modernism. Here the post is a prefix added to modernism to create a cultural notion that exists after the passing of modernism. The term came into use in the decade of the 70s, though its first use is traced to John Watkins Chapman. However, he used it for painting, avoiding using the French Impressionistic style. It happed in 1870. Since then, the term has been used repeatedly by different people for different reasons.

Definition of “Postmodernism” Literary Theory

Based on its meanings, the term, postmodernism literary theory or postmodernist literary theory could be defined as a style in fiction, novel, and poetry writing that demonstrates a leap forward from modernism. It is characterized by the conscious use of different earlier writing styles, norms, and literary conventions used by the writers in their modern words mixing them into one another.

Origin of “Postmodernism Literary Theory

Postmodernism, in literature, started around the decades of the 80s and 90s and emerged out of modernism. It instantly hit the literary world. Yet, it is uncertain when the first postmodern literary piece appeared on the scene, for several literary pieces are simultaneously modernist and postmodernist. Rather, modernism imperceptibly gave way to postmodernism which started replacing it. Soon postmodernism pervades all other fields of culture such as linguistics, sociology, art, and architecture. It is also linked to other theoretical perspectives in criticism such as deconstructionism and post-structuralism.

Despite its broad usage in art, architecture, philosophy, and social theory, postmodernism is also a critical theory, encompassing a type of literature that shows postmodern traits such as skepticism toward general and accepted trends or rejection of them. Literature that invades the universal real of accepted truths such as hierarchies, morality, truth, human nature, reason, scientific inquiry, social development, and social norms is postmodern literature.

Principles of Postmodernism Literary Theory

Postmodernism critiques the past movements and tears them apart and sees that the past movements, tenets, and conventions do not hold validity in the postmodern culture.
It rather presents an amalgamation of low and high art, or culture and shows a mosaic of all elements considered vulgar, or pure.
Postmodernism uses parody and irony to criticize modernistic literature, or art and even goes to the extent of using black humor and comedy to view tragic aspects of life such as Catch-22, a novel by Joseph Heller, paints the grim picture of WWII in a comedic manner.
Postmodernism shows that time and space are not as coherent and linear as the modernists and realists show in their works. It is non-linear and fragmented like the reality itself. Therefore, the postmodernism has experimented with time, space, reality, and narratives, presenting fragment ontological aspects of the postmodern culture.
Postmodernism also presents a metanarrative that means to present a narrative about the narrative in a self-conscious manner, showing that text is also conscious of commentary on its artistic effects such as Italo Calvino’s novels.
Despite being the tenet of modernism, absurdity, Theatre of Absurd, existentialism, and distortion of belief systems, postmodernism shows its different strands pervading in postmodern literary pieces.
Postmodernism also attacks the existing canons of literary narratives, literary poetics, poetry, and even cultural conventions, showing that the issues of identity, sovereignty, culture definitiveness, and individual liberty do not hold merit now.
There is no valid narrative or grand narrative in existence. All narratives spread on the basis of some assumptions that postmodernism lays bare.
Postmodernism is contrary to all modernist ideas such as romanticism is Dadaism, form is disjunctive, design is a chance, purpose is a play, hierarchy is an anarchy, metaphor is metonymy, centre is an anarchy, and transcendence is immanence, etc.
Meaninglessness, paranoia, subjectivity, multi-narrative, and a sense of the loss of time and space are some other tenets of postmodernism.

Criticism Against Postmodernism Literary Theory

The collapse of narratives in postmodernism is in itself a grand narrative.
Postmodernism is itself a product of late capitalism in the words of Frederick Jameson. Therefore, consumerism is its foundation rather than a product.
Postmodernism is not a product, but an effect of consumerization and commodification of the culture in which different classes experience postmodernism in a different ways.
Postmodernism is relevant to some social structures in the world that it may not hold any validity in the third-world proletariat social classes.
Simulacra or hyperreality does not mean that reality has become unreality or that it is not a reality.

Examples of Postmodernism Literary Theory

Example # 1

From “Post-Modernism” by James Galvin

A pinup of Rita Hayworth was taped

To the bomb that fell on Hiroshima.

The Avant-garde makes me weep with boredom.

Horses are wishes, especially dark ones.

That’s why twitches and fences.

That’s why switches and spurs.

That’s why the idiom of betrayal.

They forgive us.

These are the first two stanzas of the poem of James Galvin whose title is ironically “Post-Modernism.” However, it has a hyphe,n while the term postmodernism is mostly used in its de-hyphenated shape. These two stanzas show that the thoughts of the poet are disjointed and he thinks one thing and then moves to another, showing postmodern features of disjointed thinking, avant-garde, unusual metaphors, and repetitions with minor changes. The slippery quality of the semantic language shows what postmodern poetry is like.

Example # 2

From “Thinking I Think I Think” by Charles Bernstein

. . .The man the man declined
to be, appraised at auction at
eighty percent of surface volume.
Cube steak on rye amusing twist
on lay demo cells, absolutely no
returns. Damaged goods are the only
kind of goods I ever cared about.
The lacuna misplaced the ladle,
the actor aborted the fable. Fold
your caps into Indians &
flaps.

Almost every line of this poem has a different thematic strand, different subject matter, and different linguistic nuances. This shows that the poetic conventions followed in the postmodernism do not seem valid for Charles of Bernstein in this stanza of his poem. It shows clearly from its verses which have broken almost all the rules of poetic conventions, too. Therefore, it becomes an excellent example of postmodern poetry.

Example # 3

From Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.

I went back there with an old war buddy, Bernard V. O’Hare, and we made friends with a taxi driver, who took us to the slaughterhouse where we had been locked up at night as prisoner of war. His name was Gerhard Müller. He told us that he was a prisoner of the Americans for a while. We asked him how it was to live under Communism, and he said that it was terrible at first, because everybody had to work so hard, and because there wasn’t much shelter or food or clothing. But things were much better now. He had a pleasant little apartment, and his daughter was getting an excellent education. His mother was incinerated in the Dresden fire-storm. So it goes.

This passage shows the authorial intervention in the very beginning which points to the truth and its validity in the postmodern era. However, this intervention of the author at this point, and that too in the work of fiction points to how much the author feels free to twist and turn facts which also hold the same legitimacy as the author himself whose major point in this fiction is “So it goes.” This is a point of the mini-narrative, a feature of postmodern fiction.

Example # 4

From “The Circular Ruins” by Jorge Luis Borges

No one saw him disembark in the unanimous night, no one saw the bamboo canoe sink into the sacred mud, but in a few days there was no one who did not know that the taciturn man came from the South and that his home had been one of those numberless villages upstream in the deeply cleft side of the mountain, where the Zend language has not been contaminated by Greek and where leprosy is infrequent. What is certain is that the grey man kissed the mud, climbed up the bank with pushing aside (probably, without feeling) the blades which were lacerating his flesh, and crawled, nauseated and bloodstained, up to the circular enclosure crowned with a stone tiger or horse, which sometimes was the color of flame and now was that of ashes.

This passage occurs in the short story of Borges “The Circular Ruin.” Although this passage shows an unusual character, the end of the story shows that this unusual character is not even a character. He is rather a shadow who thins out in the air as he has descended on this ruin. This shows the postmodern trait of the fiction as having no specific character, no specific features, no specific mannerisms, and no specific setting. In other words, postmodern fiction also breaks all narrative conventions.

Example # 5

From “If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler” by Italo Calvino

You are about to begin reading Italo Calvino’s new novel, If on a winter’s night a traveler. Relax. Concentrate. Dispel every other thought. Let the world around you fade. Best to close the door; the TV is always on in the next room. Tell the others right away, “No, I don’t want to watch TV!” Raise your voice—they won’t hear you otherwise—”I’m reading! I don’t want to be disturbed!” Maybe they haven’t heard you, with all that racket; speak louder, yell: “I’m beginning to read Italo Calvino’s new novel!” Or if you prefer, don’t say anything; just hope they’ll leave you alone.

This passage occurs in the novel of Italo Calvino in which he shows more conventions of narratology and narratives broken here. Not only he himself appears in this passage, but also he points out what type of novel he is going to write and what the reader is expecting from him, or doing with his fiction. This is an unusual narrative method, using the second person. This shows an excellent use of a postmodern feature of fiction writing.

Keywords in Postmodernism Literary Theory

Fragmentation, rejectionism, deconstructionism, sub-culture, simulacra, commodification, consumerization, micropolitics, hyper culture, hyper reality, avant-garde, grand recits, petit recits, metanarrative, totality

Suggested Readings

Bertens, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basics. Routledge, 2012. Print.

Childs, Peter. Modernism. Routledge, 2016. Print.

Quinones, Ricardo J. Mapping Literary Modernism. Princeton University Press, 2014. Print.

Hassan, Ihab. The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1982. Print. Bertens, Hans, and Douwe W. Fokkema, eds. International Postmodernism: Theory and Literary Practice. John Benjamins Publishing, 1997.

Liberal Humanism

Etymology and Meanings of “Liberal Humanism” Literary Theory

The literary theory “Liberal Humanism” is also known as “Humanism Literary Theory” or “Humanism in Literary Theory” or “British Humanism.” It means a belief that values based on humanity are more important than religious dogmas, or creeds, and desires of human beings. These values must be upheld before other values. Therefore, any such ethical framework based on these values is actually a universal framework. In literature, it is a mode of inquiry that has emerged in Italy but spread to Europe and other European countries. It means that the western belief system is humanistic, and universal. Hence, it is applicable to all literary texts.

Definition of “Liberal Humanism” Literary Theory

Liberal humanism as a literary theory could be defined a theoretical perspective of approach that shows the universality of cultures, human beings, settings and thematic strands in all the literary texts disregard of the difference of cultures, human beings, views, ideas or even religions etc.

Origin of “Liberal Humanism” Literary Theory

The literary theory of “Humanism,” emerged from Italy, and spread throughout the world. It emerged in the United Kingdom during the 1840s. Its foundation was on the belief that the study and reading of literature make a person free from bad habits and bad ideas. This study connects human beings to enduring human values that are universal and the same everywhere. In fact, the major idea behind liberal Humanism was to instill middle-class values in the public and create a class that supports the British value system.

Principles of “British/Liberal Humanism” Literary Theory

Literary pieces are timeless and important everywhere. They are universal and have the same meanings of humanity and human values for everybody.
A literary text has universal meanings applicable to every culture.
The best way to read a literary text is to read it without assumptions.
A literary text comprises its own universal truths about human nature which is always constant and unchanging.
A text has the same meanings for all individuals.
A literary piece has the purpose to spread humane values.
Form and content in a literary piece are integral parts.
A literary work always contains truth.
A literary piece always shows our true nature which is valuable.
The subject of interpretation is always the text.

Examples of “Liberal Humanism” Literary Theory in Literary Pieces

1. Meursault in The Stranger by Albert Camus

Although the novel The Stranger by Camus is termed an absurd novel or a narrative of absurdity, it has some elements of liberal humanism. Meursault, the main narrator, demonstrates these points at various places in the text.

At one point, he says “I said that I didn’t believe in God. He wanted to know if I was sure and I said that I didn’t see any reason to ask myself that question; it seemed unimportant.”

This dialog of Meursault shows that he thinks that human nature is the same. It is unchanging and cannot change, while the chaplain, who is talking to him, also assumes that human nature is the same and that he should accept his proposition.

2. Liberal Humanism in The Passage to India by E. M. Foster

Among all the Britishers living in the town of Chandrapore as shown by Foster in his novel, A Passage to India, Cyril Fielding is the one who develops very easy and comfortable relationships with Indians. It shows the universal nature of human beings that is constant and same everywhere. If measured on this yardstick, the character of Aziz is also the same that he cultivates an easy friendship with other characters, including the Britishers.

3. Liberal Humanism in “A Poison” Tree by William Blake

I was angry with my friend;

I told my wrath, my wrath did end.

I was angry with my foe:

I told it not, my wrath did grow.

And I watered it in fears,

Night & morning with my tears:

And I sunned it with smiles,

And with soft deceitful wiles.

And it grew both day and night.

Till it bore an apple bright.

And my foe beheld it shine,

And he knew that it was mine.

And into my garden stole,

When the night had veiled the pole;

In the morning glad I see;

My foe outstretched beneath the tree.

If the first and second tenets given above from Peter Berry are applied to this poem, the shows that it has meanings about human nature that are of hatred and jealousy. In other words, this poem has its own meanings setting aside the nature and character of its writer as well as the time when it was written or the context and the circumstances. It shows universal human nature or the assumption of liberal humanism literary theory that human nature is universal and that the objective of this piece is to spread these values that human beings should not cultivate hatred and form good relationships with each other.

Criticism of “Liberal Humanism” Literary Theory

T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound argue that liberal humanism is sentimental, while Ezra Pound terms it as “an old bitch gone in the teeth.”
The nation of humanity is overarching and abstract that is subject to transformation in different circumstances.
Liberal human causes “othering” of other races.
It has placed attributes based on assumptions that could be true or false.
Words have different meanings for different people subject to language, people, culture, values, upbringing, and ethical framework.
Truth does not have any definite definition and it is subject to ideologies.
All literature is ideological.

Suggestion Readings

Berry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Culture Today. Manchester University Press, 2002. Print.

Bertans, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basics. Routledge, 2007. Print. Kellner, Douglas, and Tyson Lewis. “Liberal humanism and the European critical tradition.” The SAGE Handbook of Social Science Methodology (2007): 405-422.

Feminism Literary Theory

“I believe feminism is grounded in supporting the choices of women even if we wouldn’t make certain choices for ourselves.” Roxane Gay, Bad Feminist

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Etymology and Meanings of “Feminism” Literary Theory

The term feminism is of French origin. It seems to have appeared in the late 19^th century as feminisme which means being feminine or like women. The term was used earlier for feminine rights or by the people who advocated the rights of women. The term itself is suggestive of relating to women. Therefore, feminism means a philosophy that outlines women, their rights, figures, persona, identities, etc.

Definition of Feminism Literary Theory

From the etymology and meanings given above, it could be stated that feminism is a literary theory that stresses upon the feminine side of a story, showing how women act in the storyline, how they are presented in the setting, and how they are marginalized or not-marginalized etc.

Origin of “Feminism” Literary Theory

Despite having some freedom during the Grecian and Roman periods, women mostly found themselves in domestic situations, breeding and rearing the next generation. However, the Enlightenment brought a specific focus on inequality in gender, portraying women as subordinate to men. This thinking also penetrated the legal realm. It was as early as 1792 when Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, the real work for feminism started. Since then, there is no looking back as this little effort entered in every other sphere of life, giving rise to social movements, political campaigns, and ideologies based on gender equality and the removal of stereotypes.

With time, different governments gave birth to different feministic movements such as the first liberal feministic wave emerged in the 19^th century, which gave way to Marxist feminism and later radical feminism replaced it. This second wave also highlighted patriarchal supremacy, giving rise to multicultural, black, and even intersectional feminism. With the arrival of literary theory, it also became an integral part of literature and the feminist approach to critique literary pieces also ensued in the literary realm.

Principles of Feminism Literary Theory

Feminism literary theory assumes that patriarchy, generally, oppresses women in social, political, economic, and even legal realms.
The second assumption is that women are subordinate to men and that they are kept in this subjugation psychologically.
Patriarchy marginalizes femininity in every sphere of life.
Western as well as eastern civilizations are deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology and hence keep femininity subjugated.
Femininity is a cultural production and not biological discrimination.
Feministic activity, traits, and features are analyzed through feminist literary theory.
Gender plays a significant role in every cultural, political, and economic sphere.

Criticism Against Feminism Literary Theory

Feminism is just a single lens to view a literary text. It is not a pervasive theme of every thematic strand.
It limits the ability of the readers to view the texts from any other angle such as psychoanalytic, cultural, Freudian, or Marxian, indigenous, colonial or queer.
This is a selective perception of some concepts that pervade everyday life.
It highlights the debate on social constructions of gender.
Feminist theory ignores biological facts that determine social construction.
It often marginalizes patriarchy and projects feminism more than required.

Examples of Feminism Literary Theory

Example # 1

From “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage. John is practical in the extreme. He has no patience with faith, an intense horror of superstition, and he scoffs openly at any talk of things not to be felt and seen and put down in figures. John is a physician, and perhaps—(I would not say it to a living soul, of course, but this is dead paper and a great relief to my mind)—perhaps that is one reason I do not get well faster. You see he does not believe I am sick!

This passage occurs in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s representative story, “The Yellow Wallpaper.” The anonymous protagonist of the story is a woman. In this passage, she states it clearly that the patriarchy represented by her husband, John, has the right to have an upper hand over the femininity that she represents. She knows that such things happen in life and patriarchy is always practical, while fanciful thinking goes to femininity. Yet, she highlights that this stereotypical thinking may cause psychological issues to women as she suffers from it and the practicality does not give due advantage to this thinking.

Example # 2

From “Hills like White Elephant” by Ernest Hemingway

The girl stood up and walked to the end of the station. Across, on the other side, were fields of grain and trees along the banks of the Ebro. Faraway, beyond the river, were mountains. The shadow of a cloud moved across the field of grain and she saw the river through the trees.” And we could have all this,” she said. “And we could have everything and every day we make it more impossible.” “What did you say?” “I said we could have everything.” “We can have everything.” “No, we can’t.” “We can have the whole world.”

This conversation occurs between the girl and the American when they are at the railway station in “Hills like White Elephant, a short story of Hemingway. The girl is pregnant and wants to have a child. That is why she is looking beyond the moment, making the young man realize the future and what it holds for them in store. However, the has a terse and curt answer that is no. He wants an abortion. Therefore, this terse shows the patriarchy at work in making final decisions while femininity itself stays in the background by only working on verbal persuasion.

Example # 3

From “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing. Her husband’s friend Richards was there, too, near her. It was he who had been in the newspaper office when intelligence of the railroad disaster was received, with Brently Mallard’s name leading the list of “killed.” He had only taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender friend in bearing the sad message.

This passage occurs in the popular short story of Kate Chopin “The Story of an Hour.” The leanings of the story are clearly toward femininity when it presents the character of Mrs. Mallard who feels freedom and liberty when she receives the news of the death of her husband. However, when the contradictory news arrives, she instantly succumbs to the pressurssue that she has built in her heart about the suppression of patriarchy. This is how the feminism has been projected in literature.

From Literature, Criticism and Theory by Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royale

One way of understanding this claim would be in relation to the cultural construction of gender and sexuality. Reading Shakespeare can help us to think about ways in which sexuality is an unstable site of conflict and transgression, historically contingent, mobile, a performance. Writing at a time before categories of homo- and heterosexual desire had been institutionalized, medicalized, rigidified and policed, Shakespeare’s writing questions what it means to be a man or a woman, and what it means, as a man and as a woman, to desire men and to desire women.

This passage from the theoretical book of Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royale shows that feminism has been in vogue since the time of Shakespeare. The only difference is that the language was not evolved enough to encompass its difficult concepts into words. This passage shows how feminism has given birth to myriads of terms necessary to explain this theoretical concept.

Example # 4

From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

Mr. Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr. Bingley. He had always intended to visit him, though to the last always assuring his wife that he should not go; and till the evening after the visit was paid she had no knowledge of it. It was then disclosed in the following manner. Observing his second daughter employed in trimming a hat, he suddenly addressed her with: ‘I hope Mr. Bingley will like it, Lizzy.

This passage occurs in Pride and Prejudice. It shows that both male members are not as much eager to meet Mr. Bingley, the rich young man who is arriving in that area, as the women are. Therefore, it shows that patriarchy is not much concerned about the feminine issues of marriage, partying, and forming relationships during the Victorian period.

Keywords in Feminism Literary Theory

Femininity, feministic, sexuality, gender, sexual identity, gender identity, sexism, sexism, misogyny, misogynistic, patriarchal, patriarchy, hostile sexism, heterosexual and homosexual tendencies

Modernism Literary Theory

Literary theory of modernism or modernism literary theory means a breakup of the literary pieces from the past conventions during the early 20th century.

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Etymology and Meanings of “Modernism” Literary Theory

The term modernism has been derived from a Latin term, modernus. It means the present time, the current or existing time. Literally, it connotes the contemporariness of the time that is present and not the past time.

Modernism in social sciences also means the same thing that is the present time, while the literary theory of modernism means a breakup of the literary pieces from the past conventions during the early 20^th century.

Definition of “Modernism” Literary Theory

Modernism could be defined as a movement that rebelled against the classical and Victorian periods, conventions, and clear-cut or straightforward storytelling and poetry writing norms. This definition has two aspects. The first one implies rebellion against the conventions or set -standards and the second one is innovation. Therefore, modernism means a new trend in literary writings.

Origin of “Modernism” Literary Theory

In literature as a movement, modernism, which is often called literary modernism or modernist literature, emerged during the final years of the 19^th century and early years of 20 century. This movement mostly emerged in English-speaking countries in Europe and the United States. It featured the representation of untraditional ways in writing fiction, poetry, and plays giving space to a wide array of experiments in form as well as expressions and style. The impacts of WWI on the social fabric of Europe led to the emergence of this movement which later turned into a theoretical perspective.

Principles of Modernism Literary Theory

It broke from the established order in religious, political, and social realms.
It broke away from accepted traditions.
The belief in the world as per the perceptions of things became strong.
It negated absolute truth and the experience of alienation.
It showed that life is not systematic and ordered
It paid attention to micro issues of the individuals and not the society as a whole.
It showed disintegration against harmony.
It demonstrated an openness to sexuality, non-superiority of ethics, and propagation of aesthetics.
Its major focus was on personal and spiritual decadence.
It rejected ideas of rationality, objectivity, and unity in things and the universe.

Criticism Against Modernism Literary Theory

It stresses too much on individuality, disintegration, and the world.
It has led to several non-issues that have exploded into postmodernism and several other ideologies.
It has led to commodity fetishism and consumerism.
Modernism has caused the destruction and disintegration of several political, religious, and social orders.
It has brought various other literary theoretical perspectives into views such as atheism, capitalism, liberal capitalism, trans-humanism, and post-truth.
It has given birth to materialism, negating nature.

Examples of Modernist Literature Literary Theory

Example # 1

From Ulysses by James Joyce

—My name is absurd too: Malachi Mulligan, two dactyls. But it has a Hellenic ring, hasn’t it? Tripping and sunny like the buck himself. We must go to Athens. Will you come if I can get the aunt to fork out twenty quid? He laid the brush aside and, laughing with delight, cried:

—Will he come? The jejune jesuit! Ceasing, he began to shave with care. —Tell me, Mulligan, Stephen said quietly.

—Yes, my love?

—How long is Haines going to stay in this tower? Buck Mulligan showed a shaven cheek over his right shoulder.

—God, isn’t he dreadful? he said frankly.

This passage shows some of the features of a modernist novel. It shows how Malachi Mulligan in Ulysses by James Joyce thinks of his name in dactylic features as being absurd. The other questions and his attempt of equating them to the Hellenic traits show modernism and then his musings point to the modernist trait of self-reflection or stream of consciousness.

Example # 2

From To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf

Indeed, she had the whole of the other sex under her protection; for reasons she could not explain, for their chivalry and valour, for the fact that they negotiated treaties, ruled India, controlled finance; finally for an attitude toward she her self which no woman could fail to feel or to find agreeable, something trustful, childlike, reverential; which an old woman could take from a young man without loss of dignity, and woe betide the girl–pray Heaven it was none of her daughters!–who did not feel the worth of it, and all that it implied, to the marrow of her bones.

This passage about Mrs. Ramsay, her character traits, and her musings show some features of modernist literary theory. First, she thinks of herself in gendered terms and second that she is quite ambivalent about it as she does not know how to explain this. Despite this modernist thinking, she is in confusion when it comes to breaking social norms and mores.

Example # 3

From Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

Ah, Mr. Kurtz!’ broke the stick of sealing-wax and seemed dumfounded by the accident. Next thing he wanted to know ‘how long it would take to’ … I interrupted him again. Being hungry, you know, and kept on my feet too. I was getting savage. ‘How can I tell?’ I said. ‘I haven’t even seen the wreck yet— some months, no doubt.’ All this talk seemed to me so futile. ‘Some months,’ he said. ‘Well, let us say three months before we can make a start. Yes. That ought to do the affair.’ I flung out of his hut (he lived all alone in a clay hut with a sort of verandah) muttering to myself my opinion of him. He was a chattering idiot.

This pen picture of Mr. Kurtz from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad shows modernist traits in writing. He has broken away from the traditional way of writing narratives. This shows how inserting dialogues, emotions, and exclamations within the text became a new normal in modernist writings.

Example # 4

From “The Waste Land” by T. S. Eliot

April is the cruellest month, breeding

Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing

Memory and desire, stirring

Dull roots with spring rain.

Winter kept us warm, covering

Earth in forgetful snow, feeding

A little life with dried tubers.

This is the first stanza of the celebrated poem “The Waste Land” by T. S. Eliot. The stanza shows Eliot breaking several poetic norms. He has not used any rhyme scheme. He has rathered termed April as the cruelest month which is not the poetic norm of those days. It was rather considered the best due to being in the spring season. Several other points such as desire, memory, and rain have been given meanings, not traditionally associated with them.

Example # 5

“In a Station of the Metro” by Ezra Pound

The apparition of these faces in the crowd:

Petals on a wet, black bough

This short poem by Ezra Pound shows the modernist theoretical perspective that is showing people through images. This is one of the best imagist poems written by one of the best imagist poets. The poem is purely modernist not only in writing and poetic conventions but also in its very themes.

Keywords in Modernism Literary Theory

Destabilization, fragmentation of reality, non-linearity, interiority, multiple perspective, allusiveness, self-consciousness, depiction of sexuality, invocation to classicism, grotesqueness, absurdity, absurdism, commodification

Marxism Literary Theory

What guides Marxism is a different model of society, and a different conception of the function of the knowledge. Jean-Francois Lyotard

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Etymology and Meanings of “Marxism” Literary Theory

The term “Marxism” is based on the name of Karl Marx, the chief exponent of Marxist political and social philosophy. The term, however, was first used by Karl Kautsky, who considered himself Marx’s staunch follower. That is why the term comprises two words, the name of Karl Marx, and -ism which means philosophy. Therefore, it means the social and political philosophy of Karl Marx though his colleague, Friedrich Engels, too, contributed to the philosophy considerably. The main exponent, though, was Karl Marx. Therefore, this school of thought always refers to Karl Marx.

Definition of “Marxism” Literary Theory

As a literary theory, Marxism could be defined a theoretical perspective that takes political, social, and cultural issues involving class differences, class consciousness, poverty, and issue of wages, or wealth into account when interpreting a text or critiquing a literary piece. This theory seeks to find these topics in fiction, poetry, and other literary works. In other words, it also could be defined as critiquing a literary text through a Marxian approach or approaching a text through a Marxian lens or perspective.

Origin of “Marxism Literary Theory

As Marxist literary theory is a materialistic one, it is clear that Karl Marx and Frederich Engels are its founders. Major teachings of this theoretical perspective have been derived from the main books that underline Marxism such as The German Ideology, The Communist Manifesto, and A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Almost all the terms by Marx and Engels have contributed to Marxism in one or the other way. The most popular dictum of this literary theory has been summed up in the first line of The Communist Manifesto that “History of all hitherto existing classes is the history of class struggles.”

Principles of Marxism Literary Theory

This literary theoretical perspective assumes that society has two classes, or better to say the capitalist society comprises of business class, or the bourgeoisie, and the workers, or the proletariat.
The relations between both classes are based on labor, wages, commodities, prices, and production.
The literary pieces present means of production and means of consumption, along with laborers and workers as the working class is showing at war with the business class on account of their dominant position on the means of production such as factories or fields.
The workers have to work to live while the business class eyes only its profit. This creates a friction point between both classes, making the antagonistic to each other.
The workers, having no stakes in the means of production suffer from, alienation, ennui, boredom, and tedium.
The upper or business classes exploit the situation through institutional manipulation including media, educational institutions, and religion, creating a superstructure, besides means of production and financial institutions.
The issues lead to further conflict that intensifies and lead to revolution such as in Animal Farm by George Orwell or by the end of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair.
Marxist literary theory gives aesthetics secondary significance, upgrading the interest of the working class.
Marxist paradigm applied to literature finds new ways to define social and cultural relations and issues through class-conflict prism.

Criticism Against Marxism Literary Theory

A society or a culture is a holistic entity and not just a division of two classes always at war with each other.
There is no clear-cut division of a society into two distinct classes.
No superstructure always stays for or in the favor of the upper or business class. There is always social mobility from one class to another.
No elements of a text can be analyzed in pure isolation.
Not all texts have ideologies. A writer has a different vision of reality other than what the Marxists interpret through their individual lenses.
A society comprises a multiplicity of classes, sections, and even races. Therefore, no text can present a coherent picture of the class conflict based on the Marxian concept.

Examples of Marxism Literary Theory

Example # 1

From Animal Farm by George Orwell

“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth.

This passage occurs in the novel, Animal Farm, by George Orwell. The speech delivered by Old Major seems to be a piece of an oratory delivered by a revolutionary. He is like the Marxian leader, Lenin urging the masses to rise against feudalism in Russia. Therefore, this seems a correct Marxian interpretation of this piece of literature. He even calls animals comrades, a title that every Communist or Marxist gives to his brother in ideology.

Example # 2

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

I lived at West Egg, the—well, the less fashionable of the two, though this is a most superficial tag to express the bizarre and not a little sinister contrast between them. My house was at the very tip of the egg, only fifty yards from the Sound, and squeezed between two huge places that rented for twelve or fifteen thousand a season. The one on my right was a colossal affair by any standard—it was a factual imitation of some Hôtel de Ville in Normandy, with a tower on one side, spanking new under a thin beard of raw ivy, and a marble swimming pool and more than forty acres of lawn and garden. It was Gatsby’s mansion. Or rather, as I didn’t know Mr. Gatsby it was a mansion inhabited by a gentle-man of that name.

This passage occurs in the masterpiece of Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby. It shows that West Egg represents the bourgeoisie class while East Egg represents the proletariat class. The interesting thing is that the house of the narrator lies in the middle of both of these places which shows that although he is aware of both of these classes, he does not seem to live in any of these. He rather longs to join West Egg. His desire to visit the mansion of Gatsby is actually a desire of an individual for social mobility, yet there is no lust for possessing a means of production involved.

Example # 3

From Tess of d’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy

“It was only my whim,” he said; and, after a moment’s hesitation: “It was on account of a discovery I made some little time ago, whilst I was hunting up pedigrees for the new county history. I am Parson Tringham, the antiquary, of Stagfoot Lane. Don’t you really know, Durbeyfield, that you are the lineal representative of the ancient and knightly family of the d’Urbervilles, who derive their descent from Sir Pagan d’Urberville, that renowned knight who came from Normandy with William the Conqueror, as appears by Battle Abbey Roll?”

This passage occurs in the popular novel of Thomas Hardy, Tess of d’Urbervilles. The father of Tess is rather feeling pride at finding that he belongs to a fine and upper class or bourgeoisie. This is not only his desire for upward social mobility but also his desire to join the upper class of those times, the d’Urbervilles. Therefore, he has tried to join them, sensing that obscurity of the pedigree would lend credence to his expression. This is the class mobility, an aspect of the Marxian approach to literature.

Example # 4

From Hard Times by Charles Dickens

His pride in having at any time of his life achieved such a great social distinction as to be a nuisance, an incumbrance, and a pest, was only to be satisfied by three sonorous repetitions of the boast. ‘I was to pull through it, I suppose, Mrs. Gradgrind. Whether I was to do it or not, ma’am, I did it. I pulled through it, though nobody threw me out a rope. Vagabond, errand-boy, vagabond, labourer, porter, clerk, chief manager, small partner, Josiah Bounderby of Coketown.

This passage from Hard Times shows clear hints about Marxian philosophy at work. Dickens seems to be employing that capitalism has started taking its toll on different characters. Bounderby is feeling the heat, while Mrs. Gradgrind, too, is feeling that she has already joined this bandwagon. The social structure and its division show a perfect case of this theoretical concept of Marxism literary theory.

Example # 5

From The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton

We’re poorer than the Socs and the middle class. I reckon we’re wilder, too. Not like the Socs, who jump greasers and wreck houses and throw beer blasts for kicks, and get editorials in the paper for being a public disgrace one day and an asset to society the next. Greasers are almost like hoods; we steal things and drive old souped-up cars and hold up gas stations and have a gang fight once in a while. I don’t mean I do things like that. Darry would kill me if I got into trouble with the police. Since Mom and Dad were killed in an auto wreck, the three of us get to stay together only as long as we behave.

The mere names of Socs and Greasers show that the real idea behind The Outsiders is to show the class consciousness of Darry and his family. He knows clearly that he can never join the Greasers. However, it is interesting that this situation could be interpreted through the lens of race critical theory as Hinton has put it. The main point is that at that time Marxism or Communism could have invited a witch-hunt against him in the United States.

Keywords in Marxism Literary Theory

Class struggle, class consciousness, class discrimination, poverty, alienation, means of production, profit, marginal utility, capitalism, proletariat, antagonism, dialectical materialism, dialectics, fetishism, feudal society, hegemony, consumerism, commodification

Magical Realism

At the end of the day, it’s about the reader’s attachment to and belief in the magical elements that make or break magical realism. Tea Obreht

Etymology and Meanings of “Magical Realism” Literary Theory

Magical realism comprises two words magical and realism which means to show things in a magical way, and that too as if they are happening in the real world. This style, first, started in painting to show fantastic images or scenes realistically. From there, it entered the literary realm, showing the inclusion of fantasy, myths, imaginary worlds, and other supernatural elements in narratives.

Definition of “Magical Realism” Literary Theory

From the above etymology and meanings, magical realism could be defined the presentation of magical situations, events and circumstances in literary texts as if they exists in reality and readers almost come to the point of believing them, knowing that they are just part of the fantasies.

Origin of “Magical Realism” Literary Theory

In literature, magical realism is stated to have emerged in Latin America. The major impact came from Alejo Carpentier, a Cuban writer, and Arturo Ulsar-Pietri, a Venezuelan writer. Both of them impacted the movement after they visited Europe and stayed in Paris to see the rise of surrealism (a literary movement that desired to release the unconscious mind through creative ways). This shortly occurred in the decade of 30s after the publication of a Revista de Occidente in Spanish and the emergence of an iconic Latin American figure, Jorge Luis Borges. The rise of Gabriel Garcia Marquez and other such novelists gave a new life to this literary movement and it soon spread across the globe, wooing eastern and western talent in fiction writing.

Types of Magical Realism Literary Theory

Due to the dominant hegemony of western literature, ideas, too, arrive from the Euro-centric critique of theories. It has been suggested that there are three major types of magical realism.

European: showing estrangement and uncanniness such as in the stories of Franz Kafka.
Matter of Fact: showing inexplicable events happening in the real world.
The Native world view of anthropological: showing the indigenous world view through a Eurocentric perspective. (Spindler 1-4)

Principle Features of Magical Realism Literary Theory

It favors the use of fantasy or fantastic elements such as myths, folk tales, or fables with renewed creativity to take the modern shifting realities into account.
It presents fantasy in a real-world setting with real characters and a real timeframe.
The literature of magical realism often shows the author exercising reticence about disclosing various information related to events and characters.
The narratives of magical realism often comprise plenitude or disorienting details such as Borges does in his stories.
Hybrid peeps through the plots of magical realist narratives, showing the mixture of urban/rural and colonial/indigenous areas.
Magical realist literature often shows mixing reality into fiction and fitting it into reality, underlining the role of metafiction and story-within-a-story type of narratives.
Magical realist narratives often use liquified irony to criticize modern political issues.

Criticism Against Magical Realism Literary Theory

Magical realism is full of terminology that, sometimes, seems ambiguous.
Magical realism narratives are more mysterious even than the mystery itself.
Magical realism narratives are often removed from reality, making the readers fed up with such fantasies and misuse of imaginations.

Examples of Magical Realism Literary Theory

Example # 1

From “A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez

On the third day of rain they had killed so many crabs inside the house that Pelayo had to cross his drenched courtyard and throw them into the sea, because the newborn child had a temperature all night and they thought it was due to the stench. The world had been sad since Tuesday. Sea and sky were a single ash-gray thing and the sands of the beach, which on March nights glimmered like powdered light, had become a stew of mud and rotten shellfish. The light was so weak at noon that when Pelayo was coming back to the house after throwing away the crabs, it was hard for him to see what it was that was moving and groaning in the rear of the courtyard. He had to go very close to see that it was an old man, a very old man, lying face down in the mud, who, in spite of his tremendous efforts, couldn’t get up, impeded by his enormous wings.

This passage occurs in the story of Marquez, “A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings.” The entire story presents a fantasy in the rural setting where Pelayo finds himself in a new situation where he thinks the way out. He sees that there is a new opportunity for them to earn money from that old man who is very old, yet has unusually enormous wings as if he is a flying creature. This scene shows the fantasy world merging with the modern reality of poverty.

Example # 2

From “Samsa in Love” by Haruki Murakami

Samsa had no idea where he was, or what he should do. All he knew was that he was now a human whose name was Gregor Samsa. And how did he know that? Perhaps someone had whispered it in his ear while he lay sleeping? But who had he been before he became Gregor Samsa? What had he been?

This passage occurs in Murakami’s story “Samsa in Love” after he uses the narrative character of Kafka in his story. Gregor Samsa is shown as a human being with various rhetorical questions he poses to himself and then responds to in the next passages. The main purpose of this passage is to show how the narrative world has opened up more opportunities for Murakami to weave other narratives along the same lines to make readers stretch their imaginations to receive the underlying message.

Example # 3

From The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka

One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he discovered that in bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug. He lay on his armour-hard back and saw, as he lifted his head up a little, his brown, arched abdomen divided up into rigid bow-like sections. From this height the blanket, just about ready to slide off completely, could hardly stay in place. His numerous legs, pitifully thin in comparison to the rest of his circumference.

This is the first passage of the story of Franz Kafka, who is labeled the pioneer of the European type of magical realism. The transformation of Gregor Samsa in the very first passage of the novel shows how Kafka has instantly taken his readers to a world of imagination that is not only awkward but also strange. It jolts the readers into thinking that it could happen to them in reality.

Example # 4

From “Invisible Cities” by Italo Calvino

Leaving there and proceeding for three days toward the east, you reach Diomira, a city with sixty silver domes, bronze statues of all the gods, streets paved with lead, a crystal theater, a golden c*ck that crows each morning on a tower. All these beauties will already be familiar to the visitor, who has seen them also in other cities. But the special quality of this city for the man who arrives there on a September evening, when the days are growing shorter and the multicolored lamps are lighted all at once at the doors of the food stalls and from a terrace a woman’s voice cries ooh!, is that he feels envy toward those who now believe they have once before lived an evening identical to this and who think they were happy, that time. This passage occurs in the collection of stories of Italo Calvino. The writer has used a “You-centric” narrative that does not seem a conventional way of narrating stories. This, too, does not seem a narrative. Rather, it shows the memories as if the writer is taking his readers along with him on a verbal tour of the cities he has seen in his life. This type of narrative shows how indigenous writers want the readers to see their indigenous world.

Does Literary Theory Help in Reading Process?

The reading process is a tricky business. Even readers themselves are rarely familiar with their own personas.

Use of Literary Theory in Reading

The reading process is a tricky business. Even readers themselves are rarely familiar with their own personas let alone their past, present, and future including their cultural upbringings which all impact the reading process. The reason is when readers read something, they are fully immersed in that text with all these aspects of their personas. Hence, reading is a highly complex task with a complex process. The same complex process is at work in writing that piece that a reader has to read. Therefore, the meaning making process becomes easier to understand when the reading process involved in interpreting is taken into account. However, practical criticism, too, which merely includes a short or detailed explanation and interpretation of the text, becomes a highly complex phenomenon. It cannot be executed properly without help from other branches of knowledge. It is here that literary theory comes to help the readers and the interpreters. It presents a multidimensional view of the book from cultural perspectives involved in its writing, individual mental makeup, and the cultural background of the readers and the cultural milieu in which the work appears.

Practical Example of Literary Theory in the Reading Process

Literary theory intervenes when a specific perspective is to be explored or a reader comes across some specific details about some theoretical assumptions. For example, if the book is placed in its historical setting when it has appeared on the scene, removing it from its writer, it may have different interpretations and the literary theory applied to it may focus on only its historical dimensions and not other dimensions. The problem here arises that the readers reading the book from this perspective only focus on this aspect and ignore all other aspects. For example, a person reading Charles Dicken’s A Tale of Two Cities may only focus on the French revolution and its workings. This compartmentalization of work is done in a way that different readers arrive at different conclusions after analyzing the same work. This poses a question about the relationship of the reader with the text. It could be interactional or transactional.

Literary Theory and Relation of the Reader with the Text

The relationship is interactional in that the reader interacts with the text and deduces meanings at which he/she arrives during his/her reading process. However, it happens that after a few months or years, he/she comes across the same text again and arrives at an entirely different conclusion. This is another way of interacting with the text. In the same way, a transactional relationship entails that meanings do not reside in the minds of the readers. Instead, the readers bring with them an attitude and a whole cultural makeup before reading the text. This helps them to draw meanings from the process in which they involve their whole cultural upbringing. For example, various eastern readers rather demonstrate horror when they read about sexual escapades in western fiction or poetry first time.

Literary Theory and Meanings

Whatever relationship a reader may have with the text, he/she arrives at some meanings. Literary theory comes to help him/her in this situation where he/she draws meanings according to his/her own theoretical perspective. Sometimes these theoretical perspectives differ on account of the application of different literary tropes, say figures of speech, or type of word choice, say diction. Still, they stay within the limits of one or the other theoretical lens. Saying it in a different way, it means that though each reader may show a different theoretical lens when interpreting a text, some readers may arrive at the same understanding. For example, a reader may see Kate Chopin’s story “The Story of an Hour” from a feminist perspective, while another may see it from a patriarchal perspective whereas both have almost the same meanings under the broad umbrella of a single theoretical lens of feminism.

Different Literary Theories

Such interpretations lead to different schools of criticism where one could be Marxism and the other could be New Historicism or Postmodernism or Postcolonialism. In fact, these various schools bombard the text with a plethora of questions. When readers answer these questions, they arrive at different understandings. The interpretation through a theoretical lens rather becomes a new jouissance for the readers, making their process not just a passive activity but an active activity that they enjoy and carry on with another set of reading from a different perspective. Therefore, literary theory makes the reading process an enjoyable activity.

Suggesting Readings

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Emergence of Literary Theory

Despite having roots in the classical Greece literary tradition,

Birth of Literary Theory

Despite having roots in the classical Greece literary tradition, literary theory owes much to the modern world for its emergence. Most literary theorists are consensual about the emergence in the 50s and 60s when a structuralist, Ferdinand de Saussure, started impacting literary criticism. Some others, however, claim that it was the German higher criticism of hermeneutics that led to theoretical criticism of literature. This was a scriptural interpretation of the biblical tales with narratives from other religious cultures or theologies which led to the emergence of “structuralism” and then “new historicism.” Specifically, after the introduction of these theoretical concepts, French cultural critics and sociologists came forward with new aspects and theoretical dimensions. During that time, a French critic, Charles Augustin, asserted that the biographical details of a writer are essential for the interpretations of their works. Marcel Proust, another French writer, lashed out at him, rejecting his claims altogether. Roland Barthes, then, contended it with his popular “Death of the Author” to which various authors and critics refuted and seconded during the second half of the twentieth century. This is perhaps the beginning of the emergence of literary theory. Friedrich Nietzsche was the second to impact the landscape of theory.

Nietzsche and Literary Theory

Nietzschean epistemological suspicion led many of his successors to doubt the very facts and their interpretation, leading to the emergence of various schools and theories including skepticism, absurdism, or existentialism. Specifically, his argument that heaven was a place full of ideas led several thinkers to question his argument, giving rise to skepticism and even more commentary upon morality, truth, power, and the very meaning of life. That is why his impact on it is tremendous as he has commented upon every other aspect of life that falls under theory and consequently under theory.

Russian Formalism as a Literary Theory

On the other hand, Russian formalists, too, were at the forefront, bringing in-depth transformations in theory and its application in literature. The teaching of literature at Yale, Cornell, and Johns Hopkins also contributed to this meaning making drive through the application of theory. And it became the catchword in the west by the end of the 80s.

Proliferation of Theory and Literary Theory

It has now become popular in third world academies and has gripped the minds of literary critics as well as writers and experts in other areas of social sciences, specifically international relations, marketing, and advertising. In fact, literary theory has never been as relevant as it is today when communication has witnessed transformation due to the arrival of the internet and fast communication platforms as a slight cultural change in one part of the world creates ripples across the globe. And it is interesting that even literary theories of the yore era are still relevant as stated by Chris Long in his article “A Brief History of Literary Theory.”

Christ Long on Literary Theory

Christ Long’s article states one thing that it has always been there. Only the quest started during the previous century. Chris Long states that the movement for finding real meanings has started with the author and moved toward the reader giving birth to different theories until Derrida announced the death of the author and termed text everything. However, this is not all, for the reader is also there as Fish’s theoretical lens radically altered it, putting the reader at the center. From there to onward, literary theory has become part and parcel of literary criticism, explication, and explanation process. The journey from the author to the text and the reader, then, entered the communities and cultures, giving birth to a host of other literary theories, canons, tropes, isms, ideas, and approaches.

Exact Date of Birth of Literary Theory

However, there is no exact date when, say, a university department has announced that it is going to launch it. In fact, its emergence has been gradual, encompassing classical, medieval, neo-classical, and then global ideas to give birth to a holistic term of literary theory where authors, philosophers, critics, and writers from across the globe have their ideas mixed up to draw out generalizations about eras and cultural spaces.

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What is Metatheory? How is it related to Literature?

Meanings of Metatheory

Metatheory is made up of two words; meta which means ‘going beyond,’ and theory which means a set of ideas. Therefore, it means to formulate a set of ideas or assumptions to study theories or a specific theory. As such, metatheory is not specifically relevant to literary theory. It is relevant to the theory in that it is applied to every other field to study theory. This field could be science, social science or humanities, or culture. In other words, metatheory means to study the theory as a subject matter.

Since the time literary theory has entered the field of literature, it has rather bamboozled literary critics, readers, and writers alike. It has even amazed the literary people due to the introduction of newer terms every other day. Although metatheory is another such term, it is rather a broad term as it encompasses all theoretical concepts. In other words, it means to study theory or a specific theoretical perspective and aims to unravel theoretical approaches and concepts.

Literature and Metatheory

If metatheory is the study of theory, in literature, metatheory means the study of literary theoretical concepts, tropes, and lenses. As metatheory is made up of two words, meta means ‘beyond, after, or behind” while theory means an idea or a supposition or a system of ideas based on some assumptions, it is, nonetheless, a theory. Therefore, it means the ways of looking at the theory, unraveling its assumptions, and disjointing it part by part. For example, if you study formalism, its major principles, and its underlying assumptions, it means you are applying metatheory to study this specific theory.

Relevance of Literary Theory to Metatheory

In literature, it is relevant in that it helps in studying other theoretical concepts and tropes. For example, if you want to know formalism or Russian formalism, you will first know the common principles that govern it. Or for that matter, you will study humanism and its common principles such as stated by Peter Berry that good literature is universal, timeless, meaningful in history, has no ideological leanings, and is based on the permanence of human nature. Although there are more than ten tenets of English humanism as stated by Peter Berry, some critics outline more than these. Therefore, the study of English humanism as a theoretical concept and then the comparison of this concept with other such theoretical concepts and lenses falls under the category of metatheory.

How Does Metatheory Help Readers?

It helps literary critics to study other theoretical lenses, separate them from each other, compare and contrast them and find faults or point out important features of different theoretical approaches. In a way, it is a creative process that helps find more domains, regions, genres, times, or specific concepts. It also helps impregnate various cultural concepts with more meanings and semantic alternatives to the point that they lose their original meanings and demonstrate new nuances.

What is Metatheory?

In fact, it is the theory of theory or the study of theory. A person who is studying theoretical concepts and is engaged in theorizing them further is a student of metatheory. It is also akin to other terms applied to different subjects such as metalanguage, metalinguistics, metamathematics, metahistory, metalogic, and metatheorem. Besides literature, it is used in philosophy, psychology, social research, and mathematics.

Works Cited Groeben, Norbert. “Response: Literary Theory: Object Theory or Metatheory?!” (2008): 443-446