Category: Literary Theory

Naturalism: Etymology/Term, Definition, and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “naturalism” traces its roots to the Latin word “natura,” meaning nature. Emerging in the 19th century, particularly in the realm of literature and philosophy, naturalism sought to explore and depict the human experience through a lens that emphasized the influence of external forces and environmental determinism on individuals.

Definition:

Naturalism is a philosophical and artistic movement that posits a deterministic view of human existence, emphasizing the impact of biology, environment, and heredity on individuals. It rejects supernatural explanations and underscores the idea that human behavior is governed by natural laws. In literature, naturalistic works often delve into the darker aspects of life, portraying characters as products of their circumstances and subject to the inexorable forces of nature.

Concept:

• Determinism: Naturalism emphasizes the deterministic nature of human actions, asserting that individuals are shaped and constrained by external factors beyond their control.
• Environmental Influence: The movement highlights the significance of the environment in shaping character and behavior, emphasizing the impact of surroundings on human development.
• Scientific Method: Naturalism often aligns itself with a scientific approach, seeking to understand human behavior through observation, analysis, and the application of natural laws.
• Pessimistic Outlook: Naturalistic works often adopt a pessimistic tone, portraying a world where individuals are at the mercy of their environment and biological predispositions, leading to a bleak view of human existence.
• Objective Realism: Naturalism strives for objective realism in its portrayal of life, aiming to present an unvarnished and unromanticized view of the human condition, devoid of idealism or moralizing tendencies.

Naturalism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

• Émile Zola: A prominent French novelist and theorist, Zola played a pivotal role in shaping naturalism. His work, “Les Rougon-Macquart,” is a series of novels that exemplifies naturalistic principles.
• Henrik Ibsen: The Norwegian playwright, known for works like “Ghosts” and “A Doll’s House,” incorporated naturalistic elements, challenging societal norms and exploring the consequences of heredity and environment.
• Stephen Crane: An American author, Crane’s “Maggie: A Girl of the Streets” and “The Red Badge of Courage” are considered early examples of naturalistic literature, exploring the impact of environment on characters.

Works:

• “Germinal” by Émile Zola: Zola’s novel “Germinal” vividly portrays the harsh lives of coal miners in France, emphasizing the brutal conditions and the determinism of social class.
• “The Call of the Wild” by Jack London: London’s novel follows the journey of a domesticated dog returning to a wild state, embodying naturalistic themes of survival and the primal instincts within individuals.
• “Sister Carrie” by Theodore Dreiser: Dreiser’s novel explores the life of a young woman in Chicago, illustrating how societal forces and economic pressures shape her choices and destiny.

Arguments:

• Determinism and Environmental Influence: Naturalism argues that individuals are products of their environment and are subject to deterministic forces, shaping their actions and destinies.
• Scientific Observation: Naturalistic works often incorporate a scientific approach to human behavior, employing detailed observation and analysis to depict characters and situations realistically.
• Pessimism and Social Critique: Naturalistic literature often presents a pessimistic view of human existence, critiquing social structures and highlighting the oppressive influence of external factors on individuals.
• Rejection of Idealism: Naturalism rejects idealized portrayals of characters and situations, opting for a more objective and unvarnished representation of the complexities of life.
• Focus on Social Issues: Many naturalistic works address social issues such as poverty, class disparity, and the harsh realities of industrialization, reflecting a concern for the societal context in which characters exist.

Naturalism: Key Principals

Key Principles of Naturalism	Literary Examples
Determinism	Germinal by Émile Zola – Characters’ destinies shaped by inescapable social and economic forces.
Environmental Influence	The Call of the Wild by Jack London – The protagonist’s transformation influenced by the harsh wilderness environment.
Scientific Observation	Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser – Meticulous portrayal of characters and their actions through a scientific lens.
Pessimism and Social Critique	Maggie: A Girl of the Streets by Stephen Crane – A pessimistic portrayal of urban poverty and societal oppression.
Rejection of Idealism	An American Tragedy by Theodore Dreiser – Characters face real consequences, rejecting idealized outcomes.
Focus on Social Issues	The Jungle by Upton Sinclair – Addresses societal issues such as labor exploitation and unsanitary working conditions.

Naturalism: How to Critique a Literary Work

1. Examine Deterministic Elements:
   • Identify how the characters’ lives are shaped by external forces, such as societal expectations, economic conditions, or biological factors.
   • Assess whether the characters’ actions and outcomes align with the naturalistic principle of determinism.

Example: In Émile Zola’s “Germinal,” the protagonist, Étienne Lantier, is inevitably drawn into the harsh world of coal mining, and his fate is determined by the socio-economic conditions of the mining community.

2. Evaluate Environmental Influence:
   • Analyze how the environment depicted in the work affects the characters’ behavior, decisions, and overall development.
   • Consider whether the setting plays a significant role in shaping the narrative and the characters’ responses to their surroundings.

Example: Jack London’s “The Call of the Wild” showcases how the hostile wilderness profoundly influences Buck, the domesticated dog, as he adapts to the challenges of the natural environment.

3. Assess Scientific Observation:
   • Look for instances where the author employs a scientific and objective approach to portray characters and events.
   • Evaluate whether the narrative is grounded in realistic observations, avoiding idealized or romanticized depictions.

Example: Theodore Dreiser’s “Sister Carrie” meticulously observes the protagonist’s journey through the urban landscape, employing a detailed and impartial lens to present a realistic depiction of the character’s life choices.

4. Consider Pessimistic Elements and Social Critique:
   • Examine the overall tone of the work and whether it reflects a pessimistic outlook on life.
   • Evaluate how the narrative critiques societal structures and highlights the struggles and hardships faced by the characters.

Example: Stephen Crane’s “Maggie: A Girl of the Streets” offers a bleak portrayal of urban poverty, emphasizing the oppressive social conditions and the tragic fate of the protagonist.

5. Analyze Rejection of Idealism:
   • Determine whether the work rejects idealized portrayals of characters and situations, opting for a more realistic and unvarnished representation of life.
   • Look for instances where characters face genuine consequences rather than conforming to idealized resolutions.

Example: In Theodore Dreiser’s “An American Tragedy,” the protagonist’s actions lead to real and tragic consequences, challenging the notion of idealized outcomes.

6. Explore Focus on Social Issues:
   • Investigate how the work addresses and critiques broader social issues such as class disparities, industrialization, or societal norms.
   • Assess whether the narrative contributes to a deeper understanding of the social context in which the characters exist.

Example: Upton Sinclair’s “The Jungle” explores the harsh realities of labor exploitation and unsanitary working conditions in the meatpacking industry, serving as a powerful commentary on societal issues.

By employing these criteria, a naturalistic critique provides a nuanced analysis of how the literary work aligns with the principles of naturalism, offering insights into the deterministic, observational, and socio-critical aspects of the narrative.

Naturalism: Similar Terms

Naturalism	Similar Terms
Determinism	Inevitability of outcomes based on forces beyond individual control.
Social Realism	Depiction of societal issues and realities in a straightforward manner.
Scientific Realism	Application of scientific principles to literary portrayal.
Environmental Determinism	Emphasis on the impact of surroundings on human behavior.
Social Darwinism	Application of Darwinian principles to societal structures and evolution.
Mimetic Realism	Imitation of real-life situations and characters in literature.
Objectivism	Presentation of events and characters without subjective bias.
Positivism	Reliance on observable and verifiable phenomena in literature.
Sociological Fiction	Exploration of social structures and their impact on individuals.
Fatalism	Belief in the inevitability of predetermined outcomes in life.

Naturalism: Suggested Readings

1. Crane, Stephen. Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. Dover Publications, 2009.
2. Dreiser, Theodore. An American Tragedy. Vintage, 2010.
3. London, Jack. The Call of the Wild. Dover Publications, 1990.
4. Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. Dover Publications, 2001.
5. Zola, Émile. Germinal. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Cultural Studies: Etymology and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “Cultural Studies” originated in the mid-20th century and gained prominence during the 1960s and 1970s. Emerging primarily from British academia, it was initially used to describe an interdisciplinary field that sought to analyze, critique, and understand various aspects of culture, including popular culture, media, language, and everyday life. Rooted in a desire to break down traditional academic boundaries and incorporate perspectives from diverse disciplines, Cultural Studies aimed to explore how power, ideology, and societal structures shape and are shaped by cultural practices.

Concept:

• Interdisciplinarity: Cultural Studies is characterized by its interdisciplinary approach, drawing insights from sociology, anthropology, literature, media studies, and other fields to analyze cultural phenomena.
• Power Dynamics: The field emphasizes the examination of power relations within cultural practices, investigating how they reinforce or challenge existing societal structures.
• Popular Culture Analysis: Cultural Studies places a significant focus on the study of popular culture, recognizing it as a site where societal norms, values, and ideologies are reflected and contested.
• Identity Formation: Examining how cultural practices contribute to the construction of individual and collective identities is a central concern, with attention to issues of race, gender, class, and more.
• Critical Theory Influence: Cultural Studies is influenced by critical theory, incorporating perspectives that question established norms and challenge dominant ideologies in various cultural contexts.

Cultural Studies: Definition of Term

Cultural Studies is a multidisciplinary field of academic inquiry that analyzes the production, distribution, and reception of cultural artifacts and practices. It examines how power dynamics, social structures, and identity formation intersect within cultural contexts. The field employs diverse methodologies, drawing from sociology, anthropology, media studies, and literature, to critically explore the complexities of contemporary culture.

Cultural Studies: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorist	Key Works	Main Arguments
Stuart Hall	Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse, The Cultural Studies Reader	Pioneered reception theory, emphasizing how media messages are encoded and decoded by audiences; argued for the importance of decoding practices in shaping cultural meanings.
Raymond Williams	Culture and Society, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society	Introduced the concept of “cultural materialism,” exploring the relationships between culture, society, and power structures; emphasized the role of everyday language in shaping cultural understanding.
Michel Foucault	Discipline and Punish, The Archaeology of Knowledge	Explored the dynamics of power and knowledge in society; argued that power is dispersed throughout social structures and embedded in discourse, influencing cultural practices.
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble, Bodies That Matter	Developed the concept of performativity, challenging traditional views of gender identity; argued that gender is a socially constructed performance rather than an inherent trait.
Homi K. Bhabha	The Location of Culture	Introduced the idea of “hybridity” and the “third space” in cultural identity; argued for understanding cultural identities as fluid and constantly negotiated within diverse social contexts.
bell hooks	Ain’t I a Woman, Black Looks: Race and Representation	Examined the intersections of race, gender, and class in cultural production; argued for the importance of intersectionality in understanding and addressing social issues.

Cultural Studies: Major Characteristics

• Interdisciplinarity:
  • Example: In “The Taming of the Shrew” by William Shakespeare, interdisciplinary themes of gender, power dynamics, and societal expectations are explored through both comedic and critical lenses.
• Cultural Materialism:
  • Example: In George Orwell’s “1984,” cultural materialism is evident in the scrutiny of language, reflecting how power structures manipulate and control society through the manipulation of words and concepts.
• Reception Theory:
  • Example: J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series engages with reception theory as readers interpret the narrative, characters, and moral dilemmas, contributing to a diverse range of interpretations.
• Performativity:
  • Example: In Virginia Woolf’s “Orlando,” the concept of performativity is explored as the protagonist undergoes a gender transformation, emphasizing the performative nature of identity.
• Hybridity:
  • In a similar vein, Tsitsi Dangarembga’s “Nervous Conditions” for African literature or Yan Ge’s “The Chili Bean Paste Clan” for Chinese literature exemplifies hybridity, fusing magical realism with historical elements to illuminate the diverse cultural tapestry of their respective regions.
• Intersectionality:
  • Example: In Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s “Americanah,” intersectionality is central as the protagonist navigates issues of race, gender, and immigration in both Nigerian and American contexts.

These literary examples illustrate how the major characteristics of Cultural Studies manifest in diverse ways within the realm of literature, showcasing the field’s broad applicability and relevance.

Cultural Studies: Application in Critiques

1. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Cultural Materialism: A Cultural Studies critique of “The Great Gatsby” would delve into the societal values of the Roaring Twenties, exploring how materialism and the pursuit of the American Dream shape the characters’ identities and relationships.
2. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe:
   • Postcolonial Analysis: Applying Cultural Studies to “Things Fall Apart” would involve examining the novel’s portrayal of the clash between Igbo traditions and colonial influences, highlighting the cultural disruptions and power dynamics at play.
3. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood:
   • Feminist and Reception Theory: A Cultural Studies critique of “The Handmaid’s Tale” would explore the novel’s feminist themes, analyzing how readers’ interpretations contribute to the ongoing dialogue about gender roles, power structures, and dystopian societies.
4. The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan:
   • Intersectionality: Cultural Studies could be applied to “The Joy Luck Club” by scrutinizing the intersectionality of cultural identities within the Chinese-American immigrant experience, emphasizing how factors like gender, generation, and ethnicity shape the characters’ lives.

In each case, a Cultural Studies critique would go beyond traditional literary analysis, focusing on the broader cultural contexts and societal influences present in the works. It would explore how these texts reflect, challenge, or contribute to cultural norms, power structures, and identity dynamics, showcasing the versatility of Cultural Studies in literary criticism.

Cultural Studies: Relevant Terms

Term	Brief Definition
Hegemony	Dominance or control exerted by one group over others, shaping cultural norms and values.
Orientalism	Western representations of the East, often portraying it as exotic or inferior, influencing cultural perceptions.
Subaltern	Marginalized groups or individuals lacking political power, often analyzed in postcolonial critiques.
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of a particular culture’s beliefs and values, influencing societal norms and practices.
Cultural Appropriation	Adoption of elements from a marginalized culture by a dominant culture, often raising questions of power and authenticity.
Discourse Analysis	Examination of language use to understand power structures and social constructions in cultural communication.
Othering	The process of depicting individuals or groups as fundamentally different, reinforcing stereotypes and power imbalances.
Spectacle	The presentation of events or images in media that shape cultural perceptions and influence societal attitudes.
Cultural Capital	Accumulated cultural knowledge and experiences that can provide social advantages or disadvantages.
Globalization	The interconnectedness and interdependence of cultures on a global scale, impacting cultural exchange and identity.

Cultural Studies: Suggested Readings

1. Hall, Stuart. The Cultural Studies Reader. Edited by Simon During, Routledge, 2007.
2. hooks, bell. Black Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press, 1992.
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
4. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
5. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
6. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage Books, 1995.
7. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 1983.
8. Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. Aunt Lute Books, 1987.
9. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
10. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
11. Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. University of Michigan Press, 1994.
12. Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. Dover Publications, 1994.

Mimetic Criticism: Definition and Concept

Definition:

Mimetic criticism, rooted in literary and cultural analysis, focuses on the representation of reality and the imitation of life within artistic works. This critical approach explores how art mirrors the world, attempting to imitate and depict aspects of human existence, society, and nature. It delves into the ways in which artistic expression reflects, mimics, or distorts reality to convey deeper meanings and resonate with the human experience.

Concept:

• Imitation and Representation: Mimetic criticism emphasizes the artist’s attempt to imitate or represent reality in their work, examining the fidelity of the artistic representation to the actual world.
• Mimesis and Human Experience: The concept of mimesis involves the portrayal of human actions, emotions, and societal structures within art, aiming to capture the essence of lived experiences and convey a sense of reality.
• Truth and Illusion: Mimetic critics explore the tension between truth and illusion in art, questioning how accurately artistic representations reflect reality and whether the distortion of truth serves a purpose in conveying deeper truths about the human condition.

Mimetic Criticism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists	Works	Arguments
Aristotle	Poetics	– Emphasized the concept of mimesis as the imitation of reality in art.
Erich Auerbach	Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature	– Examined how literature mirrors historical and social contexts, emphasizing the representation of reality in narrative form.
René Girard	Violence and the Sacred	– Introduced the concept of mimetic desire, exploring how individuals imitate the desires of others and the role of violence in human culture.
Northrop Frye	Anatomy of Criticism	– Explored the relationship between literature and society, emphasizing the mimetic function of literature in reflecting and shaping cultural values.
Wolfgang Iser	The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response	– Focused on the reader’s role in completing the mimetic process, arguing that meaning in literature emerges through the interaction between text and reader.
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity	– Applied mimetic concepts to gender identity, challenging traditional norms and questioning the imitation of socially constructed gender roles.

Note: This table provides a concise overview, and each theorist and work can be explored further for a more in-depth understanding of their contributions to mimetic criticism.

Mimetic Criticism: Key Principles

• Mimesis as Imitation:
  • Example: In Shakespeare’s “Othello,” Iago’s manipulation of others through deception reflects the imitation of cunning and deceit in human behavior.
• Representation of Reality:
  • Example: In Charles Dickens’ “Oliver Twist,” the portrayal of Victorian society’s injustices reflects a mimetic representation of the socio-economic realities of the time.
• Reflection of Human Experience:
  • Example: J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye” captures the internal struggles and adolescent experiences of the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, offering a reflection of human emotions.
• Cultural and Social Commentary:
  • Example: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” uses anthropomorphic animals to satirize and mimic political events, providing a commentary on societal and political structures.
• Mimetic Desire and Conflict:
  • Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby,” the characters’ desires for wealth and social status lead to conflicts and imitate the societal pursuit of the American Dream.
• Realism in Literature:
  • Example: Gustave Flaubert’s “Madame Bovary” meticulously details the ordinary life of Emma Bovary, illustrating the real and often tragic consequences of unfulfilled desires.
• Reader Engagement and Interpretation:
  • Example: In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” readers actively engage in interpreting the symbolism and magical realism to construct meaning, highlighting the reader’s role in the mimetic process.

These principles showcase how mimetic criticism explores the imitation of reality, human experiences, and societal dynamics within literary works, contributing to a deeper understanding of the relationship between art and life.

Mimetic Criticism: Criticism Against It

• Neglect of Artistic Creativity:
  • Critics argue that mimetic criticism tends to overlook the artistic creativity and innovation present in works of art, reducing them to mere imitations of reality and neglecting the transformative power of the artist’s imagination.
• Subjectivity and Interpretation:
  • Critics contend that the concept of mimesis does not account for the subjective nature of human experience and interpretation, and thus, it oversimplifies the complexities of artistic representation.
• Limitation to Realism:
  • Some argue that mimetic criticism primarily focuses on realistic works, leaving out more abstract or experimental forms of art that may not adhere to a direct imitation of reality.
• Cultural Relativity:
  • Critics assert that the mimetic approach may not be universally applicable, as different cultures have varied perceptions of reality, and what constitutes an accurate imitation may differ across societies.
• Neglect of Formal Elements:
  • Mimetic criticism often places less emphasis on the formal elements of art, such as style, language, and structure, leading some critics to argue that it provides an incomplete understanding of the artistic work.
• Dynamic Nature of Reality:
  • Opponents suggest that the mimetic concept assumes a static and fixed reality, whereas the postmodern perspective argues for a more dynamic and fluid understanding of reality, challenging the mimetic framework.
• Failure to Address Symbolism and Allegory:
  • Critics argue that mimetic criticism may struggle to adequately engage with symbolic or allegorical works where the representation is not a direct imitation but rather a symbolic commentary on reality.
• Overemphasis on Representation, Underemphasizing Expression:
  • Some argue that mimetic criticism overly focuses on the representation of external reality, potentially undermining the importance of artistic expression and the artist’s unique voice in shaping meaning.
• Inadequacy in Analyzing Non-Visual Arts:
  • Critics suggest that mimetic criticism may not be as applicable or effective when analyzing non-visual arts, such as music or abstract poetry, where the concept of imitation might be less straightforward.

These criticisms highlight the limitations and potential shortcomings of mimetic criticism in capturing the diverse and complex nature of artistic expression.

Mimetic Criticism: Application in Critiques

1. William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” (1606):
   • Mimesis as Imitation: The play imitates the destructive consequences of unchecked ambition, as Macbeth’s rise to power and subsequent fall mirrors the potential pitfalls of unrestrained ambition in human nature.
   • Representation of Reality: The portrayal of political intrigue and the psychological effects of guilt and paranoia reflects the socio-political realities of Shakespeare’s time, providing a mirror to the anxieties of his audience.
2. George Orwell’s “1984” (1949):
   • Cultural and Social Commentary: Orwell’s dystopian novel serves as a stark imitation of totalitarian regimes, offering a powerful commentary on the dangers of unchecked government power and surveillance.
   • Reflection of Human Experience: The protagonist Winston’s struggle against oppression and the suppression of individuality resonates with universal themes of resistance and the human desire for autonomy.
3. Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967):
   • Realism in Literature: While incorporating magical realism, the novel imitates the socio-political history of Latin America, providing a nuanced reflection of the region’s complexities and challenges.
   • Reader Engagement and Interpretation: The intricate narrative structure encourages readers to actively engage in interpreting the symbolism and allegorical elements, adding layers to the mimetic process.
4. Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” (1960):
   • Mimetic Desire and Conflict: The racial tensions and legal conflicts in the novel imitate the societal struggles against racial injustice, portraying the mimetic desires for justice and equality during the 1930s in the American South.
   • Representation of Reality: Through the character of Atticus Finch, the novel mirrors the ethical struggles and moral dilemmas faced by individuals when confronted with deeply ingrained societal prejudices.

In each of these examples, mimetic criticism helps illuminate how the works engage with the imitation of reality, representation of human experiences, and cultural and social commentary. It provides a lens through which we can appreciate the ways literature mirrors and comments on the world around us.

Mimetic Criticism: Terms Used in It

Term	Definition
Mimesis	Imitation or representation of reality within artistic works.
Mimetic Desire	Imitation of the desires or behaviors of others in social contexts.
Realism	Faithful representation of reality in literature or art.
Representation	Depiction or portrayal of aspects of reality within a work of art.
Cultural Commentary	Artistic expression providing insights or critiques on societal values.
Mimetic Process	The dynamic interaction between the artwork and the observer or reader.
Imitation of Life	Artistic representation attempting to mirror elements of human existence.
Artistic Fidelity	The degree to which a work of art faithfully imitates or represents reality.

Mimetic Criticism: Suggested Readings

1. Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton University Press, 1953.
2. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
3. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
4. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper & Row, 1970.
5. Girard, René. Violence and the Sacred. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.
6. Orwell, George. 1984. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1949.
7. Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1951.
8. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Edited by Barbara Mowat and Paul Werstine, Folger Shakespeare Library, 1992.
9. Taylor, Charles. The Ethics of Authenticity. Harvard University Press, 1991.
10. Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1960.

Humor Theory: Etymology/Term, Definition, Concept

Etymology/Term:

The word “humor” in the context of humor theory originates from the ancient Greek word “humor,” meaning fluid or liquid. This term was used by ancient physicians to describe bodily fluids, believing that the balance of these fluids in the body influenced a person’s temperament and health. Over time, the meaning evolved to include a person’s disposition, and eventually, it became associated with the quality of being amusing or entertaining.

Definition:

Humor, in the realm of humor theory, refers to the quality of being amusing, entertaining, or enjoyable, often eliciting laughter or a sense of amusement. It is a subjective and culturally influenced phenomenon that involves the perception of incongruities, absurdities, or deviations from expected norms.

Concept:

• Incongruity Theory: This concept suggests that humor arises from the unexpected or incongruent elements in a situation. Jokes or comedic situations often involve surprising twists or deviations from typical patterns, leading to a humorous response.
• Relief Theory: Developed by Sigmund Freud, this theory posits that humor serves as a release of psychological tension or taboo thoughts. Laughter, in this context, is a way for individuals to cope with societal restrictions or personal anxieties.
• Superiority Theory: According to this perspective, humor emerges when individuals perceive themselves as superior to others or situations. Jokes often involve the ridicule or mockery of someone else, providing a sense of superiority to the audience.
• Incongruity-Resolution Model: Building on incongruity theory, this model suggests that humor arises when there is a resolution of incongruities. The brain processes incongruent information, and when a punchline or resolution is presented, it triggers laughter as a cognitive response.
• Cultural and Social Influences: Humor is highly influenced by cultural and social norms. What is considered funny varies across cultures and societies, reflecting shared values, taboos, and societal norms. Understanding cultural context is crucial in analyzing and appreciating different forms of humor.

Humor Theory: Theorists, Works, Arguments

Theorist	Notable Works	Key Arguments
Aristotle	Poetics	– Humor as catharsis in drama.
Thomas Hobbes	Human Nature	– Superiority theory, humor as a form of scorn.
Immanuel Kant	Critique of Judgment	– Incongruity theory, humor as the unexpected.
Sigmund Freud	Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious	– Relief theory, humor as a release of tension.
Henri Bergson	Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic	– Mechanical incongruity, humor in rigidity and automatism.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	Philosophical Investigations	– Language games and how they contribute to humor.
Mary Douglas	Purity and Danger	– Taboo humor, exploring social norms through laughter.
Arthur Koestler	The Act of Creation	– Bisociation, the joining of unrelated cognitive frames in humor.
John Morreall	Taking Laughter Seriously	– Humor as play, the role of incongruity in humor.
Victor Raskin	Semantic Mechanisms of Humor	– Script-based semantic theory, analyzing humor through script deviations.

Humor Theory: Key Principles

• Incongruity:
  Humor often arises from incongruities, or unexpected elements, in a situation. This principle suggests that the human mind finds amusement in the unexpected or the deviation from typical patterns.

Example: In Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest,” the characters create humor through their use of ironic statements and paradoxes, introducing incongruities that challenge conventional expectations.

• Relief:
  Sigmund Freud’s relief theory posits that humor serves as a release of psychological tension or taboo thoughts. Laughter, in this context, becomes a coping mechanism for individuals to address societal restrictions or personal anxieties.

Example: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” uses allegory and satire to provide a humorous yet critical commentary on societal and political issues, offering a release for readers to engage with complex themes through humor.

• Superiority:
  This principle, associated with Thomas Hobbes, suggests that humor arises when individuals perceive themselves as superior to others or situations. Jokes often involve the ridicule or mockery of someone else, providing a sense of superiority to the audience.

Example: In Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice,” the humor is often derived from the characters’ social missteps and misunderstandings, allowing readers to feel a sense of superiority as they observe the characters’ foibles.

• Bisociation:
  Coined by Arthur Koestler, bisociation involves the joining of unrelated cognitive frames in humor. It emphasizes the juxtaposition of disparate ideas, leading to a surprising connection that elicits laughter.

Example: In Lewis Carroll’s “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland,” the absurd and fantastical situations that Alice encounters, such as a tea party with the Mad Hatter, showcase bisociation by combining unrelated elements in a humorous manner.

• Cultural Context: Humor is intricately shaped by cultural and social norms, demanding an awareness of the cultural backdrop for a nuanced interpretation and appreciation of diverse comedic forms. What amuses one culture might not resonate universally, highlighting the significance of context in humor comprehension.

Example: In Arundhati Roy’s “The God of Small Things,” humor is threaded with cultural intricacies and societal nuances of post-colonial India. Readers must delve into the cultural context to fully grasp the satirical elements and wit, enriching the overall understanding of the novel’s humor.

Humor Theory: Application in Literary Critiques

• Incongruity Analysis: Examining how incongruities contribute to humor helps identify instances where the unexpected or absurd elements deviate from typical patterns. Literary critics can explore how authors employ incongruity to create laughter or provoke thought.

Example: In Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,” incongruity is evident in the disparity between Huck’s naive perspective and the complex moral issues he encounters, adding humor through the incongruous nature of his observations.

• Relief Theory Interpretation: Literary critics can employ relief theory to analyze how humor serves as a release of tension or a coping mechanism within a narrative. This approach involves identifying instances where humor provides relief from intense or serious themes.

Example: Joseph Heller’s “Catch-22” uses humor to provide relief from the harsh realities of war. The absurdity of the catch itself serves as a coping mechanism, allowing readers to navigate the grimness of the wartime setting.

• Superiority Dynamics: Evaluating how superiority dynamics contribute to humor involves examining instances of satire, mockery, or characters’ missteps. Literary critics can assess how the audience’s sense of superiority over characters influences the comedic elements.

Example: Jane Austen’s “Emma” features a protagonist whose misguided matchmaking attempts lead to humorous situations. Literary critics can explore how readers’ sense of superiority contributes to the novel’s comedic appeal.

• Bisociation Examination: Analyzing bisociation in literary works involves identifying unexpected connections or juxtapositions that elicit laughter. Literary critics can explore how authors creatively combine disparate elements for comedic effect.

Example: Douglas Adams’ “The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy” employs bisociation by blending science fiction with absurdity, creating unexpected connections that contribute to the novel’s humor.

• Cultural and Social Context Consideration: Literary critics must consider cultural and social contexts when assessing humor. Examining how cultural references, norms, or societal critiques contribute to the comedic elements provides a more comprehensive understanding.

Example: In Zadie Smith’s “White Teeth,” the humor is intricately linked to multiculturalism and the complexities of identity in post-colonial Britain. Critics can explore how cultural context enhances the novel’s humor and social commentary.

By applying humor theory to literary critiques, analysts can unveil the intricate mechanisms of comedic elements within literary works, offering readers a deeper appreciation of the role humor plays in storytelling.

Humor Theory: Terms

Term	Definition
Incongruity	Unexpected or absurd elements deviating from norms.
Relief Theory	Humor as a release of tension or coping mechanism.
Superiority Dynamics	Audience’s sense of superiority over characters.
Bisociation	Juxtaposing unrelated elements for comedic effect.
Cultural Context	Influence of cultural norms on humor interpretation.
Satire	Use of humor, irony, or ridicule for social critique.
Wit	Clever and humorous expression, often verbal.
Parody	Imitation with exaggeration for comedic effect.
Hyperbole	Deliberate exaggeration for humorous emphasis.
Irony	Expression of meaning contrary to the literal sense.

Humor Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Bergson, Henri. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic. 1900. Dover Publications, 2005.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
3. Freud, Sigmund. Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious. 1905. W. W. Norton & Company, 1990.
4. Koestler, Arthur. The Act of Creation. Macmillan, 1964.
5. Morreall, John. Taking Laughter Seriously. SUNY Press, 1983.
6. Raskin, Victor. Semantic Mechanisms of Humor. Springer, 1985.
7. Wilde, Oscar. The Critic as Artist. 1891. Penguin Classics, 2009.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Term, Definition, and Concept

Definition:

Equivalence theory in translation refers to the approach that emphasizes the need to convey the meaning and intent of the source text accurately in the target language. Proposed by linguist and translation theorist Eugene Nida, this theory suggests that successful translation involves not only linguistic equivalence but also the transfer of the cultural and contextual meaning. The goal is to ensure that the translated text is equivalent in terms of both form and function, allowing the target audience to understand and interpret the content in a manner similar to the source audience.

Concept:

• Linguistic Equivalence: The theory recognizes the importance of maintaining similar linguistic structures and expressions between the source and target languages, ensuring clarity and precision in communication.
• Functional Equivalence: Beyond linguistic aspects, functional equivalence involves conveying the same communicative function and impact in the target language, considering cultural nuances and context.
• Dynamic Equivalence: Coined by Nida, dynamic equivalence involves the translator’s attempt to reproduce the impact of the source text in a way that resonates with the target audience, even if it means deviating from the literal wording.
• Cultural Considerations: Equivalence theory acknowledges that successful translation requires a deep understanding of cultural differences, requiring the translator to navigate linguistic and cultural gaps to maintain the intended meaning.
• Relevance to Audience: The theory emphasizes the adaptation of the translated text to suit the linguistic and cultural expectations of the target audience, ensuring that the message is conveyed effectively and appropriately.

Equivalence theory serves as a foundational concept in translation studies, guiding translators in their efforts to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps while preserving the essence and impact of the original text.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Notable Works	Key Arguments
Eugene Nida	Toward a Science of Translating (1964)	– Advocated for dynamic equivalence, emphasizing the importance of conveying the impact and function of the source text rather than a word-for-word translation.
Peter Newmark	A Textbook of Translation (1988)	– Introduced the concepts of semantic and communicative translation, emphasizing the need to convey the intended meaning and purpose rather than focusing solely on linguistic equivalence.
Katharina Reiss	Type, Kind, and Individuality of Text: Decision Making in Translation (1971)	– Developed the concept of “text types” and argued that different types of texts require different translation strategies based on their communicative function.
Christiane Nord	Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis (1997)	– Introduced the concept of “function plus loyalty,” emphasizing the importance of balancing the function of the source text with loyalty to the cultural and linguistic norms of the target audience.
Mona Baker	In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation (1992)	– Explored the concept of “equivalence in difference,” acknowledging that exact equivalence may not always be achievable, especially in cases of cultural and linguistic divergence.

These theorists have significantly contributed to the development and understanding of equivalence theory in translation, each offering unique perspectives and methodologies for achieving successful translations.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Key Principles

• Linguistic Equivalence: The principle of linguistic equivalence emphasizes maintaining similar linguistic structures and expressions between the source and target languages. It ensures clarity and precision in communication by preserving the grammatical and syntactical features of the original text.
• Functional Equivalence: Beyond linguistic aspects, functional equivalence involves conveying the same communicative function and impact in the target language. It requires the translator to consider cultural nuances and context, ensuring that the translated text serves the same purpose as the source text.
• Dynamic Equivalence: Coined by Eugene Nida, dynamic equivalence involves the translator’s attempt to reproduce the impact of the source text in a way that resonates with the target audience. This may involve rephrasing or rewording to capture the essence and intent of the original, even if it means deviating from the literal wording.
• Cultural Considerations: Equivalence theory acknowledges that successful translation requires a deep understanding of cultural differences. Translators must navigate linguistic and cultural gaps to maintain the intended meaning, ensuring that the translated text is culturally appropriate and resonant with the target audience.
• Relevance to Audience: The theory emphasizes the adaptation of the translated text to suit the linguistic and cultural expectations of the target audience. It recognizes that the success of a translation is not solely determined by linguistic accuracy but also by how well the message is conveyed and received by the intended audience.

These key principles guide translators in their efforts to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, ensuring that the translated text is not only faithful to the original but also effectively communicates the intended meaning and impact in the target language and culture.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Application in Criticism

1. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez:
   • Equivalence Focus: Capturing the magical realism and cultural richness.
   • Critique: Evaluate how well the translator maintains the balance between preserving the unique narrative style and ensuring that the cultural elements are conveyed accurately to the target audience.
2. Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky:
   • Equivalence Focus: Preserving the psychological depth and existential themes.
   • Critique: Examine how the translator handles the complex psychological aspects of the characters and conveys the philosophical underpinnings of the novel, ensuring that the target audience grasps the intended impact.
3. One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights):
   • Equivalence Focus: Maintaining the cultural and linguistic diversity.
   • Critique: Assess how the translation handles the diverse range of stories, characters, and cultural references. Consider whether the translator successfully conveys the richness of the original work without losing its cultural context.
4. The Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov:
   • Equivalence Focus: Preserving the satirical and allegorical elements.
   • Critique: Analyze how the translator handles the satirical elements, cultural references, and the intricate interplay between reality and fantasy. Evaluate if the translation captures the intended humor and social commentary.

In each case, critics applying equivalence theory would assess the translation based on how well it maintains the integrity of the source text while making necessary adjustments for linguistic and cultural differences. It involves evaluating whether the translator successfully communicates the intended meaning, style, and impact of the original work to the target audience. This approach helps ensure that the translated literary works remain faithful to the essence of the originals while being accessible and meaningful to a different cultural and linguistic context.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Terms Used in It

1. Source Text (ST): The original text to be translated.
2. Target Text (TT): The translated text in the target language.
3. Equivalence: A balance sought between fidelity to the source text and readability in the target language.
4. Dynamic Equivalence: Emphasizes conveying the meaning and effect rather than literal translation.
5. Cultural Equivalence: Preserving cultural nuances and context in translation.
6. Functional Equivalence: Focuses on achieving the same communicative function as the source text.
7. Shifts: Changes made in translation to maintain equivalence across languages.
8. Untranslatability: Instances where a direct equivalent in the target language is challenging or impossible.
9. Idiomatic Expression: Phrases specific to a language that may require creative adaptation in translation.
10. Pragmatic Equivalence: Considers the social context and appropriateness of the translation for the target audience.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Suggested Readings

1. Nida, Eugene, and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Brill, 1969.
2. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall, 1988.
3. Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. Routledge, 1995.
4. Baker, Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. Routledge, 1992.

Equivalence Theory: Etymology/Term, Definition and Concept

Etymology/Term:

Equivalence theory derives its name from the concept of equivalence, indicating a state of being equal or having the same value. The term is rooted in Latin, with “aequus” meaning equal and “valere” meaning to be worth or to have value. In various fields, from linguistics to mathematics and beyond, equivalence theory is employed to explore relationships, similarities, and balanced states.

Definition:

• Linguistics: In translation studies, equivalence theory refers to the attempt to find linguistic expressions in the target language that are equivalent in meaning to those in the source language, considering cultural, semantic, and pragmatic factors.
• Mathematics: Equivalence theory in mathematics deals with relationships between mathematical objects that share the same essential properties or characteristics, even if their forms or representations differ.
• Philosophy: In philosophy, equivalence theory explores the idea that certain concepts, experiences, or moral values may be considered equivalent despite differences in cultural or individual contexts.
• Psychology: Within psychological research, equivalence theory is often applied to experimental design, ensuring that experimental and control groups are equivalent at the outset to draw valid conclusions from the study.
• Economics: Equivalence theory in economics involves the concept of economic equivalence, where different financial transactions or investments are considered equal in value under certain conditions, such as in the time value of money calculations.

Equivalence theory, across these various disciplines, underscores the pursuit of understanding and establishing relationships between entities that share essential characteristics or values.

Equivalence Theory: Theorists, Work and Arguments

Theorist	Key Work	Main Arguments
Roman Jakobson	On Linguistic Aspects of Translation	Jakobson’s work emphasizes linguistic equivalence in translation, considering various aspects such as sound, grammar, and meaning.
Lev Vygotsky	Thought and Language	Vygotsky’s psychological perspective explores equivalence in language development, highlighting the importance of cultural and social contexts.
Paul Samuelson	Foundations of Economic Analysis	Samuelson’s contributions to economic equivalence theory involve the time value of money, stating that a sum of money has different values at different points in time.
Alfred North Whitehead	Principia Mathematica	Whitehead’s work in mathematics contributes to equivalence theory by exploring logical and symbolic relationships between mathematical entities.
Thomas Kuhn	The Structure of Scientific Revolutions	Kuhn’s arguments touch on equivalence in the philosophy of science, discussing paradigm shifts and the conceptual restructuring of scientific theories.

Equivalence Theory: Key Principles

1. Cultural and Linguistic Equivalence:

• Example: In the translation of Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude from Spanish to English, equivalence theory considers maintaining cultural nuances and linguistic richness to preserve the novel’s original impact.

2. Mathematical Equivalence:

• Example: George Orwell’s Animal Farm serves as a metaphorical exploration of political systems, applying mathematical equivalence to highlight the parallels between the characters and historical figures during the Russian Revolution.

3. Psychological Equivalence:

• Example: F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby can be analyzed through psychological equivalence, examining the characters’ pursuit of the American Dream and the emotional toll of unattainable goals.

4. Economic Equivalence:

• Example: In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, economic equivalence is subtly explored through the social dynamics of marriage, where financial considerations and societal expectations play a significant role in the characters’ relationships.

5. Scientific Equivalence:

• Example: Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes stories provide a literary illustration of scientific equivalence as Holmes employs deductive reasoning and logic, showcasing the equivalence between fictional detective work and scientific methodology.

These principles demonstrate how equivalence theory can be applied across various disciplines, offering a lens through which to analyze and interpret literary works.

Equivalence Theory: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Application of Equivalence Theory Critique
One Hundred Years of Solitude	Equivalence theory applied to the English translation, exploring efforts to maintain cultural and linguistic richness.
Animal Farm	Analysis through mathematical equivalence, revealing parallels between characters and historical figures in the Russian Revolution.
The Great Gatsby	Critique through psychological equivalence, unveiling characters’ emotional struggles in pursuing the American Dream.
Pride and Prejudice	Application of economic equivalence, examining the influence of financial considerations and societal expectations on relationships.
Sherlock Holmes stories	Critique employing scientific equivalence, revealing the parallels between fictional detective work and scientific methodology.

Relevant Terms

1. Formal Equivalence: Preserving the literal structure and wording when translating literary works.
2. Dynamic Equivalence: Emphasizing conveying the intended meaning and effect, allowing for flexibility in translation.
3. Cultural Equivalence: Ensuring the translated work reflects the cultural nuances and context of the original.
4. Textual Equivalence: Maintaining coherence and fidelity to the original text in the translation process.
5. Functional Equivalence: Prioritizing the function or purpose of the text over a literal word-for-word translation.
6. Semantic Equivalence: Retaining consistent meaning and interpretation across different linguistic or cultural contexts.
7. Pragmatic Equivalence: Considering the appropriateness and impact of the translated text within its cultural and social context.
8. Literal Translation: Translating word-for-word without considering cultural or idiomatic differences.
9. Free Translation: Allowing for flexibility and creativity in conveying the essence of the original text.
10. Interlingual Equivalence: Ensuring equivalence between languages, focusing on linguistic aspects in translation.

Equivalence Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Jakobson, Roman. On Linguistic Aspects of Translation. Harvard University Press, 2000.
2. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. HarperCollins, 2006.
3. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Signet Classic, 1996.
4. Vygotsky, Lev. Thought and Language. MIT Press, 2012.
5. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Classics, 2003.
6. Doyle, Arthur Conan. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. Oxford University Press, 2008.
7. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 2004.

Cultural Criticism: Etymology/Term, Definition and Concept

Etymology/Term:

Cultural criticism is a compound term derived from “culture” and “criticism.” The word “culture” originates from the Latin “cultura,” meaning cultivation or tending, and has evolved to encompass the shared beliefs, customs, arts, and intellectual achievements of a society. “Criticism” comes from the Greek “kritikē,” referring to the act of judgment or discernment. Together, cultural criticism denotes the analysis and evaluation of cultural phenomena, employing a critical perspective to explore, question, and interpret various aspects of human expression and societal norms.

Definition:

Cultural criticism is a mode of intellectual inquiry that examines and critiques cultural artifacts, practices, and institutions. It involves a rigorous analysis of the underlying assumptions, power structures, and meanings embedded in cultural expressions such as art, literature, media, rituals, and social norms. This form of criticism seeks to unveil implicit biases, challenge dominant narratives, and explore how culture both reflects and shapes individual and collective identities. Cultural criticism is often interdisciplinary, drawing on insights from sociology, anthropology, literature, and other fields to provide a nuanced understanding of the complexities within a given cultural context.

Concept:

1. Interrogation of Norms: Cultural criticism involves a critical examination of societal norms, values, and conventions, aiming to uncover hidden biases and question the status quo.
2. Power Dynamics: The concept delves into power structures within culture, exploring how certain groups or ideologies exert influence, shaping narratives and perpetuating inequality.
3. Semiotics and Symbols: Cultural criticism utilizes semiotic analysis to deconstruct symbols and signs embedded in cultural products, revealing layers of meaning and ideological implications.
4. Identity Construction: Examining how cultural expressions contribute to the construction and negotiation of individual and collective identities, considering factors such as race, gender, class, and sexuality.
5. Media and Representation: A key focus is on critiquing media portrayals and representations, recognizing the role of media in shaping perceptions, reinforcing stereotypes, or challenging dominant narratives.
6. Global Perspectives: Cultural criticism extends beyond a narrow focus, considering global and cross-cultural influences, recognizing the interconnectedness of cultural phenomena in a rapidly changing world.

Cultural Criticism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorist	Key Works	Main Arguments
Stuart Hall	Encoding/Decoding	Hall’s work emphasizes the decoding of media messages by audiences, highlighting the active role of viewers in interpreting and negotiating meanings within a cultural context.
Edward Said	Orientalism	Said’s seminal text critiques Western representations of the East, arguing that these representations are entangled with colonial power dynamics, shaping perceptions and reinforcing stereotypes.
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble	Butler’s work challenges traditional notions of gender, arguing that it is performative and socially constructed. Cultural norms and expectations play a crucial role in the formation of gender identities.
Michel Foucault	The Archaeology of Knowledge	Foucault’s approach involves analyzing the historical development of discourses and power structures, uncovering how institutions shape knowledge and control societal behavior.
bell hooks	Ain’t I a Woman?	hooks explores the intersectionality of race, class, and gender, critiquing the impact of oppressive systems on black women. She advocates for a transformative cultural criticism that addresses systemic inequalities.
Roland Barthes	Mythologies	Barthes investigates the myths present in everyday culture, revealing the ideological underpinnings of seemingly neutral symbols. He emphasizes the need to deconstruct cultural myths for a deeper understanding.
Gayatri Spivak	Can the Subaltern Speak?	Spivak’s work examines the representation of marginalized voices, particularly women in post-colonial contexts. She explores the challenges faced by subaltern groups in having their voices heard.
Cornel West	Race Matters	West’s cultural criticism centers on the intersections of race, class, and democracy. He argues for a renewed focus on addressing racial issues in order to achieve a more just and equitable society.

Cultural Criticism: Key Principals

• Deconstruction of Meaning:
  • Example: In “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger, cultural criticism can deconstruct the meaning of the protagonist Holden Caulfield’s rebellious attitude, exploring how it challenges societal norms and reflects the disillusionment of the post-war era.
• Interrogation of Power Structures:
  • Example: George Orwell’s “1984” serves as a prime example for cultural criticism, as it delves into the oppressive power structures of a dystopian society, critiquing authoritarianism and surveillance culture.
• Examination of Symbolism and Semiotics:
  • Example: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “The Scarlet Letter” offers rich material for cultural criticism by analyzing the symbolism of the scarlet letter itself, exploring how it reflects societal attitudes towards morality and individual expression.
• Critique of Gender Norms:
  • Example: Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” becomes a focal point for cultural criticism as it critiques and satirizes traditional gender norms, exposing the dangers of a patriarchal society and the control of women’s bodies.
• Exploration of Identity Formation:
  • Example: In “Their Eyes Were Watching God” by Zora Neale Hurston, cultural criticism can analyze the protagonist Janie Crawford’s journey as a black woman in the early 20th century, exploring how societal expectations shape her identity.
• Analysis of Cultural Hegemony:
  • Example: Cultural criticism can be applied to Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” unraveling the play’s exploration of political and cultural hegemony, revealing how power dynamics influence characters’ actions and decisions.
• Examination of Subaltern Voices:
  • Example: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s “Half of a Yellow Sun” provides material for cultural criticism by examining the Nigerian-Biafran War and exploring the perspectives of individuals whose voices are often marginalized in historical narratives.
• Challenge to Dominant Narratives:
  • Example: Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” challenges dominant narratives surrounding slavery by offering a unique perspective on the psychological and emotional impact of the institution, prompting cultural criticism to question historical representations.

These examples illustrate how cultural criticism can be applied to literary works, revealing the underlying ideologies, power dynamics, and societal norms embedded within them.

Cultural Criticism: Application in Critiques

1. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Cultural criticism can scrutinize the portrayal of the American Dream in “The Great Gatsby,” exploring how the novel reflects and critiques societal values, materialism, and the illusion of upward mobility. The extravagant lifestyle of Jay Gatsby and the characters’ pursuit of wealth offer a lens to analyze cultural expectations and the consequences of social aspirations in the Roaring Twenties.
2. To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:
   • Cultural criticism applied to “To Kill a Mockingbird” can unravel the racial and social dynamics in the American South during the 1930s. The novel provides an opportunity to critique prevailing attitudes towards race, justice, and morality, examining how cultural norms shape characters’ beliefs and actions. The examination of Atticus Finch’s role as a moral compass and the portrayal of racial injustice opens avenues for cultural critique.
3. Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:
   • Cultural criticism can dissect the dystopian society depicted in “Brave New World,” exploring how the novel critiques mass consumerism, technological control, and the dehumanization of individuals. The rigid caste system, pervasive use of drugs, and the commodification of human relationships serve as focal points for analyzing cultural values and the potential consequences of unchecked technological advancement.
4. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe:
   • Applying cultural criticism to “Things Fall Apart” involves examining the novel’s portrayal of pre-colonial Igbo society and its collision with colonial forces. The work provides an opportunity to critique cultural imperialism, the impact of colonization on indigenous cultures, and the tensions between tradition and change. The protagonist Okonkwo’s struggles and the portrayal of Igbo customs offer insights into cultural identity and resilience in the face of external pressures.

In each of these representative novels, cultural criticism can unveil the intricate layers of societal values, power structures, and ideological underpinnings, providing a deeper understanding of the cultural contexts embedded in the narratives.

Cultural Criticism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Hegemony	Dominance by one group, shaping cultural norms and institutions.
Semiotics	Study of signs and symbols, vital for decoding cultural meanings.
Intersectionality	Examination of how social identities intersect, influencing privilege or oppression.
Cultural Imperialism	Imposition of one culture’s values on another, often through economic or political means.
Postcolonialism	Analysis of cultural impacts and legacies of colonial power dynamics.
Critical Discourse Analysis	Method to uncover power relationships and ideologies in language use.
Othering	Perception or portrayal of individuals or groups as fundamentally different, reinforcing social hierarchies.
Folk vs. Pop Culture	Distinguishing between traditional, community-based expressions (folk) and mass-produced, commercialized elements (pop).
Simulacra	Artificial representations or copies replacing or distorting reality, explored in media and consumer culture.
Cultural Hybridity	Blending elements from different cultures, challenging notions of purity and authenticity.

Cultural Criticism: Suggested Readings

1. Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. Half of a Yellow Sun. Anchor Books, 2007.
2. Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Hill and Wang, 2012.
3. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. Routledge, 2006.
4. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Vintage Books, 2010.
5. Hall, Stuart. Encoding/Decoding. Routledge, 2017.
6. hooks, bell. Ain’t I a Woman?. South End Press, 1981.
7. Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006.
8. Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. HarperCollins, 2015.
9. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 2004.
10. Orwell, George. 1984. Signet Classic, 1961.

Crip Theory: Term/Etymology and Concept

Term/Etymology:

“Crip theory” is a term that originated within the field of Disability Studies, particularly in response to the medicalized language associated with disability. The term “crip” is a reclamation and transformation of the derogatory term “cripple.” It serves as an assertion of identity and a political act to challenge ableist norms. The etymology reflects a deliberate effort to embrace disability as a cultural identity rather than viewing it solely through a medical lens.

Concept with Explanation:

Concept	Explanation
Reclamation of Language	Crip theory involves reclaiming and redefining derogatory terms related to disability, transforming them into positive and empowering expressions. It challenges the stigmatizing language historically associated with disability.
Social Model of Disability	Crip theory adopts the social model of disability, emphasizing that disability is not solely an individual medical condition but a result of social structures and attitudes. It underscores the importance of removing barriers and addressing societal prejudices.
Intersectionality	Crip theory recognizes the intersectionality of disability with other aspects of identity, such as race, gender, and sexuality. It explores how multiple forms of oppression intersect, impacting the experiences of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways.
Disability as Cultural Identity	Crip theory views disability as a cultural identity, fostering a sense of community and shared experiences among individuals with disabilities. It promotes the celebration of disability culture and challenges the notion that disability is solely a deficit or lack.
Embracing Non-Normativity	Crip theory challenges normative standards and embraces non-normativity. It rejects the idea that disabled bodies need to conform to able-bodied norms, encouraging acceptance and celebration of diverse ways of being and moving through the world.

Crip Theory: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

• Rosemarie Garland-Thomson:
  • Works: “Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature.”
  • Argument: Garland-Thomson contributes to crip theory by exploring how cultural representations and literary works shape perceptions of disability, challenging societal norms and advocating for a more inclusive understanding of the body.
• Robert McRuer:
  • Works: “Crip Theory: Cultural Signs of Queerness and Disability.”
  • Argument: McRuer is a key figure in crip theory, arguing for the intersectionality of queerness and disability. He challenges the ableist and heteronormative assumptions prevalent in society, advocating for a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of both disability and queerness.
• Lennard J. Davis:
  • Works: “Enforcing Normalcy: Disability, Deafness, and the Body.”
  • Argument: Davis contributes to crip theory by examining the historical construction of normalcy and its impact on the perception of disability. He critiques the social and cultural forces that enforce norms, advocating for a more inclusive and diverse representation of bodies.
• Alison Kafer:
  • Works: “Feminist, Queer, Crip.”
  • Argument: Kafer explores the intersections of feminism, queerness, and disability in her work. She challenges traditional notions of independence and autonomy, advocating for a more collective and interdependent approach to understanding and navigating the world.
• Eli Clare:
  • Works: “Exile and Pride: Disability, Queerness, and Liberation.”
  • Argument: Clare’s work is integral to crip theory, as he explores the intersections of disability and queerness from a personal and activist perspective. He argues for the liberation of individuals at the intersections of various marginalized identities, challenging societal norms and expectations.

Crip Theory: Key Principals

Key Principals	Literary Examples
Reclamation of Language	– Jim Ferris’s “The Hospital Poems”: Ferris reclaims and transforms language to assert disabled identity and challenge societal perceptions of disability.
Social Model of Disability	– Harriet McBryde Johnson’s “Too Late to Die Young”: The memoir critiques the medical model of disability, emphasizing societal barriers and the need for social change.
Intersectionality	– Audre Lorde’s “The Cancer Journals”: Lorde’s work intersects disability, race, and feminism, highlighting the complex experiences of a woman dealing with cancer and challenging societal norms.
Disability as Cultural Identity	– Kenny Fries’s “Body, Remember”: Fries explores disability as a cultural identity, reflecting on his experiences as a disabled person and contributing to the celebration of disability culture.
Embracing Non-Normativity	– Ellen Forney’s “Marbles: Mania, Depression, Michelangelo, and Me”: Forney’s graphic memoir challenges normative standards in exploring mental health, embracing non-normativity, and advocating for acceptance.

Please note that the literary examples provided offer insights into the key principles of crip theory and how these principles are expressed in various works.

Crip Theory: Critiques of Literary Works

1. The Fault in Our Stars by John Green:
   • Critique: While the novel portrays characters dealing with illness, it has been critiqued for its somewhat romanticized and idealized representation of disability. Some argue that it may not fully capture the complexity and diversity of experiences within the disabled community.
2. Me Before You by Jojo Moyes:
   • Critique: The novel has faced criticism for its portrayal of disability, particularly the narrative that suggests a person with a severe disability is better off not living. Disability advocates argue that such narratives reinforce harmful stereotypes and contribute to a negative perception of disability.
3. Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes:
   • Critique: While the novel explores themes of intelligence and societal perceptions, it has been critiqued for its portrayal of disability, especially in terms of framing increased intelligence as a “cure.” Disability advocates argue that this perpetuates the notion that disability is inherently negative.
4. The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon:
   • Critique: The novel has received mixed reviews from the autistic community. While some appreciate the representation of an autistic protagonist, others critique it for potentially reinforcing stereotypes and focusing more on the character’s “otherness” rather than celebrating neurodiversity.
5. Rain Man (Film):
   • Critique: While not a literary work, the film “Rain Man” has been critiqued for its portrayal of autism, particularly the stereotypical depiction of savant abilities. Critics argue that such representations oversimplify the spectrum of autism and contribute to a narrow understanding of neurodiversity.

These critiques highlight the importance of careful and nuanced representations of disability in literature and media to avoid perpetuating stereotypes and stigmas.

Crip Theory: Criticism Against It

1. Essentializing Disability:
   • Critique: Some argue that Crip Theory might essentialize disability experiences by emphasizing a shared culture and identity. Critics contend that such an approach may overlook the wide spectrum of individual experiences within the disabled community.
2. Neglecting Medical Perspectives:
   • Critique: Critics suggest that Crip Theory, with its emphasis on social models of disability, may downplay the importance of medical perspectives. Some argue that a balanced understanding should incorporate both social and medical aspects to provide a comprehensive view of disability.
3. Potential for Oversimplification:
   • Critique: There are concerns that Crip Theory, in its effort to challenge traditional models of disability, might oversimplify complex issues related to health, medical conditions, and the diverse experiences of disabled individuals.
4. Intersectionality Challenges:
   • Critique: While Crip Theory acknowledges intersectionality, some argue that it may not adequately address the intricate intersections between disability and other aspects of identity, such as race, gender, and sexuality.
5. Political Nature of Terminology:
   • Critique: The reclamation of terms like “crip” and the emphasis on political activism may be seen by some as divisive or confrontational. Critics argue that this approach might hinder constructive dialogue and understanding between different perspectives on disability.
6. Overemphasis on Social Constructs:
   • Critique: Some critics argue that Crip Theory’s focus on the social construction of disability may downplay the material realities of impairments and the challenges individuals face on a daily basis.
7. Lack of Universality:
   • Critique: There are concerns that Crip Theory, rooted in Western contexts, may not fully capture the diverse cultural nuances and understandings of disability in other parts of the world. Critics argue for a more global perspective.

It’s essential to recognize that these criticisms do not negate the valuable insights and contributions of Crip Theory but rather reflect ongoing dialogues within the academic and disability communities. Disability Studies is a dynamic field, and discussions around these critiques contribute to its ongoing evolution.

Crip Theory: Key Terms

Term	Brief Definition
Crip Theory	Examines disability through a social model, challenging traditional medical perspectives.
Reclamation	Process of reclaiming and redefining derogatory terms related to disability.
Social Model of Disability	Emphasizes disability as a result of societal structures and attitudes, not just an individual medical condition.
Intersectionality	Acknowledges the interconnectedness of disability with other aspects of identity.
Disability Culture	Recognizes disability as a cultural identity, fostering a sense of community and shared experiences.
Ableism	Discrimination or prejudice against individuals with disabilities.
Neurodiversity	Recognizes and celebrates neurological differences, challenging societal norms.
Access	Focuses on creating inclusive environments and removing barriers for disabled individuals.
Empowerment	Promotes the empowerment and agency of disabled individuals within society.
Materiality of Disability	Emphasizes the lived experiences and material realities of disability.

Crip Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Garland-Thomson, Rosemarie. Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature. Columbia University Press, 1997.
2. McRuer, Robert. Crip Theory: Cultural Signs of Queerness and Disability. NYU Press, 2006.
3. Davis, Lennard J. Enforcing Normalcy: Disability, Deafness, and the Body. Verso, 1995.
4. Kafer, Alison. Feminist, Queer, Crip. Indiana University Press, 2013.
5. Clare, Eli. Exile and Pride: Disability, Queerness, and Liberation. South End Press, 1999.

Thing Theory: Term/Etymology and Concept

Term/Etymology:

Thing theory, as a term, emerged in the late 20th century, primarily within the field of cultural studies. Its etymology draws from the German word “ding,” emphasizing the importance of objects or things in shaping human experiences and cultural phenomena. Coined by scholars like Bill Brown and Bruno Latour, thing theory challenges traditional perspectives that prioritize human subjects, inviting an exploration of the agency and significance inherent in everyday objects.

Concept:

• Object Agency: Thing theory suggests that objects have agency and can influence human behavior, challenging the notion of passive or inert things. It explores how objects participate in shaping social relationships and cultural practices.
• Material Culture: The concept delves into the study of material culture, emphasizing the significance of objects in understanding historical periods, societal values, and cultural shifts. Objects are seen as active participants in the construction of meaning.
• Object Biographies: Thing theorists examine the life stories or biographies of objects, tracing their journeys through various contexts and cultural settings. This approach highlights the dynamic nature of objects and their evolving meanings over time.
• Object-Oriented Ontology (OOO): Aligned with thing theory, object-oriented ontology posits that both living and non-living entities, including objects, possess equal ontological status. It challenges anthropocentrism and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all entities.
• Consumer Culture Critique: Thing theory offers a critical lens for analyzing consumer culture, exploring how objects contribute to identity formation and societal norms. It questions the commodification of objects and their role in reinforcing cultural values.

Thing theory, through its exploration of the agency and cultural significance of objects, has become a valuable framework for interdisciplinary studies, including literature, art, anthropology, and sociology.Bottom of Form

Thing Theory: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

• Bill Brown: Explores the agency and influence of objects in literature, emphasizing how they shape narrative and cultural meanings in A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature.
• Bruno Latour: Introduces Actor-Network-Theory, highlighting the agency of both human and non-human actors, including objects, in shaping social networks in Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory.
• Ian Bogost: Advocates for a speculative approach to studying things, encouraging scholars to consider the perspective of objects themselves and their role in shaping human experience in Alien Phenomenology, or What It’s Like to Be a Thing.
• Jane Bennett: Explores the political implications of thing power, arguing that objects have political agency and can influence social and ecological systems in Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things.
• Timothy Morton: Discusses object-oriented ontology and the interconnectedness of all entities, challenging anthropocentrism and emphasizing the equal ontological status of living and non-living entities in Realist Magic: Objects, Ontology, Causality.

Works:

• A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature by Bill Brown.
• Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory by Bruno Latour.
• Alien Phenomenology, or What It’s Like to Be a Thing by Ian Bogost.
• Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things by Jane Bennett.
• Realist Magic: Objects, Ontology, Causality by Timothy Morton.

Arguments:

• Brown’s work emphasizes how objects in literature possess agency and shape narrative and cultural meanings.
• Latour introduces Actor-Network-Theory, emphasizing the agency of both human and non-human actors, including objects, in shaping social networks.
• Bogost advocates for a speculative approach, encouraging scholars to consider the perspective of objects themselves in shaping human experience.
• Bennett explores the political implications of thing power, arguing that objects have political agency.
• Morton discusses object-oriented ontology, challenging anthropocentrism and emphasizing the equal ontological status of all entities.

Thing Theory: Key Principals

Key Principles of Thing Theory	Literary Examples
1. Object Agency: Objects possess agency and influence human behavior.	In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude, the gypsy’s magnetized alchemy tools influence the characters’ destinies, demonstrating the agency of objects.
2. Material Culture Significance: Objects play a crucial role in understanding historical periods, societal values, and cultural shifts.	In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, the entailment of the Bennet family estate symbolizes the material culture of inheritance and societal expectations.
3. Object Biographies: Objects have life stories, evolving in meaning and significance over time.	Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse explores the changing meaning of the lighthouse as it becomes a symbol of memory and loss for the characters.
4. Consumer Culture Critique: Objects contribute to identity formation and societal norms, warranting a critical analysis of consumer culture.	Don DeLillo’s White Noise critiques consumerism, portraying characters immersed in a world saturated with commodified objects and brand symbolism.
5. Thing Power: Objects have a certain power and influence, affecting social and ecological systems.	In J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series, the magical objects like the Elder Wand and the Resurrection Stone possess significant power, impacting the characters and the wizarding world.
6. Object-Oriented Ontology (OOO): Objects, both living and non-living, share equal ontological status.	In Haruki Murakami’s Kafka on the Shore, the protagonist interacts with both animate and inanimate objects, blurring the boundaries between the ontological status of living and non-living entities.

These key principles and literary examples illustrate how Thing Theory provides a lens for understanding the dynamic relationship between humans and objects in literature.

Thing Theory: Critiques of Literary Works

1. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez:

• Critique: While the novel brilliantly explores the agency of objects through magical realism, some critics argue that the overwhelming emphasis on the magical and fantastical elements may overshadow the deeper exploration of the characters’ relationships with the objects. The intricate symbolism of objects might be perceived as diverting attention from more conventional character development.

2. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:

• Critique: In this classic novel, the material culture’s significance is richly portrayed, but critics contend that the narrative’s focus on societal expectations and manners might overshadow a more direct examination of individual objects. Some argue that the novel’s primary strength lies in its social commentary rather than a nuanced exploration of the agency of specific objects.

3. White Noise by Don DeLillo:

• Critique: While the novel effectively critiques consumer culture and the impact of commodified objects on identity, some critics argue that the characters’ detachment from the objects may limit the depth of the exploration. The satirical tone of the novel might be seen as distancing readers from a more profound engagement with the emotional and psychological implications of the objects.

4. To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf:

• Critique: Despite the novel’s insightful exploration of object biographies and the changing meanings of objects, critics contend that Woolf’s stream-of-consciousness style may make it challenging for some readers to fully grasp the symbolic significance of certain objects. The novel’s reliance on interior monologues might create ambiguity around the interpretation of objects’ evolving meanings.

Critiques of these literary works within the framework of Thing Theory highlight the tension between the theory’s principles and the execution of those principles in specific narratives. Critics may question the balance between the exploration of object agency and other literary elements such as character development and narrative style.

Thing Theory: Criticism Against It

• Reductionism Concerns: Critics argue that Thing Theory, by emphasizing the agency of objects, may oversimplify complex social and cultural phenomena. The reduction of intricate human experiences to the influence of objects neglects the multifaceted nature of human agency and social dynamics.
• Limited Human-Centric View: Some critics contend that Thing Theory places too much importance on the role of objects, potentially neglecting the broader socio-political contexts and power structures that shape human-object interactions. This critique suggests that a more comprehensive analysis should consider the intricate interplay between humans, objects, and societal systems.
• Neglect of Intentionality: Critics argue that Thing Theory may overlook the intentional aspects of human behavior and cultural production. Focusing on the agency of objects could downplay the deliberate choices and intentions of individuals in creating and using these objects within a cultural and historical context.
• Overemphasis on Western Perspectives: Some critics suggest that Thing Theory, originating primarily in Western academic discourse, might not adequately address the diverse cultural perspectives on object agency. This criticism highlights the need for a more inclusive and globally informed approach that considers how different cultures attribute meaning and agency to objects.
• Challenge of Empirical Verification: Critics express concerns about the difficulty of empirically verifying claims about the agency of objects. Unlike human agency, which can be observed through intentionality and conscious action, determining the agency of objects may be more speculative and challenging to substantiate empirically.
• Potential Anthropomorphism: There is a critique that ascribing agency to objects may involve a form of anthropomorphism, attributing human-like qualities to non-human entities. This criticism raises questions about the validity of treating objects as active agents with intentions, consciousness, or influence comparable to human agency.

While Thing Theory has enriched discussions about the relationship between humans and objects, these criticisms highlight the need for a nuanced and context-aware approach that considers the limitations and potential oversights of the theory.

Thing Theory: Key Terms

Key Terms in Thing Theory

1. Object Agency: The attribution of influence and action to inanimate objects.

2. Material Culture: The study of the significance of objects in understanding historical periods and cultural shifts.

3. Object Biographies: Examining the life stories and histories of objects.

4. Consumer Culture Critique: Analyzing how objects contribute to identity formation within consumerist societies.

5. Thing Power: The inherent capacity of objects to influence social and ecological systems.

6. Object-Oriented Ontology (OOO): A philosophical perspective asserting equal ontological status for living and non-living entities.

7. Intentionality: The deliberate choices and purposes behind human-object interactions.

8. Anthropomorphism: Attributing human-like qualities or agency to non-human entities.

9. Empirical Verification: The challenge of substantiating claims about the agency of objects through observable evidence.

10. Socio-Political Contexts: The broader frameworks and power structures that shape human-object interactions.

Thing Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Bennett, Jane. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Duke University Press, 2010.
2. Bogost, Ian. Alien Phenomenology, or What It’s Like to Be a Thing. University of Minnesota Press, 2012.
3. Brown, Bill. A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature. University of Chicago Press, 2003.
4. DeLillo, Don. White Noise. Penguin Books, 1986.
5. Latour, Bruno. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford University Press, 2005.
6. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper & Row, 1970.
7. Morton, Timothy. Realist Magic: Objects, Ontology, Causality. Open Humanities Press, 2013.
8. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Classics, 2003.
9. Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1927.
10. Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter Series. Scholastic. Various publication dates.

Comic Theory: Term/Etymology and Concept

Term/Etymology:

Comic theory, also known as humor theory or the theory of comedy, explores the principles and dynamics behind what makes people laugh and find amusement in various forms. The term “comic” is derived from the Greek word “kōmōidia,” referring to a lighthearted dramatic performance. Comic theory delves into the cognitive, psychological, and sociocultural aspects that contribute to the creation and reception of humor, aiming to decipher the mechanics of comedic elements in literature, performance, and everyday life.

Concept:

• Incongruity Theory: Focuses on the surprise or incongruity between what is expected and what actually occurs, leading to laughter.
• Superiority Theory: Suggests that humor often involves a feeling of superiority over others, either through cleverness, absurdity, or the misfortune of others.
• Relief Theory: Proposes that humor serves as a release of tension or pent-up emotions, providing psychological relief.
• Benign Violation Theory: Combines incongruity and violation, positing that humor arises when something is both a violation of social norms and perceived as benign or non-threatening.
• Humor Styles: Identifies different ways individuals express and appreciate humor, such as self-enhancing, affiliative, aggressive, and self-defeating styles.
• Cultural Variations in Humor: Recognizes that what is considered humorous varies across cultures, with cultural norms influencing comedic preferences.
• Role of Language and Wordplay: Explores the linguistic aspects of humor, including puns, wordplay, and linguistic ambiguity that contribute to comedic effects.
• Comedic Timing: Emphasizes the importance of timing in delivering jokes or comedic elements, as the pacing and rhythm significantly impact audience reactions.
• Satire: Examines the use of humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize and mock people, institutions, or societal conventions.
• Parody: Involves imitating and exaggerating the style of a particular genre, work, or artist for comedic effect, often to comment on the original work.

Comic theory, with its diverse approaches, seeks to unravel the intricacies of humor, shedding light on why certain things are perceived as funny and how comedy functions as a universal aspect of human experience.

Comic Theory: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

• Henri Bergson:
  • Works: “Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic.”
  • Arguments: Emphasized the role of incongruity and mechanical rigidity in generating laughter, highlighting the importance of elasticity and flexibility in comedic situations.
• Sigmund Freud:
  • Works: “Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious.”
  • Arguments: Explored the psychological underpinnings of humor, linking jokes to repressed desires and providing insights into the cathartic function of laughter.
• Northrop Frye:
  • Works: “Anatomy of Criticism.”
  • Arguments: Integrated comic elements into his broader literary theory, defining comedy as a genre that celebrates the cyclical patterns of life, often marked by resolution and reconciliation.
• Mikhail Bakhtin:
  • Works: “Rabelais and His World.”
  • Arguments: Explored the carnivalesque nature of comedy, suggesting that laughter can challenge authority and disrupt established norms during festive and subversive events.
• Arthur Koestler:
  • Works: “The Act of Creation.”
  • Arguments: Introduced the concept of bisociation, suggesting that humor arises from the unexpected intersection of two incompatible frames of reference.

Works:

• “Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic” by Henri Bergson: Bergson’s seminal work that explores the philosophy of laughter, focusing on the relationship between humor and the mechanical or rigid aspects of life.
• “Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious” by Sigmund Freud: Freud’s investigation into the psychoanalytic aspects of jokes, uncovering the unconscious motivations behind humor.
• “Anatomy of Criticism” by Northrop Frye: Frye’s influential literary work that incorporates comedy into his broader framework, defining its characteristics and functions within the scope of literature.
• “Rabelais and His World” by Mikhail Bakhtin: Bakhtin’s exploration of Rabelaisian humor, emphasizing the subversive and liberating qualities of laughter during carnival-like events.
• “The Act of Creation” by Arthur Koestler: Koestler’s examination of creativity, introducing the concept of bisociation and its relevance to the generation of humor.

Arguments:

• Incongruity and Mechanical Rigidity (Bergson): Bergson argued that humor arises from incongruity and the perception of mechanical rigidity, emphasizing the importance of flexibility in comedic situations.
• Psychoanalytic Aspects of Jokes (Freud): Freud delved into the unconscious motivations behind jokes, connecting humor to repressed desires and providing insights into the psychological aspects of laughter.
• Cyclical Patterns in Comedy (Frye): Frye integrated comedy into his literary theory, defining it as a genre that celebrates the cyclical patterns of life, often marked by resolution and reconciliation.
• Carnivalesque Nature of Comedy (Bakhtin): Bakhtin explored the carnivalesque qualities of comedy, suggesting that laughter can challenge authority and disrupt norms during festive events.
• Bisociation and Creativity (Koestler): Koestler introduced bisociation as a concept, proposing that humor arises from the unexpected intersection of two incompatible frames of reference, contributing to creativity and humor.

Comic Theory: Key Principals

Key Principles of Comic Theory	Literary Examples
Incongruity and Mechanical Rigidity (Bergson): The humor arises from incongruity and the perception of mechanical rigidity.	In Shakespeare’s “Twelfth Night,” the character of Malvolio’s strict adherence to rules and his unexpected transformation create comedic incongruities.
Psychoanalytic Aspects of Jokes (Freud): Humor is connected to repressed desires and unconscious motivations.	In Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest,” the use of witty dialogue and absurd situations reflects Freudian elements of humor tied to societal expectations and desires.
Cyclical Patterns in Comedy (Frye): Comedy celebrates cyclical patterns of life, often marked by resolution and reconciliation.	Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” exemplifies comic resolution through the reconciliation of characters, culminating in multiple marriages.
Carnivalesque Nature of Comedy (Bakhtin): Laughter can challenge authority and disrupt norms during festive events.	Jonathan Swift’s “Gulliver’s Travels” employs satire and parody to challenge societal norms, embodying the carnivalesque spirit in its critique.
Bisociation and Creativity (Koestler): Humor arises from the unexpected intersection of two incompatible frames of reference.	Lewis Carroll’s “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” showcases bisociation through the absurd and nonsensical encounters Alice has in Wonderland, blending incompatible worlds.

These literary examples illustrate key principles of comic theory, demonstrating how various elements of humor and comedic structures manifest in different works of literature.

Comic Theory: Critiques of Literary Works

• Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare:
  • Critique: The play’s resolution, involving mistaken identities and sudden pairings, is argued to reinforce traditional gender roles, potentially limiting its capacity for challenging societal norms.
• The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde:
  • Critique: Despite Wilde’s satirical wit, the play’s reliance on trivial matters and farcical elements is criticized for limiting its potential for deeper social critique, with suggestions that the humor lacks substantial depth.
• Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:
  • Critique: While praised for wit and satire, Austen’s novel faces criticism for a resolution through multiple marriages that some argue reinforces conventional societal expectations rather than challenging them.
• Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift:
  • Critique: Swift’s satirical masterpiece is lauded for its critique of human nature but criticized for an extensive use of satire and parody that might overshadow underlying messages, potentially deterring some readers.
• Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll:
  • Critique: Carroll’s work, admired for whimsical and absurd humor, faces criticism for a lack of clear narrative structure, potentially leading to confusion and limiting the potential depth of social commentary, as the focus on nonsense might hinder broader impact.

Comic Theory: Criticism Against It

1. Oversimplification: Critics argue that comic theory may oversimplify the diverse nature of humor, reducing it to specific categories or formulas, which fail to capture the intricacies of individual and cultural variations in comedic preferences.

2. Lack of Universality: Some critics contend that comic theories often assume a universal understanding of humor, neglecting the fact that what is considered funny varies significantly across cultures, societies, and individuals.

3. Cultural Bias: Comic theories, originating from specific cultural contexts, may exhibit cultural bias, as they might not adequately encompass the full spectrum of humor in different cultural settings, potentially marginalizing non-Western forms of comedy.

4. Ignoring Social and Political Dimensions: Certain critics argue that comic theories may neglect the broader social and political dimensions of humor. The focus on individual psychological processes might overlook how humor functions as a tool for social commentary or political critique.

5. Neglect of Dark Humor and Subversive Comedy: Comic theories might not fully account for the appreciation of dark humor or subversive comedy, which challenges societal norms and expectations. Theories focused on incongruity and relief may not adequately address the complexity of these comedic forms.

6. Limited Exploration of New Forms of Comedy: With the evolving nature of comedy in contemporary culture, some critics argue that traditional comic theories may become outdated and fail to encompass emerging comedic forms, such as internet memes or alternative comedy genres.

7. Neglecting Emotional Complexity: Critics contend that comic theories may oversimplify the emotional dimensions of humor. While relief and incongruity are often highlighted, the broader emotional range encompassing satire, irony, and empathy may not be fully explored.

8. Lack of Interdisciplinary Perspective: Some critics argue that comic theories might benefit from a more interdisciplinary approach, integrating insights from fields like sociology, anthropology, and cultural studies to offer a more comprehensive understanding of humor in diverse contexts.

These criticisms highlight potential limitations and challenges in existing comic theories, urging a more nuanced and culturally sensitive exploration of humor that considers its multifaceted nature.

Comic Theory: Key Terms

1. Incongruity: The unexpected or contradictory elements in humor that create surprise and laughter.
2. Superiority: The concept that humor often involves a feeling of superiority over others, whether through cleverness, absurdity, or the misfortune of others.
3. Relief: The idea that humor serves as a release of tension or pent-up emotions, providing psychological relief.
4. Benign Violation: The combination of incongruity and violation, where something is both a breach of social norms and perceived as harmless or non-threatening.
5. Humor Styles: Different ways individuals express and appreciate humor, such as self-enhancing, affiliative, aggressive, and self-defeating styles.
6. Cultural Variations: Recognizing that what is considered humorous varies across cultures, with cultural norms influencing comedic preferences.
7. Satire: The use of humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize and mock people, institutions, or societal conventions.
8. Parody: Imitating and exaggerating the style of a particular genre, work, or artist for comedic effect, often to comment on the original work.
9. Comic Timing: The precise pacing and rhythm in delivering jokes or comedic elements to maximize their impact.
10. Bisociation: The concept that humor arises from the unexpected intersection of two incompatible frames of reference, contributing to creativity and laughter.

Comic Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Bergson, Henri. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic. Dover Publications, 2005.
2. Freud, Sigmund. Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious. W. W. Norton & Company, 1963.
3. Koestler, Arthur. The Act of Creation. Penguin Books, 1989.
4. Mintz, Lawrence E. Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Greenwood Press, 2006.
5. Morreall, John. Comic Relief: A Comprehensive Philosophy of Humor. Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
6. Provine, Robert R. Laughter: A Scientific Investigation. Penguin Books, 2001.
7. Wilde, Oscar. The Critic as Artist. Project Gutenberg, 2013.
8. Wimsatt, William Kurtz, and Cleanth Brooks. Literary Criticism: A Short History. Alfred A. Knopf, 1957.