Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington

“The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington first appeared in Hypatia in Winter 1998, as part of Volume 13, No. 1. Published by Wiley on behalf of Hypatia, Inc., this essay examines the performative elements of Julia Kristeva’s Powers of Horror, situating them within the broader context of her earlier works. Harrington emphasizes the interplay between abjection and Kristeva’s theoretical practice, arguing that this dynamic is central to Kristeva’s critique of Hegelian and Freudian traditions. The essay delves into the “speaking abject,” exploring the complex ways Kristeva’s text performs the rupture and disintegration central to its critique of identity and subjectivity. This work is significant in literature and literary theory for its innovative articulation of the intersections between ethics, aesthetics, and the performative nature of theoretical discourse, offering profound insights into the limits of language, identity, and cultural practices.

Summary of “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington

Theoretical Term/Concept	Explanation	Context/Significance
Abjection	The state of being cast off, representing what is rejected from the self but remains intimately connected.	Central to Kristeva’s theory; reveals the breakdown of subjectivity and the borders between self and other, highlighting the primal loss of the maternal body (Powers of Horror, p. 5).
Performative Structure	A textual strategy where the text enacts the theory it articulates.	Kristeva’s texts (e.g., Powers of Horror) perform the abject through a blending of voices, disrupting traditional narrative forms and mirroring the fragmented nature of the subject.
Subject-in-Process/On-Trial	A dynamic view of the subject as constantly in flux and negotiation with the symbolic and semiotic.	Challenges static notions of subjectivity; shows the subject’s existence as a process tied to linguistic and social structures (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 33).
Semiotic and Symbolic	The interplay between primal drives and structured language systems.	The semiotic disrupts the symbolic order, and the abject emerges in the gaps between these systems, exposing the instability of meaning (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 25).
Manque (Lack)	The foundational loss that structures desire and subjectivity.	Central to the experience of abjection, as the subject encounters the void within itself and misrecognizes its relationship with the maternal (Powers of Horror, p. 12).
Phobia as Metaphor	Phobia represents the subject’s attempt to manage fear tied to the abject.	Phobia manifests as a displacement of fear onto external objects, illustrating the subject’s struggle with primal loss and the unnameable (Powers of Horror, p. 35).
Countertransference	The analyst’s identification with the patient’s unconscious dynamics.	In Kristeva’s writing, this process allows for an empathetic engagement with the abject and the possibility of giving voice to the unspeakable (Stabat Mater, p. 162).
Catharsis	The purgation or release of emotions, traditionally associated with artistic or psychoanalytic processes.	Kristeva critiques traditional catharsis, proposing instead a process of confronting and integrating the abject without resolution (Powers of Horror, p. 27).
Borderline Subjectivity	A fragmented form of subjectivity marked by the collapse of clear distinctions between self and other.	The borderline subject exemplifies the abject’s destabilizing effects on identity, illustrating the tensions between internal drives and external structures (Powers of Horror, p. 8).
Ethical Practice	An engagement with the abject that resists fixed boundaries and embraces heterogeneity.	Kristeva connects ethics and aesthetics through the performative structure of her texts, advocating for openness to ambiguity and contradiction (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 233).
Sublimation	The process of transforming primal drives into culturally and socially acceptable expressions.	Writing becomes a form of sublimation, where the abject is indirectly confronted and transformed through language (Powers of Horror, p. 18).
Heterogeneity	The coexistence of diverse, often contradictory elements within the subject or text.	Central to Kristeva’s critique of totalizing systems, heterogeneity allows for the articulation of the semiotic within the symbolic (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 131).
Pas de Deux	A “dance” between dual voices or perspectives within the text.	Reflects Kristeva’s performative blending of the autobiographical (“I”) and theoretical (“one”) to mirror the abject’s disruptive nature (Powers of Horror, p. 139).
Negativity	The precondition for signification, linked to the semiotic disruption of the symbolic.	Negativity precedes negation and is foundational to the Kristevan subject’s engagement with language and desire (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 119).
Analyst as Writer	The theorist occupies a dual role as both observer and participant in the dynamics of abjection.	Kristeva’s writing enacts the analytic process, where the abject is both studied and experienced through language (Powers of Horror, p. 152).
Impossible Catharsis	The unattainable resolution of the abject’s disruptive effects.	Kristeva argues that the abject cannot be fully purged but must remain a site of ongoing tension and engagement (Powers of Horror, p. 31).

Contribution of “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Psychoanalytic Theory

• Exploration of Abjection: Extends Kristeva’s concept of abjection by showing how it destabilizes subjectivity, particularly through its performative dimensions in language and literature. (Powers of Horror, pp. 5-6)
• Borderline Subjectivity: Discusses how the borderline subject illuminates the psychic mechanisms of abjection, shedding light on the interplay between the semiotic and symbolic in literary texts. (Powers of Horror, pp. 8-9)
• Role of Fear and Phobia: Provides a psychoanalytic reading of fear and its displacement in phobic metaphors, linking it to literary expression. (Powers of Horror, pp. 35-37)

2. Feminist Theory

• Critique of Traditional Psychoanalysis: Harrington highlights how Kristeva’s work disrupts Freud and Lacan’s patriarchal frameworks, particularly by addressing the maternal and its repression. (Stabat Mater, p. 162)
• Ethical Feminism: Proposes a feminist ethics grounded in the engagement with the abject, challenging traditional binary oppositions such as self/other, male/female. (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 233)
• Performative Writing as Feminist Praxis: The enactment of abjection through performative writing critiques the phallocentric language systems. (Powers of Horror, pp. 140-142)

3. Poststructuralist Theory

• Destabilization of Subjectivity: Builds on Kristeva’s notion of the subject-in-process to question stable, unified notions of identity, aligning with poststructuralist critiques. (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 119)
• Interplay of Semiotic and Symbolic: Shows how the semiotic disrupts the symbolic, paralleling poststructuralist concerns with the instability of meaning. (Powers of Horror, pp. 18-20)
• Text as Performance: Demonstrates how Kristeva’s work enacts the theories it articulates, aligning with poststructuralist ideas of performativity in writing. (Powers of Horror, pp. 139-140)

4. Literary Aesthetics

• Reimagining Catharsis: Challenges classical notions of catharsis in literature, proposing instead an “impossible catharsis” that retains the tension of the abject. (Powers of Horror, p. 31)
• Heterogeneous Texts: Highlights the blending of voices (autobiographical and theoretical) in Kristeva’s texts as an innovative aesthetic practice. (Stabat Mater, p. 162)
• Abjection in Literature: Positions the abject as a central force in literary production, offering a new lens to analyze texts dealing with horror, loss, and fragmentation. (Powers of Horror, pp. 210-212)

5. Ethical Philosophy and Literature

• Linking Ethics and Aesthetics: Explores how Kristeva’s writing connects ethics with literary aesthetics through the acknowledgment of heterogeneity and abjection. (Revolution in Poetic Language, pp. 233-234)
• Abjection as Ethical Engagement: Proposes that encountering the abject in literature fosters ethical awareness by forcing the subject to confront its boundaries. (Powers of Horror, pp. 18-20)

6. Postmodern Theory

• Subjectivity as Process: Aligns with postmodern concerns about fluid, fragmented identities by emphasizing the subject-in-process/on-trial. (Powers of Horror, pp. 8-9)
• Textual Multiplicity: Highlights the multiplicity and heterogeneity of voices within Kristeva’s texts, resonating with postmodernism’s rejection of metanarratives. (Powers of Horror, pp. 140-142)
• Temporal Disruptions: Reflects on the notion of time as an anterior future, echoing postmodern temporal paradoxes. (Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 232)

7. Rhetoric and Semiotics

• Language as Abjection: Explores how language becomes a site of abjection, where the signifier’s arbitrariness mirrors the subject’s existential fears. (Powers of Horror, pp. 37-38)
• Phobia and Metaphor: Examines the rhetorical strategies of phobia as metaphors for the unnameable, connecting linguistic play with psychic structures. (Powers of Horror, pp. 35-37)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington

Literary Work	Critique Through Harrington’s Lens	Key Concepts Applied	References to Harrington’s Analysis
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein	The monster as an embodiment of the abject: rejected by society and creator, representing the borderline subject in crisis.	– Abjection – Subject-in-process – Fear and phobia as metaphors	Kristeva’s concept of “manque” and the “speaking abject” illuminate Victor’s fear of the monstrous and his own failure to confront it (Harrington, pp. 35-38).
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Sethe’s haunting by Beloved illustrates maternal abjection, with the act of infanticide revealing a confrontation with the primal loss.	– Maternal abjection – Fear as unspeakable – Impossible catharsis	Maternal body as the site of trauma and its repression ties into Harrington’s use of Kristeva’s “Stabat Mater” (Harrington, p. 162).
Samuel Beckett’s Endgame	The fragmented narrative and existential dread reflect abjection as a breakdown of meaning and identity in a desolate world.	– Heterogeneity – Subjectivity in flux – Language as fetishized and fragmented	Harrington’s exploration of linguistic abjection reveals the play’s fragmented dialogue as a metaphor for existential lack (Harrington, pp. 140-142).
Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar	Esther’s mental breakdown mirrors the abjection of self, with her inability to reconcile societal expectations and personal identity.	– Semiotic vs. symbolic tension – Phobia as a metaphor – Subjectivity on trial	Harrington’s analysis of the semiotic and symbolic interplay aligns with Esther’s disconnection and desire for self-definition (Harrington, pp. 18-20).

Criticism Against “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington

• Complexity and Accessibility
  • Harrington’s analysis is dense and heavily reliant on Kristeva’s philosophical framework, making it challenging for readers unfamiliar with Kristeva’s work or psychoanalytic theory.
  • The performative and layered writing style may obscure the central arguments for readers seeking clarity.
• Overreliance on Kristeva’s Framework
  • The critique leans heavily on Kristeva’s theories without sufficiently interrogating their limitations or offering alternative perspectives.
  • Critics argue that this dependence may stifle broader interpretations and applications of abjection.
• Limited Engagement with Feminist Critiques
  • While addressing feminist ethics, Harrington’s focus on abjection could have engaged more deeply with critiques from contemporary feminist scholars who challenge Kristeva’s ambiguous stance on the maternal and the semiotic.
  • The analysis risks reinforcing gender binaries through its framing of maternal abjection.
• Insufficient Application to Non-Western Literatures
  • The focus on Western philosophical and literary traditions limits the scope of the discussion, leaving out potential cross-cultural or global applications of abjection.
  • Critics point out that the essay does not adequately consider how abjection might function in different cultural or historical contexts.
• Tendency Toward Theoretical Abstraction
  • The essay’s engagement with theoretical abstraction, particularly regarding the subject-in-process and the semiotic/symbolic divide, may alienate readers seeking concrete applications.
  • Some critiques suggest a need for more tangible literary examples to illustrate the theory effectively.
• Ambiguity in Ethical Implications
  • While Harrington emphasizes the ethical dimensions of Kristeva’s abjection, critics argue that the practical implications of these ethics remain unclear.
  • The connection between ethics, aesthetics, and the abject, though innovative, is underdeveloped in terms of real-world applications.

Representative Quotations from “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The abject collapses in a burst of beauty that overwhelms us—and ‘that cancels our existence.'”	Harrington emphasizes the duality of the abject as both horrifying and sublime. This collapse of boundaries forces us to confront our mortality and sense of identity, engaging both aesthetics and ethics to question the foundations of human existence.
“The speaking abject must be approached through these splits.”	The fragmented structure of Kristeva’s theory mirrors the fragmentation of the abject. Harrington highlights the need to address the abject through multiple perspectives—psychological, linguistic, and ethical—capturing its paradoxical nature.
“Language is both a tool and a battleground for negotiating the abject.”	Harrington underscores Kristeva’s view that language is where the abject manifests most intensely, as it constantly negotiates between the expressible and the inexpressible, the symbolic and the semiotic. This makes language a site of both empowerment and vulnerability.
“Kristeva’s work choreographs the paradox of the speaking subject as theorist and patient.”	This statement reflects the performative nature of Kristeva’s analysis, where the subject in process/on trial is not only observed but enacted. The theorist becomes both the analyst and the analyzed, embodying the abject through her own fragmented voice.
“The abject is elaborated through a failure to recognize its kin; nothing is familiar.”	Harrington reiterates Kristeva’s description of the abject as rooted in primal loss, making it alien even to the subject experiencing it. This misrecognition creates a destabilizing force within the subject, shaping their identity and perception of others.
“Writing is the primary analog of a phobia: in the play of the sign, Kristeva sees the heterogeneity that marks phobia and abjection.”	Writing becomes an enactment of the abject, illustrating the oscillation between creation and destruction inherent in abjection. For Kristeva, literature provides a medium to explore and articulate this tension, allowing the unspeakable to be symbolized.
“To create/perform these ruptures is to tell the story of the speaking subject in its perpetual struggle.”	Harrington emphasizes the ethical and aesthetic necessity of rupture in Kristeva’s text. This performance reflects the subject’s ongoing process of self-definition and negation, aligning with Kristeva’s notion of a revolutionary practice in art and theory.
“The abject is ‘not yet a place,’ a no-ground that the speaking subject must articulate backward.”	The abject resides in a liminal space that cannot be directly addressed. Instead, it must be circumscribed through indirect articulation, revealing the inherent instability of identity and language. Harrington interprets this as Kristeva’s method of engaging with the abject as an unresolved and disruptive force.

Suggested Readings: “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s “Powers of Horror” by Thea Harrington

1. Harrington, Thea. “The Speaking Abject in Kristeva’s ‘Powers of Horror.’” Hypatia, vol. 13, no. 1, 1998, pp. 138–57. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3810610. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.
2. STILL, JUDITH. “Horror in Kristeva and Bataille: Sex and Violence.” Paragraph, vol. 20, no. 3, 1997, pp. 221–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43263665. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.
3. POWRIE, PHIL. “The W/Hole and the Abject.” Paragraph, vol. 26, no. 1/2, 2003, pp. 222–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43263726. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.
4. SMITH, ANNE-MARIE. “Transgression, Transubstantiation, Transference.” Paragraph, vol. 20, no. 3, 1997, pp. 270–80. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43263668. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster

“Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster first appeared in October, Vol. 78 (Autumn, 1996), published by The MIT Press. In this pivotal essay, Foster explores a shift in contemporary art, literature, and critical theory: from understanding “the real” as a product of representation to viewing it as an event of trauma. Drawing on Jacques Lacan’s psychoanalytic theories, particularly the notion of the gaze, Foster interrogates how contemporary culture grapples with the destabilization of the subject and the erosion of traditional representational frameworks. He delves into the abject, as conceptualized by Julia Kristeva, and its implications for identity and boundary formation, while also tracing a broader cultural fascination with trauma and its representation. Foster’s analysis is significant for its articulation of how contemporary art and theory probe the intersections of psychoanalysis, the symbolic order, and the visceral reality of human experience. The essay challenges readers to reconsider how aesthetic practices engage with profound existential and cultural ruptures, influencing ongoing debates in literary theory, art criticism, and cultural studies.

Summary of “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster

Theoretical Term/Concept	Explanation	Significance
The Gaze (Lacan)	A concept in Lacanian psychoanalysis where the gaze represents an external, pre-subjective force that “looks” at the subject.	Central to Foster’s analysis of contemporary art; disrupts the coherence of the subject and challenges representation (p. 107).
Image-Screen	A mediating framework of representation that protects the subject from the direct impact of the gaze.	Traditional art uses this to tame the gaze, but contemporary art often seeks to tear or bypass it (p. 109).
The Abject (Kristeva)	That which is expelled to define the subject, often associated with the maternal body or bodily fluids.	Explores the fragility of boundaries between subject and object; heavily featured in abject art (pp. 114-115).
Obscene	A representation without a “scene” or frame, which confronts the viewer with raw reality or trauma.	Challenges norms of visual containment; key in contemporary art’s assault on traditional representation (p. 109).
Trauma	An event or state that disrupts temporal and subjective continuity, often leaving a delayed or fragmented impact.	Frames the shift from representational reality to one defined by traumatic rupture (p. 106).
Informe (Bataille)	A state of formlessness where distinctions between figure and ground dissolve, challenging representational norms.	Related to abject art; signals the breakdown of meaning and the symbolic order (p. 114).
Symbolic Order	The Lacanian concept of societal rules and structures mediated through language and culture.	Art and theory probe the disruptions and crises within this order (p. 115).
Desublimation	The breakdown or reversal of sublimation, where elevated cultural forms are degraded or dissolved.	Exemplified in abject art’s attack on the ideals of beauty, form, and propriety (p. 116).
Apotropaic Function	A protective function that seeks to ward off danger, often through artistic representation.	Foster contrasts this with art that confronts the gaze or the real directly (p. 110).
Pere-Version (Bataille)	A perversion that twists societal or paternal laws, challenging symbolic norms.	Represents art’s defiance of cultural authority and its norms of representation (p. 118).
Subject-as-Picture	The idea that the subject is represented and captured as an image within the gaze or symbolic system.	Explored in Cindy Sherman’s work, highlighting self-surveillance and psychological estrangement (pp. 110-111).
Paranoia (Lacan)	A condition of the subject’s hyper-awareness of being watched or dominated by external forces.	Associated with the gaze’s perceived maleficence and its impact on subjectivity (p. 110).
Hyperreal (Baudrillard)	Although not directly named, the essay implicitly engages with ideas of the hyperreal in its critique of postmodern simulacra.	Contrasts earlier postmodernism’s focus on surface with the abject’s pursuit of the “real” (p. 123).
Corporeality	A focus on the material body, especially in its grotesque or abject forms.	Central to abject art’s exploration of the body as a site of trauma and disruption (p. 114).

Contribution of “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster

Literary Work	Critique Using Foster’s Concepts	Relevant Theoretical Lens
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein	The monster embodies the abject, representing what Victor must expel (failed creation, unnatural). This aligns with the maternal and bodily horror Foster discusses (Foster, p. 114).	Abject Theory (Kristeva), psychoanalytic lens on abjection and subject formation.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper	The narrator’s descent into madness parallels Foster’s notion of the subject being overwhelmed by the gaze. The “yellow wallpaper” functions as an intrusive gaze that traps her (Foster, pp. 108-110).	Psychoanalytic theory (Lacan); the gaze as a force that mortifies and destabilizes the subject.
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	The ghost of Beloved symbolizes trauma and the return of the real, as Sethe confronts her past atrocities. The narrative’s fragmented structure reflects trauma as an event outside representation (Foster, p. 123).	Trauma theory; psychoanalysis (Lacan, Kristeva) on repressed histories and abjection.
Samuel Beckett’s Endgame	Characters inhabit a world of nihility and abjection, where bodily decay and existential despair reflect Foster’s discussion of the corpse as the subject of abjection (Foster, p. 123).	Aesthetic theory of the abject; existential and postmodern critiques of subjectivity and representation.

Criticism Against “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster

Representative Quotations from “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“In contemporary art and theory… there is a general shift in conceptions of the real: from the real understood as an effect of representation to the real understood as an event of trauma.”	Foster argues that contemporary theory moves away from seeing “the real” as mediated by representation (symbolic systems) and toward understanding it as directly linked to trauma—a rupture in symbolic order. This sets the stage for analyzing abjection and the gaze as central themes in art and critical theory.
“The gaze, qua objet a, may come to symbolize this central lack expressed in the phenomenon of castration.”	Borrowing from Lacan, Foster interprets the gaze as a representation of the “lack” that structures subjectivity. This lack is central to psychoanalytic theory, where it is tied to symbolic castration. Foster uses this to critique the positioning of subjects in art and theory, exploring how they confront or evade this lack.
“The screen mediates the object-gaze for the subject. But it also protects the subject from this object-gaze.”	Foster draws on Lacan’s concept of the screen to explain its dual role: it not only facilitates visual representation but also shields the subject from the overwhelming, unmediated real (trauma, abjection). This mediation is necessary for perception, and contemporary art often plays with the tearing or disruption of this protective screen.
“Obscene does not mean ‘against the scene,’ but it suggests an attack on the scene of representation, on the image-screen.”	Foster redefines “obscene” in the context of art as an assault on representation itself. Rather than showing what is traditionally hidden, the obscene disrupts the frameworks (screens) that shape how images are perceived, challenging the viewer’s comfort with mediated reality.
“In a world in which the Other has collapsed, the task of the artist is no longer to sublimate the abject, to elevate it, but to plumb the abject.”	Foster invokes Julia Kristeva’s theory of abjection, suggesting that contemporary art no longer seeks to transform or idealize the abject but instead delves into its raw, unsettling qualities. This marks a shift in artistic priorities, reflecting broader cultural changes in addressing the real and the traumatic.
“Today, thirty years after the death of the author, we are witness to a strange rebirth of the author as zombie.”	Here, Foster critiques the paradoxical revival of the author (or subject) in trauma discourse. While poststructuralism sought to deconstruct subjectivity, trauma theory reintroduces a new kind of subjectivity—a “zombie” figure whose authority is rooted in the personal experience of trauma and the inability to challenge it.
“Why this fascination with trauma, this envy of abjection, today?”	Foster questions the cultural and theoretical preoccupation with trauma and abjection, pointing to social factors (e.g., AIDS crisis, poverty, systemic breakdowns) and dissatisfaction with prior theoretical models that sought to explain or transcend the real. This reflection critiques how trauma has become a dominant mode of engagement in art and theory.
“Some art may attempt a trompe-l’œil, a tricking of the eye, but all art aspires to a dompte-regard, a taming of the gaze.”	Foster suggests that artistic practices are inherently tied to controlling or negotiating the gaze. While certain movements play with deceiving the viewer’s perception, all art is engaged in mediating the gaze, whether through containment, exposure, or disruption.

Suggested Readings: “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic” by Hal Foster

1. Foster, Hal. “Obscene, Abject, Traumatic.” October, vol. 78, 1996, pp. 107–24. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/778908. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.
2. Murray, Derek Conrad, and Soraya Murray. “Uneasy Bedfellows: Canonical Art Theory and the Politics of Identity.” Art Journal, vol. 65, no. 1, 2006, pp. 22–39. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/20068437. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.
3. Wark, Jayne. “Queering Abjection: A Lesbian, Feminist, and Canadian Perspective.” Desire Change: Contemporary Feminist Art in Canada, edited by Heather Davis, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2017, pp. 96–117. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q31s5m.9. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.
4. Kimball, Nicole. “Abjection and Anxiety: The Metamorphosis of the Roman Literary Witch.” Nemo Non Metuit: Magic in the Roman World, edited by Elizabeth Ann Pollard and Fabrizio Conti, Trivent Publishing, 2022, pp. 263–92. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.18376999.11. Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech

“Liminality and the Practices of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech first appeared in Human Relations, Vol. 64, Issue 2, 285–302, in 2011. This seminal article delves into the concept of liminality—a state of being “betwixt and between”—and its application in organizational contexts, particularly in the identity reconstruction process. Beech extends anthropological perspectives on liminality to organizational settings, emphasizing its role in navigating transitions between identity states. By integrating dialogical theory, the work identifies practices such as experimentation, reflection, and recognition as key components of liminal identity work. Through case studies, Beech illustrates how individuals experience identity disruptions and engage in practices to negotiate new meanings. The paper significantly contributes to literature and theory on identity construction by bridging anthropological insights with organizational studies, offering a nuanced understanding of how individuals manage identity transformations in dynamic social and structural contexts.

Summary of “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech

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Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech

Term/Concept	Definition/Description	Reference
Liminality	A state of ambiguity or “in-between-ness” during identity transitions, where an individual is neither in the previous state nor fully in the new state.	Turner (1967); Beech (2011)
Self-Identity	An individual’s internal perception of who they are, influenced by personal values, experiences, and aspirations.	Watson (2009)
Social Identity	The external perception of an individual by others, shaped by cultural, organizational, and societal discourses.	Beech (2008); Watson (2009)
Dialogical Identity Work	The dynamic interplay between self-identity and social identity through internal reflection and external dialogue with others.	Shotter (2008); Beech (2011)
Triggering Events	External changes or disruptions (e.g., organizational restructuring) that initiate the process of identity transition.	Van Gennep (1960); Beech (2011)
Centripetal Orientation	The inward flow of meaning from societal influences to the self, shaping internal identity perceptions.	Bakhtin (1981); Bebbington et al. (2007)
Centrifugal Orientation	The outward projection of identity from the self to others, aimed at influencing external perceptions.	Kornberger et al. (2006); Beech (2011)
Experimentation	The practice of testing and trying out different aspects of a new or modified identity during a liminal phase.	Fiol (2002); Chreim (2002); Beech (2011)
Reflection	Internal self-questioning and consideration of how one’s identity aligns with societal expectations and personal values.	Cunliffe (2002); Turner (1967); Beech (2011)
Recognition	Acknowledgment of identity shifts through epiphanies (sudden realizations) or dawning (gradual understanding).	Strauss (1996); Goffman (1974); Beech (2011)
Re-keying	Changing the meaning of a situation or identity by shifting its significance (e.g., from background to foreground).	Goffman (1974); Beech (2011)
Betwixt and Between	A phrase describing the state of liminality where an individual is caught between two identity states.	Turner (1967); Beech (2011)
Structural Ambiguity	The uncertain and undefined role of a person in a changing organizational or societal context.	Noble & Walker (1997); Beech (2011)
Partial Aggregation	A situation in which the resolution of liminality is incomplete, leaving individuals in prolonged states of ambiguity.	Tempest & Starkey (2004); Beech (2011)
Agency-Structure Dialectic	The interaction between individual agency (self-driven identity construction) and structural forces (organizational or societal influences on identity).	Ybema et al. (2009); Watson (2009)
Epiphany	A sudden realization or transformative moment that reshapes one’s understanding of their identity.	Strauss (1996); Beech (2011)
Dawning Realization	A gradual understanding of identity changes through reflection and contextual experiences.	Strauss (1996); Beech (2011)

Contribution of “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech to Literary Theory/Theories

• Expansion of Dialogism in Literary Theory
  • The article extends Bakhtin’s concept of dialogism by applying it to identity reconstruction, showing how internal (self-identity) and external (social identity) dialogues shape liminal identity transitions (Beech, 2011; Bakhtin, 1981).
  • It provides a framework for understanding how narratives of identity emerge from dynamic interactions between the self and societal structures, echoing Bakhtin’s ideas of polyphony and dialogic interplay.
• Application to Post-Structuralist Perspectives
  • Beech’s work aligns with post-structuralist views on identity as fluid and socially constructed, emphasizing the role of discourses in shaping both self-identity and social identity (Beech, 2011; Ybema et al., 2009).
  • The deconstruction of fixed identities through the lens of liminality highlights the instability and multiplicity inherent in identity, resonating with Derrida’s notions of différance and the non-fixed nature of meaning.
• Integration of Anthropological and Organizational Rites with Literary Narratives
  • Drawing from Turner’s concept of liminality and Van Gennep’s rites of passage, the article demonstrates how transitional identities can be analyzed as narrative constructs within broader societal and organizational contexts (Beech, 2011; Turner, 1967).
  • This integration offers a methodological framework for literary theorists to examine identity reconstruction in texts dealing with transitional states and societal change.
• Enhancing Identity Work in Literary Studies
  • By detailing practices like experimentation, reflection, and recognition, Beech introduces mechanisms for analyzing how literary characters engage in identity work during moments of personal or societal transformation (Beech, 2011; Watson, 2009).
  • This contributes to the understanding of character development and narrative arcs in literature, particularly in texts centered on identity crises or transformation.
• Reinforcement of Structuralist and Agency Theories in Literature
  • The concept of the agency-structure dialectic, where identity is co-constructed through individual agency and societal structures, aligns with structuralist approaches to literature, emphasizing the interplay between individual characters and overarching societal systems (Beech, 2011; Watson, 2009).
  • This dual focus enables literary theorists to explore how identity is both constrained and enabled by textual, cultural, and institutional frameworks.
• Contributions to Feminist and Postcolonial Literary Theories
  • The exploration of liminality as a site of resistance, ambiguity, and negotiation resonates with feminist and postcolonial theories, which examine identity as a contested space influenced by power dynamics (Beech, 2011; Garsten, 1999).
  • The article’s insights into social separation and marginalization enrich analyses of marginalized characters and narratives in feminist and postcolonial literature.
• Narrative Theory and the Role of Storytelling in Identity Formation
  • The emphasis on narrative as a means of identity reconstruction aligns with narrative theory, suggesting that stories and their reconfigurations during liminal phases are crucial to understanding identity shifts in literature (Beech, 2011; Brown, 2006).
  • This approach underscores the importance of plot, character, and dialogic interaction in representing identity transitions in literary works.
• Contributions to Psychological and Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism
  • The psychological dimensions of liminality, such as epiphanies and dawning realizations, provide tools for psychoanalytic literary critics to explore character development and transformation (Beech, 2011; Strauss, 1996).
  • The article’s insights into the stresses of liminality complement psychoanalytic readings of texts that focus on identity crises and transitional phases in characters’ lives.

Examples of Critiques Through “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech

Literary Work	Liminal Concepts Applied	Critique and Analysis	Reference to Beech’s Concepts
“The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger	Experimentation and Reflection	Holden Caulfield’s constant experimentation with identities and reflective self-questioning highlights his struggle with societal expectations and his own liminal identity.	Beech’s emphasis on internal dialogue and experimentation in liminal identity work. (Beech, 2011)
“Beloved” by Toni Morrison	Recognition and Dawning Realization	Sethe’s journey of self-recognition, including her reflections on her past, illustrates the liminal space between her enslaved identity and her freedom as a mother.	Liminal practices of recognition and epiphany to navigate identity transitions. (Beech, 2011)
“Wide Sargasso Sea” by Jean Rhys	Social Separation and Ambiguity	Antoinette’s descent into madness can be seen as her struggle in the liminal space of cultural and social marginalization between Caribbean and European identities.	Beech’s insights into liminality as “betwixt and between” in identity and societal roles. (Beech, 2011)
“The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Reconstruction and the Agency-Structure Dialectic	Gatsby’s attempt to reconstruct his identity to fit into elite society demonstrates the tension between individual agency and the structural forces of class and status.	Beech’s model of dialogic interaction between self-identity and social identity. (Beech, 2011; Watson, 2009)

Criticism Against “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech

• Ambiguity in Practical Applications: Critics argue that while the article introduces useful theoretical concepts, it does not offer clear, actionable frameworks for practitioners in organizational or identity work settings, leaving its practical application vague.
• Overemphasis on Anthropological Roots: The reliance on Turner’s anthropological conception of liminality is seen as restrictive by some, as it does not fully account for the complexities of modern organizational dynamics or other contemporary identity theories.
• Neglect of Intersectionality: The article inadequately addresses how intersecting factors like race, gender, and socio-economic status influence liminal identity reconstruction, limiting its inclusivity and applicability across diverse contexts.
• Underexploration of Emotional Dimensions: Although the article touches on emotional impacts, such as stress and ambiguity, critics point out a lack of in-depth analysis of the psychological and emotional consequences of liminal states.
• Limited Empirical Scope: The case studies used (Eric and Julie) are criticized for being narrow in scope and not sufficiently representative of broader organizational or cultural contexts, reducing the generalizability of the findings.
• Lack of Ritualistic Elements in Modern Settings: Critics note that while the study critiques the absence of rituals in organizational contexts, it does not offer alternatives or ways to adapt the anthropological idea of rituals to modern workplace settings.
• Focus on Individual Agency Over Structural Constraints: The article places significant emphasis on individual reflection and experimentation but underplays the systemic and structural constraints that often limit individuals’ capacity to reconstruct their identities.
• Insufficient Engagement with Existing Organizational Literature: While the article references prominent identity theorists, some critics argue that it does not fully integrate its ideas with contemporary discussions on power, resistance, and organizational culture.

Representative Quotations from “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Liminality is the realm of primitive hypothesis, where there is a certain freedom to juggle with the factors of existence.” (Turner, cited in Beech, 2011, p. 290)	This emphasizes liminality as a creative space for rethinking identity, where norms are suspended, allowing individuals to explore and hypothesize new self-conceptions.
“The focus here is on the change process, and in particular when a person is in between two identity constructions: when they are neither one thing nor the other.” (Beech, 2011, p. 286)	Beech highlights the transitional state of identity, underscoring the ambiguity and instability inherent in identity reconstruction.
“Liminality significantly disrupt[s] one’s internal sense of self or place within a social system.” (Beech, 2011, p. 287)	This quotation underscores the profound emotional and cognitive upheaval that liminality can cause in individuals undergoing identity transitions.
“Experimentation in which versions of the self are tried out as a new or modified identity is sought.” (Beech, 2011, p. 289)	Beech introduces “experimentation” as a core practice of identity work during liminality, where individuals actively explore potential identities.
“Recognition can be a gradual process of ‘dawning’ or an epiphany that results in the reconstitution of identity.” (Beech, 2011, p. 289)	Recognition is described as a critical moment in liminal identity work where external or internal factors crystallize an individual’s identity transformation.
“Liminality may be partly described as a stage of reflection where there is a certain freedom to juggle with the factors of existence.” (Beech, 2011, p. 290)	Reflection is highlighted as a central component of liminality, allowing individuals to reconsider their roles, values, and relationships within their contexts.
“The lack of overt ritual serves to heighten the stress of liminal experiences in modern organizational settings.” (Beech, 2011, p. 298)	Beech critiques the absence of structured, supportive rituals in contemporary organizations, contrasting them with traditional liminal transitions that offered guidance and closure.
“Betwixt and between is a bit scary in terms of identity. One experiences a form of ‘identity loss.’” (Beech, 2011, p. 295)	This reflects the emotional challenges of liminality, where individuals feel disconnected from their previous identity while being uncertain about their future identity.
“The dialogic construction of identity incorporates moments of two-way interaction; outsider-in and insider-out activities.” (Beech, 2011, p. 299)	Beech emphasizes the interactive nature of identity work, where individuals negotiate identity through both internal reflection and external feedback.
“In modern organizations, ambiguity and multiplicity of meanings can prolong the stress of liminal experiences, as resolutions are not easily achieved.” (Beech, 2011, p. 298)	The quotation addresses the organizational dynamics that exacerbate the difficulties of liminality, highlighting the complexity and prolonged nature of identity reconstruction in such contexts.

Suggested Readings: “Liminality And The Practices Of Identity Reconstruction” by Nic Beech

1. Beech, Nic, et al. “Identity-in-the-Work and Musicians’ Struggles: The Production of Self-Questioning Identity Work.” Work, Employment & Society, vol. 30, no. 3, 2016, pp. 506–22. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26499474. Accessed 20 Dec. 2024.
2. Beech, Nic. “Liminality and the practices of identity reconstruction.” Human relations 64.2 (2011): 285-302.

Introduction: “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  

“Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer, and Irit Rogoff first appeared in Art Journal, Vol. 57, No. 4, Winter 1998, published by the College Art Association. This seminal article engages deeply with the evolving dynamics of globalization and cultural identity in the realm of art and theory, reflecting on the twenty years since Edward Said’s Orientalism. The authors critically examine the tensions between global homogenization and local specificity, emphasizing how migration, diaspora, and cultural dislocation shape artistic practices and intellectual discourse. The piece is significant in literary theory and cultural studies for its interrogation of postnational identities, the commodification of diversity, and the power asymmetries embedded within global art systems. It challenges conventional paradigms by calling for nuanced frameworks that recognize hybridities and resist reductive binaries of the global and the local, contributing profoundly to the discourse on postcolonial aesthetics and the politics of representation.

Summary of “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  

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Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  

Term/Concept	Definition/Description	Author(s)	Context/Key Insights
Globalization	The process of interconnectedness across cultural, economic, and political boundaries.	Amor, Enwezor	Globalization influences art production and curatorial practices but often reinforces hegemonic structures.
Postnationalism	A cultural perspective that transcends traditional national boundaries and identities.	Enwezor, Minglu	Examined as both a challenge and an opportunity in the context of diasporic and global art practices.
Cultural Hybridity	The mixing and negotiation of diverse cultural influences to create new identities and expressions.	Enwezor, Mercer	Explored in the context of diasporic art, Hong Kong’s multicultural identity, and African diasporic formations.
Diaspora	The dispersion of people from their original homeland and the resultant cultural and identity dynamics.	Enwezor, Mercer	Highlights the fluidity of identity and the complexity of belonging in the contemporary globalized world.
Unhomeliness	The condition of being displaced, not feeling at home in one’s cultural or geographic context.	Rogoff	Derived from Homi Bhabha, this term explores the psychological and cultural effects of dislocation in a globalized world.
McDonaldization	The spread of homogenized, global cultural symbols that overshadow localized traditions.	Minglu	Used to critique superficial global modernization, particularly in Chinese art and culture.
Multicultural Normalization	The incorporation and depoliticization of cultural diversity within global art markets.	Mercer	Raises concerns about the commodification of cultural difference in international art systems.
Hyperblackness	A representation of Blackness that becomes hyper-visible but stripped of political substance.	Mercer	Discusses the media’s portrayal of African American culture and its detachment from meaningful activism or critique.
Cultural Voyeurism	The consumption of other cultures without fully understanding or engaging with their complexities.	Rogoff	Critiques superficial approaches to curatorial practices and cultural exchange.
Geography of Identity	The spatial and cultural dimensions that shape belonging and identity.	Rogoff	Explores how geographic and cultural dislocations influence identity formation and political alliances.
Cultural Translation	The process of interpreting and negotiating meaning across different cultural contexts.	Rogoff, Mercer	Explored as a means of connecting localized and globalized perspectives in art and cultural discourse.
Ethnocentric Nationalism	The pursuit of a pure, singular cultural identity rooted in national or ethnic exclusivity.	Rogoff, Ho	Critiqued as artificial and reductive in the context of globalized and multicultural societies.
Deterritorialization	The severing of cultural practices and identities from specific geographic locations.	Rogoff	Explored as a consequence of globalization and diaspora in shaping new cultural dynamics.
Representation and Identity	The portrayal of cultural and ethnic identities in art and its impact on understanding and discourse.	Amor, Enwezor, Mercer	Highlights the challenges of representing identity authentically in the global art system.

Contribution of “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory
   • Reimagining Postcolonial Identity:
     • The article challenges static notions of identity, emphasizing hybridity and the fluidity of cultural affiliations in postcolonial contexts (Mercer, Enwezor).
     • Kobena Mercer critiques ethnocentric frameworks and highlights diasporic identity as a subversion of national and racial boundaries.
     • “The unhomed subject finds new avenues of expression in the liminal spaces between the global and the local” (Rogoff).
   • Representation and Power:
     • Discusses how cultural representation in art reinforces or subverts postcolonial power dynamics (Amor, Enwezor).
2. Globalization and Cultural Theory
   • Hybridity and Transnationalism:
     • Explores how globalization creates new hybrid identities and artistic practices, offering insights into the transnational reshaping of local cultures (Enwezor, Minglu).
     • Oscar Ho critiques Hong Kong’s cultural identity within the global/local dichotomy: “Hong Kong’s culture thrives on its ability to absorb and adapt without obsession over distinctiveness.”
   • Cultural Translation:
     • Rogoff emphasizes the necessity of cultural translation in navigating and interpreting global cultural flows.
     • Highlights the importance of creating “dialogical models” to bridge local and global cultural expressions (Amor).
3. Critical Race Theory
   • Hyperblackness and Representation:
     • Mercer examines how African American identity is commodified through “hyperblackness,” where visibility is stripped of political context (Mercer).
     • The critique ties into broader discussions of race, visibility, and aesthetics in the global art world.
4. Diaspora Studies
   • Diasporic Identity and Belonging:
     • Enwezor and Mercer explore how diaspora challenges traditional notions of home and belonging, advocating for understanding identity as a fluid, negotiated process.
     • “The diaspora is not a site of loss but a dynamic space of cultural production and reinterpretation” (Enwezor).
   • Deterritorialization:
     • Rogoff discusses the cultural and psychological effects of deterritorialization, advancing diaspora studies by linking geographic displacement with identity formation.
5. Feminist and Intersectional Theories
   • Intersectionality of Art and Identity:
     • The intersection of race, gender, and locality is explored through the lens of marginalized artists, particularly women and diasporic subjects.
     • Rogoff critiques the lack of intersectional approaches in global art practices, arguing for the inclusion of diverse perspectives in curatorial practices.
6. Cultural Materialism
   • Commodification of Diversity:
     • Mercer critiques how multiculturalism has become normalized and depoliticized in the global art market.
     • “Cultural difference has been subsumed into commodifiable identities, serving the interests of neoliberal globalization” (Mercer).
7. Deconstruction
   • Unpacking Binaries:
     • Rogoff and Amor challenge binaries such as global/local, national/international, and traditional/modern, advocating for deconstructive approaches to cultural theory.
     • “The global does not erase the local; rather, it reframes it within broader networks of cultural exchange” (Amor).
8. Spatial and Geographic Theory
   • Geographies of Identity:
     • Rogoff introduces “geography as a critical lens,” focusing on how spatial dislocations shape identity and cultural practices.
     • Her concept of “unhomeliness” expands on Homi Bhabha’s ideas, linking geographic displacement to subjective and collective identity.

References from the Article

• “Globalization is not merely a homogenizing force but a space of cultural resistance and negotiation” (Amor, 1998).
• “Diasporic formations challenge static notions of identity and create dynamic models of cultural production” (Enwezor, 1998).
• “Hyperblackness exemplifies the commodification of racial identity, detaching it from its socio-political roots” (Mercer, 1998).
• “The curatorial process must address the legacies of colonialism and the complexities of transnational cultural exchange” (Rogoff, 1998).

Examples of Critiques Through “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  

Literary Work	Key Themes	Critique Through Liminalities Framework	Theorist/Concept Referenced
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Colonialism and Identity	Achebe’s exploration of the Igbo community before and after colonialism reflects the tension between the local and the global. Rogoff’s concept of “unhomeliness” highlights the displacement of indigenous cultural identity caused by colonial forces.	Irit Rogoff: Unhomeliness, hybridity, and the disruption of local geographies.
Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children	Postcolonialism and National Identity	The novel’s focus on India’s partition resonates with discussions of national and postnational identities. Enwezor’s emphasis on “diasporic subjectivity” critiques the fragmented identities of postcolonial subjects.	Okwui Enwezor: Diaspora as a space of dynamic cultural production.
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Slavery, Memory, and Trauma	Morrison’s examination of African American identity connects to Mercer’s critique of “hyperblackness” and the commodification of black narratives in a global context.	Kobena Mercer: Hyperblackness and its relationship to representation and memory.
Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things	Locality and Globalization	The novel’s tension between traditional Kerala culture and modern global influences reflects Minglu’s analysis of “transnational cultural systems” and their impact on local identities.	Gao Minglu: Transnationalism and the negotiation of cultural boundaries.

Criticism Against “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  

• Overemphasis on Theory Without Practical Resolution
  • Critics argue that while the discussions present nuanced theoretical frameworks, they lack actionable solutions or practical implications for addressing the challenges posed by globalization in art and culture.
• Eurocentric Lens Despite Postcolonial Focus
  • Despite critiquing Western dominance, some scholars note that the discussions inadvertently perpetuate Eurocentric paradigms by framing local and global tensions predominantly through Western theoretical tools.
• Ambiguity in Defining Key Concepts
  • Terms like “hybridity,” “diaspora,” and “transnationalism” are critiqued for being ambiguously defined, leaving them open to multiple interpretations without concrete application in the arts and literature.
• Neglect of Grassroots Perspectives
  • The dialogue is criticized for prioritizing elite and institutional perspectives (e.g., biennials and curatorial practices) over grassroots cultural expressions and their role in the global-local dynamic.
• Limited Scope on Non-Western Models
  • While the discussion explores globalization’s impact on non-Western art, critics point out a lack of deep engagement with indigenous or alternative non-Western frameworks for understanding global-local relationships.
• Overgeneralization of the Global Art Market
  • The analysis of globalization in art often treats the global art market as homogenous, overlooking significant regional differences and local market dynamics.
• Insufficient Representation of Marginalized Voices
  • The focus on prominent theorists and artists from established institutions overlooks the contributions of lesser-known artists and thinkers from marginalized communities.
• Risk of Overintellectualization
  • Critics argue that the highly theoretical discourse may alienate practitioners and audiences who seek accessible language and direct engagement with global-local issues in art.

Representative Quotations from “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Globalization… can illuminate—or obfuscate—our understanding of contemporary artistic practices.”	Highlights the dual role of globalization: fostering connections yet potentially obscuring local artistic contexts. It critiques the imbalance where global paradigms overshadow local narratives in art.
“The multiculturalism of our global village manifests itself through quotas… intervening little in the dominant discourse.”	Critiques superficial attempts at inclusivity that fail to disrupt entrenched hierarchies in Western art institutions. The quotation underscores the paradox of diversity quotas reinforcing rather than dismantling dominance.
“Migration… does not only mean physical crossing of borders but involves other forms of traveling.”	Addresses the multidimensional nature of migration, encompassing cultural, psychic, and intellectual shifts. This perspective widens the discourse beyond physical movement to include identity transformations and hybrid cultural experiences.
“Cultural identity… undergoes a constant process of negotiation and circulation.”	Emphasizes that cultural identity is not static but dynamic, shaped by interactions and negotiations in global and local contexts. It critiques essentialist views of identity while advocating for fluid and hybrid understandings.
“Hong Kong’s success is built on its ability to accommodate, absorb, adopt, manipulate, and transform.”	Describes Hong Kong’s adaptive culture as a strength rather than a weakness. The quotation underscores the value of cultural diversity and fluidity, challenging nationalist or monolithic identity narratives.
“The unhomely captures something of the estranging sense of the relocation of the home and the world.”	Draws from Homi Bhabha’s concept of the “unhomely” to explore the dislocation experienced in a globalized world. It highlights how cultural identities and senses of belonging are destabilized yet reconfigured through globalization.
“The tendency to contextualize South American art in cultural issues, not in dialogue with formal problems… limits recognition.”	Critiques how South American art is often framed only within cultural or geopolitical lenses, ignoring its contributions to global formal and aesthetic developments, thus marginalizing its significance.
“Diaspora offers a premodern paradigm for postindustrial times.”	Suggests that the concept of diaspora, with its intrinsic hybridity and transnational connections, serves as a model for understanding contemporary globalization and identity formation.
“The integration of global and local contexts… requires more than a hierarchical dichotomy.”	Advocates for moving beyond binary oppositions (global vs. local) to understand their interdependence, critiquing simplistic hierarchical frameworks in cultural analysis.
“Curating… as an intellectual, critical, and pedagogical work… confronts material and psychic problems.”	Redefines curating as a critical practice that engages with broader social, cultural, and epistemological challenges, positioning it as a site of negotiation and knowledge production.

Suggested Readings: “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local” by Mónica Amor, Okwui Enwezor, Gao Minglu, Oscar Ho, Kobena Mercer and Irit Rogoff  

1. Amor, Monica, et al. “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local: Whose World? A Note on the Paradoxes of Global Aesthetics.” Art Journal 57.4 (1998): 28-50.
2. Amor, Mónica, et al. “Liminalities: Discussions on the Global and the Local.” Art Journal, vol. 57, no. 4, 1998, pp. 28–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/777926. Accessed 20 Dec. 2024.
3. Anthes, Bill. “Ethics in a World of Strange Strangers: Edgar Heap of Birds at Home and Abroad.” Art Journal, vol. 71, no. 3, 2012, pp. 58–77. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43188555. Accessed 20 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass

“Beyond the Threshold: Explorations of Liminality in Literature” by Minesh Dass first appeared in the English Academy Review: Southern African Journal of English Studies in 2013, published online on May 13. This scholarly work provides an intricate exploration of liminality, drawing on theoretical frameworks by Victor Turner, Homi K. Bhabha, and Arnold van Gennep to investigate the transformative potential of “in-between spaces” within literature. Anchored in the South African literary context but extending its purview to global texts, the article examines how boundaries, hybridity, and liminal processes contribute to identity formation in literature. By incorporating diverse texts and critiques, including those on South African and international authors, the study highlights the intricate interplay between cultural and literary boundaries. While the collection from which it emerges is critiqued for its uneven coherence and focus, Dass’s insights into the liminal as both a theme and literary framework underscore its significance in contemporary literary theory, offering a platform for further exploration of identity, transformation, and the boundaries of human experience.

Summary of “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Application in Literature
Liminality	A state of being “in-between,” often associated with transition, transformation, or boundary-crossing (Turner, 1969).	Explored in South African texts to depict identity formation, cultural hybridity, and spiritual transformation. Authors like Douglas Livingstone and Antjie Krog use liminality to represent physical and psychological transitions (Dass, 2013, p. 126-128).
Hybridity	The blending of different cultural or social elements to create new forms or identities (Bhabha, 1994).	Discussed alongside liminality in the context of South African and global literature to understand cultural intersections and mixed identities, though often not clearly distinguished from liminality in the essays (Dass, 2013, p. 125-126).
Boundaries	Theoretical and literal divisions that define or separate identities, spaces, or narratives.	Focused on in relation to the crossing or dissolution of boundaries in texts, highlighting their transformative potential (e.g., Keri Hulme’s The Bone People and Coetzee’s Disgrace) (Dass, 2013, p. 125-126).
Communitas	A concept by Victor Turner referring to an unstructured community formed during liminal phases.	Examined in the works of South African “coloured” authors like Peter Abrahams and Zoë Wicomb, emphasizing creole identity and collective transformation (Dass, 2013, p. 126).
The Liminoid	Turner’s adaptation of liminality for modern societies, where transitions need not be tied to rites or cosmology.	Used to analyze modernist poetry, such as Douglas Livingstone’s A Littoral Zone, depicting liminality in psychic and physical thresholds (Dass, 2013, p. 127).
Matrixial Theory	Bracha L. Ettinger’s psychoanalytic theory on pre-subjective, maternal-foetal relationships influencing subjective identity.	Explored in a highly technical manner, though its relevance to literature remains ambiguous; focuses on psychoanalysis rather than liminality in South African literature (Dass, 2013, p. 126).
Creolization	The cultural process of blending and adapting elements from diverse traditions into a unified yet plural identity.	Investigated in South African literature through characters and narratives, particularly in relation to postcolonial identity and cultural hybridity (Dass, 2013, p. 126).
Threshold Imagination	The use of imaginative spaces as transitional zones enabling growth and transformation.	Seen in Wenzel’s analysis of Hulme’s The Bone People, where imagination facilitates personal and social healing (Dass, 2013, p. 126).
Reconciliation through Liminality	The process by which individuals or societies address conflict through transitional phases of self and communal disintegration.	Illustrated in Antjie Krog’s poetry collection Kleur kom nooit alleen nie, where the liminal space facilitates dialogue and reconciliation within South Africa’s post-apartheid context (Dass, 2013, p. 127-128).
Alienation, Transition, and Integration	The three phases of liminal rites identified by van Gennep and extended to literature.	Wenzel identifies these phases in The Bone People, where characters’ journeys through alienation and transition lead to societal and personal integration (Dass, 2013, p. 126).

Contribution of “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass

Author and Work	Key Critique	Theoretical Framework Applied
Ingrid Winterbach – Niggie	Explores themes of physical isolation, language, and the trickster motif, though the analysis attempts to cover too many aspects.	Liminality in character development and spatial transitions (Dass, 2013, p. 125).
Keri Hulme – The Bone People	Identifies the three phases of liminality (alienation, transition, integration) and their role in personal and societal healing.	Victor Turner’s liminal rites and their transformative power (Dass, 2013, p. 126).
Douglas Livingstone – A Littoral Zone	Examines thresholds between the physical and psychic realms, reflecting liminality and reconciliation of opposing forces.	Turner’s concept of the “liminoid” adapted to modernist poetry (Dass, 2013, p. 127).
J.M. Coetzee – Disgrace	Highlights the subversion of pastoral traditions by presenting the farm as a liminal space that foregrounds race, gender, and space.	Liminality in spatial representation and critique of societal norms in post-apartheid South Africa (Dass, 2013, p. 127).

Criticism Against “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass

Representative Quotations from “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The transformative power of in-between spaces represented in literature in light of theoretical work on liminality.”	Highlights the central theme of liminality, where “in-between” spaces serve as zones of transformation, crucial for character and narrative development in literature.
“How are boundary, liminal, and hybrid processes of identity formation represented and configured in selected South African texts?”	Frames the research question of the collection, emphasizing the interplay of boundaries and hybridity in shaping identity, particularly in the South African postcolonial context.
“Certain authors’ handling of the liminal is much elucidated and invigorated by their discussion in this context.”	Acknowledges the success of the collection in deepening understanding of specific authors’ works through the lens of liminality, such as Antjie Krog and Douglas Livingstone.
“The field of enquiry, which should limit and clarify the purpose of the project, namely South African literary studies, is only sometimes clearly the subject of the work.”	Criticizes the collection’s lack of focus, as it includes essays that diverge significantly from the stated aim of exploring South African literature.
“While some contributors write as if there is clearly a border to be established between liminality and hybridity, others seem to use the terms interchangeably.”	Points out a conceptual inconsistency in differentiating liminality and hybridity, reducing the collection’s theoretical clarity.
“If liminality is a thing in literature and also a form of literature, perhaps even literature’s ontological state… then under the banner of liminality one can discuss practically anything.”	Raises a critique that the broad application of liminality risks making it a catch-all term, diluting its analytical precision.
“The quality of translation is therefore uneven and debatable, though in some cases the authors themselves have approved the translations used.”	Highlights a practical issue with translations of Afrikaans texts, which affect the accessibility and accuracy of the analysis in the collection.
“Wenzel’s deployment of liminality as a common thematic and formal concern in both South African and New Zealand literature is interesting and could lead to further scholarship.”	Acknowledges the cross-cultural potential of liminality as a framework, extending its relevance beyond South African literature.
“The inclusion of a chapter by renowned artist and psychoanalytic theorist Bracha L. Ettinger…makes only a small reference to art in general…and never to literature.”	Critiques the inclusion of material irrelevant to the central theme of literature, undermining the coherence of the collection.
“The binding agent which the editors hope liminality will form proves not to be very strong at all and the collection veers in every direction all at once.”	Summarizes the main critique of the book’s fragmented focus, despite the value of individual chapters.

Suggested Readings: “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature” by Minesh Dass

1. Dass, Minesh. “Beyond the threshold: Explorations of liminality in literature.” (2013): 124-128.
2. Joseph, Michael. “Liminality.” Keywords for Childrens Literature, edited by Philip Nel and Lissa Paul, NYU Press, 2011, pp. 138–41. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qg46g.33. Accessed 20 Dec. 2024.
3. GADOIN, ISABELLE, and ANNIE RAMEL. “LIMINALITY – INTRODUCTION.” The Hardy Review, vol. 15, no. 1, 2013, pp. 5–10. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45301764. Accessed 20 Dec. 2024.
4. Kalua, Fetson. “Homi Bhabha’s Third Space and African Identity.” Journal of African Cultural Studies, vol. 21, no. 1, 2009, pp. 23–32. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40647476. Accessed 20 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler

“Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in PMLA in 2008, offering a critical examination of lyric poetry and its significance in literary studies. The essay challenges the dominant pedagogical paradigms that interpret lyric poems as dramatic monologues, a perspective shaped by the influence of prose narrative on literary analysis. Culler advocates for a revival of lyric studies by emphasizing its distinctive characteristics, such as its focus on the present, rhythmic and sound patterning, intertextuality, and linguistic extravagance. He critiques the assimilation of lyric into narrative frameworks, arguing that this approach undermines the unique features of lyric poetry, including its performative and epideictic qualities rooted in classical traditions. By examining the evolution of lyric from its origins in Greek antiquity to modern manifestations, Culler highlights the enduring cultural and aesthetic value of this poetic form, proposing methodologies that foreground its unique temporality and rhetorical address. The essay is significant for its contribution to literary theory, encouraging scholars to reassess the role of lyric in shaping language, subjectivity, and cultural memory.

Summary of “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler

• Crisis of Lyric in Literary Studies
  Culler discusses the marginalization of lyric poetry in academic settings, where narrative prose dominates. He critiques how the pedagogical focus on narrative reduces poetry to dramatic monologues, aligning it with the conventions of prose fiction (Culler, 2008, p. 201). This approach sidelines key poetic features such as rhythm, sound, and intertextuality, which are integral to the lyric’s aesthetic and meaning.
• Lyric vs. Narrative
  Lyric is distinct from narrative in that it emphasizes the present moment and engages the reader line by line, rather than focusing on a sequential story. Culler underscores the need to celebrate lyric’s singularity and resist assimilating it into narrative paradigms (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
• Challenges to Traditional Definitions
  Citing René Wellek, Culler critiques the Romantic association of lyric with intense subjective experience, which leads to interpretative limitations. Instead, Wellek and new lyric studies propose focusing on specific historical and formal conventions of lyric poetry, such as odes, elegies, and songs (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
• Modern Approaches to Lyric
  New lyric studies, represented by scholars like Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, advocate for examining how the lyric has been historically constructed rather than treating it as a transhistorical category. These approaches explore alternative frameworks, challenging the narrative-driven “lyricization of poetry” (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
• Classical Models of Lyric
  Culler traces the origins of lyric to Greek and Roman traditions, emphasizing its performative and epideictic nature. In classical contexts, lyric was often addressed to an audience, serving as a rhetorical and ethical activity. This contrasts with modern lyric, which has become more meditative and individualized (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
• Reviving Lyric Studies
  To restore lyric’s place in literary studies, Culler proposes focusing on its unique features: rhythm, sound, hyperbolic forms like apostrophe, and its non-narrative temporality. He argues that lyric foregrounds the materiality of language and embodies the formative interplay between language, memory, and cultural identity (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
• Lyric’s Cultural Significance
  The lyric’s ability to embed language in memory—through rhythmical and phonological patterning—underscores its cultural and aesthetic value. Culler calls for a proliferation of models to understand lyric’s diverse historical manifestations and encourage its integration into literary studies (Culler, 2008, p. 206).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Context
Lyricization of Poetry	The process of reading all poetry through the lens of subjective expression, often tied to Romantic notions of intense personal experience.	Culler critiques this trend, suggesting it narrows the interpretive possibilities of poetry, reducing its historical and formal diversity (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Dramatic Monologue	A form of poetry in which the speaker is a fictional persona whose circumstances and attitudes the reader reconstructs.	Culler argues that the dramatic monologue model has become dominant in interpreting lyrics, aligning them with narrative fiction and sidelining their rhythmic and intertextual features (Culler, 2008, p. 201).
Non-Narrative Temporality	A focus on the present moment within the text, emphasizing immediate engagement rather than sequential storytelling.	Culler contrasts lyric’s focus on “what happens now” with narrative’s emphasis on “what happens next,” highlighting the unique reader engagement with lyric (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
Epideictic Discourse	A rhetorical tradition aimed at praising or critiquing subjects in a way that reflects societal values and beliefs.	Lyric poetry, especially in its classical form, functioned as epideictic discourse, addressing audiences and shaping ethical and cultural values (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Hyperbole and Apostrophe	Extravagant and direct forms of address, often used in lyric to engage with abstract concepts, objects, or absent figures.	Culler highlights these features as integral to lyric’s rhetorical power, contrasting them with the realist demands of dramatic monologues (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
Intertextuality	The relationship between a text and other texts, including allusions and references.	Culler points out that lyric frequently employs intertextual elements, such as Robert Frost’s allusion to François Villon, which contribute to its meaning beyond narrative reconstruction (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Lyric Present	A specific tense used in lyric poetry to create a sense of immediacy and ongoing experience.	Examples such as Yeats’s “I walk through the long schoolroom questioning” demonstrate the lyric’s use of the present tense to foreground its temporality (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
New Lyric Studies	An approach to studying lyric that emphasizes historical and cultural contexts over transhistorical definitions of the genre.	Represented by scholars like Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, this method critiques universal assumptions about lyric and explores how it has functioned differently across time and cultures (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Rhythm and Sound Patterning	The use of metrical structures, rhyme, and phonological repetitions to enhance the sensory and aesthetic experience of poetry.	Culler emphasizes that these elements are often ignored in narrative-centric analyses but are central to lyric’s distinctive impact (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
Memorability of Lyric	The ability of lyric poetry to imprint itself in the reader’s memory through its rhythm and structure.	Culler notes that lyric seeks to be remembered and internalized, functioning as a “mechanical memory” for cultural and personal reflection (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Formal Conventions	The established structures and traditions of particular poetic genres, such as odes, elegies, and songs.	Culler suggests focusing on these conventions to understand lyric’s diversity and its evolution across different historical periods (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Melos and Opsis	Terms from Northrop Frye describing the musical (melos) and visual (opsis) aspects of lyric poetry.	Culler uses these concepts to highlight lyric’s focus on linguistic patterning and its departure from narrative representation (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
Subjectivity and Language	The relationship between individual experience and the structures of language as shaped by rhythm, sound, and form.	Culler argues that lyric plays a crucial role in linking language to the formation of subjectivity, making it a central site for literary studies (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Pedagogical Paradigm	The dominant educational framework that interprets lyric as dramatic monologue, aligning it with prose fiction.	Culler critiques this paradigm as reductive, advocating for new methodologies that foreground lyric’s unique characteristics (Culler, 2008, p. 201).
Transhistorical vs. Historical	The debate between viewing lyric as a universal genre versus understanding its forms and meanings as historically contingent.	Culler supports a balanced approach, acknowledging the lyric’s persistence while studying its historical manifestations and social functions (Culler, 2008, p. 204).

Contribution of “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories

• Revisiting the Lyric Genre
  Culler challenges traditional definitions of lyric, which align it with intense personal expression, proposing instead a broader understanding that encompasses its diverse forms and historical contexts. This critique contributes to genre theory by questioning the viability of fixed transhistorical categories for lyric poetry (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
• Critique of Narrative Dominance
  Culler critiques the dominance of narrative theory in literary studies, where lyric is often interpreted through the lens of narrative structures. He highlights how this approach marginalizes the non-narrative temporality of lyric, emphasizing its focus on “what happens now” rather than “what happens next” (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
• Integration of Intertextuality
  By foregrounding the intertextual nature of lyric, such as Robert Frost’s allusion to François Villon, Culler enriches intertextuality theory. He demonstrates how lyric engages in complex dialogues with other texts, adding layers of meaning beyond narrative reconstruction (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
• Lyric and Rhetorical Theory
  Drawing on classical traditions, Culler situates lyric within rhetorical theory as epideictic discourse—designed to praise or critique societal values. This framing broadens the understanding of lyric’s performative and communicative functions (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
• Challenging the Dramatic Monologue Paradigm
  Culler critiques the New Criticism-inspired view of lyric as a dramatic monologue, a perspective that aligns it with narrative fiction. His argument contributes to formalist theory by emphasizing the overlooked features of lyric, such as rhythm, sound, and hyperbolic forms of address (Culler, 2008, p. 201).
• Focus on the Materiality of Language
  By emphasizing lyric’s material aspects, such as rhythm and phonological patterning, Culler aligns with linguistic theory and formalism, arguing that lyric foregrounds the sensory and structural properties of language (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
• Reinforcing Lyric’s Role in Subjectivity Formation
  Culler connects lyric to psychoanalytic and poststructuralist theories, arguing that its structural patterning links language to the formation of subjectivity. He highlights how lyric engages readers through memory, rhythm, and temporality, shaping their experience of language (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
• Reviving Classical Lyric Models
  By revisiting Greek and Roman traditions, Culler contributes to classical literary theory, proposing a model where the lyric is seen as a performative act directed at an audience. This approach contrasts with the solipsistic nature of modern lyric and offers a historical framework for its study (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
• New Lyric Studies Approach
  Culler engages with the work of Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, advocating for new historicism and cultural studies approaches to lyric. He emphasizes the need to explore how lyric has been constructed and functioned in different historical and cultural contexts (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
• Proposing New Typologies for Lyric
  Culler suggests creating new typologies for lyric, distinguishing between present-tense and past-tense lyrics, which contributes to structuralist theory. This shift encourages diverse methodologies for analyzing lyric’s unique temporal and linguistic features (Culler, 2008, p. 206).

Examples of Critiques Through “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler

Literary Work	Critique Using Culler’s Framework	Reference from Article
Robert Frost’s “Spring Pools”	Culler critiques the tendency to read the poem as a dramatic monologue, focusing solely on the speaker and narrative reconstruction. Instead, he highlights its rhythmic elements, sound patterns, and intertextual allusion to François Villon, emphasizing lyric’s immediacy and linguistic play.	“Flowery chiasmus” and allusion to “the snows of yesteryear” illustrate how lyric transcends narrative conventions (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Robert Browning’s “My Last Duchess”	The Duke’s speech is traditionally read as a dramatic monologue, but Culler points out how this interpretation often ignores the interplay of metrical form and speaker characterization, such as the irony of the Duke’s polished pentameter reflecting his “unpolished” speech.	“Brilliant pentameter couplets…ironically undercut” the speaker’s claims of being unskilled in speech, demonstrating how lyric highlights formal elements (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
W. B. Yeats’s “Among School Children”	Culler uses the poem to illustrate the “lyric present,” emphasizing how its temporality creates immediacy and reflective engagement distinct from narrative forms.	“The lyric temporality of present tense: ‘I walk through the long schoolroom questioning’” demonstrates how lyric captures moments rather than sequences (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
François Villon’s “Ballade des dames du temps jadis”	Villon’s refrain, “Where are the snows of yesteryear?” is reinterpreted in Frost’s “Spring Pools,” where the transience of snow is literalized. Culler highlights how intertextual references enrich lyric’s meaning beyond narrative.	“Lyric’s intertextuality…Villon’s refrain becomes a basis for Frost’s meditation on transience” (Culler, 2008, p. 203).

Criticism Against “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler

• Overemphasis on Theory Over Practice
  Critics argue that Culler’s focus on redefining lyric within theoretical frameworks can overlook the practical engagement of readers with lyric poetry, particularly those who enjoy poetry for its emotional or aesthetic value rather than academic categorization.
• Marginalization of Reader Response
  Culler’s emphasis on formal and historical aspects of lyric neglects reader-response theory, which considers how individual readers interpret and emotionally connect to lyric poetry.
• Limited Address of Non-Western Lyric Traditions
  Culler’s analysis primarily focuses on Western traditions, with limited exploration of non-Western lyric forms, which may offer alternative frameworks for understanding the genre.
• Potential Oversimplification of Narrative
  While critiquing the dominance of narrative paradigms in literary studies, Culler’s binary opposition of narrative and lyric risks oversimplifying the interrelation between the two forms, as some lyric poems incorporate narrative elements.
• Historical Reductionism in New Lyric Studies
  By aligning with the historical approaches of Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, Culler’s argument might reduce lyric to its social and historical contexts, potentially neglecting its universal and timeless qualities.
• Neglect of Popular Lyric Forms
  Critics may point out that Culler largely ignores contemporary popular forms of lyric, such as song lyrics, which are integral to modern cultural experiences but are not extensively discussed in his work.
• Ambiguity in Proposed Models
  While advocating for new typologies of lyric, Culler does not fully articulate clear criteria for these models, leaving some ambiguity about how they should be applied to analyze lyric poetry.
• Challenges to Pedagogical Application
  Some educators argue that Culler’s call to foreground lyric’s distinct features, such as its immediacy and intertextuality, might not be easily integrated into traditional literary curricula, which are often structured around narrative forms.

Representative Quotations from “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“If narrative is about what happens next, lyric is about what happens now—in the reader’s engagement with each line.”	Culler emphasizes the distinct temporality of lyric poetry, focusing on the immediacy of the reader’s experience, contrasting it with the sequential nature of narrative.
“The model of lyric as dramatic monologue misses: stress on the reconstruction of the dramatic situation deprives rhythm and sound patterning of any constitutive role.”	Culler critiques the dramatic monologue model for sidelining key features of lyric poetry, such as rhythm and sound, which are central to its aesthetic and meaning.
“Lyric is characteristically extravagant, performing speech acts not recorded in everyday speech and deploying not only meter and rhyme but also its own special tenses.”	This highlights the performative nature of lyric poetry, where its distinct language and form differentiate it from other literary genres.
“New Criticism’s insistence that interpretation focus on the words on the page…generated the assumption that the speaker of a lyric is not the poet but a persona.”	Culler identifies the influence of New Criticism on lyric interpretation, critiquing its detachment of the lyric from the poet’s voice and its focus on fictionalizing the speaker.
“The lyric present exploits a temporality that makes the experience immediate and ongoing, as in ‘I walk through the long schoolroom questioning.’”	The “lyric present” is a concept that underscores the immediacy and reflective engagement of the reader, making lyric poetry a unique temporal experience distinct from narrative.
“The historical study of different poetic practices should be joined to a revival of the idea of the lyric as a poetic activity that has persisted since the days of Sappho.”	Culler advocates for integrating historical and contemporary perspectives to understand lyric poetry as a persistent and evolving tradition.
“Lyric is memorable language—made memorable by its rhythmical shaping and phonological patterning.”	This highlights the function of lyric poetry as a form that imprints itself on the reader’s memory through its rhythm and sound patterns.
“Reading lyric as a novelizing way…ignores the characteristic extravagance of lyric, which frequently engages in speech acts without a known real-world counterpart.”	Culler criticizes the narrative model for failing to account for the symbolic and imaginative aspects of lyric, which often defy real-world logic.
“Lyric ought to be crucial, as the site where language is linked not only to structures of identification and displacement…but especially to rhythm and bodily experience.”	This connects lyric to broader linguistic and psychoanalytic theories, framing it as a medium that shapes identity and bodily experience through language.
“The Greek model treats the poem as an event addressed to an audience, performed for an audience, even if it idealizes situations of social ritual.”	Culler draws on classical traditions to emphasize lyric as a performative act that involves direct address and engagement with an audience, contrasting it with modern individualistic interpretations.

Suggested Readings: “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler

1. Culler, Jonathan. “Why Lyric?” PMLA, vol. 123, no. 1, 2008, pp. 201–06. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25501839. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
2. Findlay, L. M. “Culler and Byron on Apostrophe and Lyric Time.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 24, no. 3, 1985, pp. 335–53. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25600546. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
3. Culler, Jonathan. “Reading Lyric.” Yale French Studies, no. 69, 1985, pp. 98–106. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2929927. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
4. BUTTERFIELD, ARDIS. “WHY MEDIEVAL LYRIC?” ELH, vol. 82, no. 2, 2015, pp. 319–43. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24477788. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
5. Culler, Jonathan. “Lyric, History, and Genre.” New Literary History, vol. 40, no. 4, 2009, pp. 879–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40666452. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler

“Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in Narrative, Volume 12, Number 1, in January 2004, published by The Ohio State University Press. In this seminal article, Culler critically examines the concept of the omniscient narrator, a longstanding staple in narrative theory, challenging its utility and coherence within literary analysis. He contends that the term “omniscience” conflates various narrative techniques and imposes a theologically derived analogy onto the author, which is neither necessary nor illuminating. By scrutinizing traditional assumptions, Culler argues for alternative frameworks, such as “telepathy,” to describe narrative phenomena like access to characters’ thoughts and feelings. His work significantly contributes to literary theory by encouraging a reevaluation of entrenched concepts and proposing more precise terminology to understand narrative practices, particularly in realist and modernist traditions.

Summary of “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler

• Critique of “Omniscience” as a Critical Concept:
  • Culler argues that the term “omniscience” is overused and underexamined in narrative theory. It serves as a catch-all term for diverse narrative phenomena, leading to conceptual confusion (Culler, 2004, p. 22).
  • He critiques the theological analogy between an omniscient God and an omniscient author, suggesting that this framework is neither accurate nor useful for understanding narrative techniques (p. 23).
• Authorial “Omniscience” vs. Narrative Practices:
  • Culler challenges the assumption that authors inherently possess omniscience within their fictional worlds, pointing out inconsistencies in how the term is applied to narrative authority (p. 24).
  • He highlights that “omniscience” often conflates creative authority (the power to invent) with knowledge, which misrepresents the artistic process (p. 26).
• Alternative Frameworks:
  • Nicholas Royle’s concept of “telepathy” is proposed as a more suitable alternative for understanding narrative insights into characters’ thoughts and emotions. This term emphasizes estrangement and specificity, avoiding the theological baggage of “omniscience” (p. 27).
• Reconceptualizing Narrators:
  • Culler suggests abandoning the notion of narrators as either omniscient beings or human-like characters. Instead, he advocates for a focus on the performative and imaginative aspects of narrative (p. 28).
  • He questions the assumption that narrators must have a personal consciousness, proposing that narrative authority could derive from collective or impersonal mechanisms (p. 29).
• Critique of Realist Tradition and Victorian Narratives:
  • The so-called “omniscient narrators” of the Victorian realist tradition (e.g., George Eliot and Anthony Trollope) are reinterpreted as embodying a voice of social consensus or a collective consciousness rather than divine omniscience (p. 30).
  • Critics like J. Hillis Miller and Betsy Ermath suggest that this form of narration reflects a shared societal perspective rather than an individual’s godlike authority (p. 31).
• Challenges in Defining “Omniscience”:
  • Culler highlights how critics’ efforts to justify selective “omniscience” often result in convoluted explanations. He emphasizes that narrative effects are better understood through artistic choices rather than presumed narrator motivations (p. 25).
• Effects Provoking “Omniscience” Ascriptions:
  • Culler identifies four narrative practices that lead to the attribution of omniscience:
    1. Authoritative narrative declarations (e.g., opening lines of Emma by Jane Austen).
    2. Inside access to characters’ thoughts, which is exclusive to fiction.
    3. Authorial narrators flaunting creative control (e.g., Tom Jones by Henry Fielding).
    4. Realist narrators presenting themselves as judicious historians (p. 26–30).
• Call for New Critical Vocabulary:
  • Culler concludes by urging critics to discard the misleading concept of “omniscient narrators.” He advocates for alternative terms that better capture the nuanced effects and techniques of narrative fiction (p. 34).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	References
Omniscience	A traditional narrative concept likened to divine knowledge, describing narrators who have complete insight into the fictional world.	Culler, 2004, p. 22
Authorial Omniscience	The notion that authors inherently know everything about their fictional worlds and characters, a perspective Culler critiques.	p. 24
Theological Analogy	The comparison of authors to God, assuming a divine-like omniscience; dismissed by Culler as inadequate for narrative theory.	p. 23
Telepathy	A proposed alternative by Nicholas Royle, emphasizing the imaginative and uncanny transmission of thoughts in narrative fiction.	p. 27
Performative Authoritativeness	The narrative authority achieved through declarative statements that shape the fictional reality rather than reflecting omniscience.	p. 26
Selective Omniscience	A term used to describe narrators who are presumed to know everything but choose to reveal information selectively.	p. 25
Narrative Consensus	The idea that omniscient narration in realist fiction often reflects the collective consciousness of society rather than divine knowledge.	p. 30
Zero Focalization	Gérard Genette’s concept of a narrative perspective without a clear focalizing consciousness, often attributed to omniscient narration.	p. 28
Limited Point of View	A technique where the narrative is restricted to the perspective of one or more characters, contrasted with omniscience.	p. 27
Authorial Narration	Narration where the narrator aligns with the author, often breaking the fourth wall or highlighting their creative control.	p. 30
Heterodiegetic Narration	A narrative mode where the narrator exists outside the story world; frequently associated with omniscient narration.	p. 30
Collective Consciousness	A perspective that narrators in realist fiction embody shared societal viewpoints rather than individual omniscience.	p. 31
Imaginative Recuperation	The creative process of filling gaps in narrative knowledge, used to describe narrators accessing characters’ inner lives.	p. 28
Narrative Authority	The perceived reliability and control of a narrator over the story, often conflated with omniscience.	p. 26
Extradiegetic Narrator	A narrator who exists outside the narrative levels of the story; often described as omniscient but reinterpreted by Culler.	p. 29

Contribution of “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler

Literary Work	Critique Using Culler’s Framework	References from Article
Emma by Jane Austen	– The opening line (“Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich…”) demonstrates performative authority, not divine omniscience.	Culler, 2004, p. 26
	– The narrator’s claims about characters are conventions of the fictional world rather than reflections of superhuman knowledge.	p. 27
Middlemarch by George Eliot	– The narrator acts as a historian, unraveling human lives with focused reflection, not omniscience.	p. 30
	– The narrative authority stems from judicious rumination and societal consensus rather than an all-knowing perspective.	p. 31
As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner	– The novel’s multiple focalized perspectives showcase “omniscience with teeth,” challenging the concept of a single omniscient narrator.	p. 27
	– Culler suggests that access to multiple consciousnesses can be explained without invoking omniscience, favoring focalized viewpoints.	p. 28
Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy	– The opening generalization about families (“All happy families are alike…”) highlights insights about the human condition but lacks inherent omniscient authority.	p. 27
	– The narrator’s statements reflect philosophical and moral observations, which are open to readers’ interpretation rather than divine truth.	p. 28

Criticism Against “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler

• Overemphasis on Theological Analogy:
  • Some critics argue that Culler’s rejection of omniscience overly focuses on its theological roots, neglecting the practical ways the term has evolved in literary analysis.
• Reduction of Narrative Complexity:
  • Culler’s framework risks oversimplifying narrative techniques by dismissing the concept of omniscience entirely, potentially ignoring its explanatory power in certain contexts.
• Neglect of Readerly Interpretation:
  • While emphasizing performative authority, Culler underexplores how readers actively interpret “omniscience” as a literary device, which remains significant in narrative understanding.
• Undermining Traditional Narratology:
  • By challenging foundational narratological concepts, such as omniscience and zero focalization, Culler’s critique may alienate traditional narrative theorists who find value in these terms.
• Ambiguity in Alternative Frameworks:
  • The introduction of “telepathy” and other alternatives may lack the clarity and broad applicability that “omniscience” provides, leading to potential confusion.
• Potential Overgeneralization:
  • Culler’s critique of omniscience in realist and modernist traditions might not account for diverse global literary practices where the concept remains relevant.
• Limited Engagement with Realist Fiction:
  • Critics suggest that his dismissal of omniscience in realist fiction (e.g., George Eliot) underestimates its role in establishing narrative coherence and reader trust.
• Neglect of Historical Contexts:
  • The critique does not sufficiently consider how omniscience as a narrative tool reflects changing historical, cultural, and ideological contexts in literature.
• Risk of Disregarding Authorial Intent:
  • By focusing on the effects of narrative authority, Culler’s argument minimizes the role of authorial intent in shaping omniscient narration.

Representative Quotations from “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The idea of omniscience has not received much critical scrutiny.”	Culler highlights the lack of detailed theoretical examination of the concept of omniscience, calling for a reevaluation of its assumptions and utility in narrative theory.
“‘Omniscient narration’ becomes a kind of dumping ground filled with a wide range of distinct narrative techniques.”	Culler critiques how the term has been used imprecisely, lumping together disparate narrative strategies without distinguishing their unique effects.
“The analogy between God and the author… obfuscates the various phenomena that provoke us to posit the idea [of omniscience].”	He challenges the theological analogy between divine omniscience and authorial control, suggesting it adds little to the understanding of narrative effects and creates unnecessary conflations.
“Omniscience, being a superhuman privilege, is logically not a quantitative but a qualitative and indivisible attribute.”	Culler emphasizes the indivisible nature of omniscience, critiquing attempts to describe partial or selective omniscience in narrators.
“The novelist can simply declare what will be the case in this world. To call this ‘omniscience’ is extraordinarily misleading.”	He critiques the term for conflating narrative authority (the power to define fictional worlds) with knowledge, proposing that such authority stems from linguistic and performative conventions rather than all-knowingness.
“Omniscience may have become too familiar for us to think shrewdly about it.”	Culler suggests that the concept’s ubiquity has dulled its critical effectiveness, encouraging scholars to seek alternative vocabularies to better capture narrative effects.
“Imaginative recuperation of details…need not be hindered by physical limitations.”	He introduces alternatives like telepathy to describe how narrators convey knowledge of characters’ inner lives, distancing such acts from theological implications of divine omniscience.
“The assertion of ignorance and the occasional flaunting of omnipotence… suggest that omniscience is not a good label for this sort of narration.”	Culler argues that playful and self-aware narrative techniques often attributed to omniscience are better understood as authorial creativity and do not reflect true omniscient qualities.
“Narrators tend to have pervasive presence rather than transcendent vision.”	Critiquing the term “omniscient narrator,” Culler points out that narrative voices often reflect a collective or societal consciousness, rather than an all-knowing divine figure.
“Our habit of naturalizing… details of narrative by making the consciousness of an individual their source… generates a fantasy of omniscience, which we then find oppressive.”	He critiques the critical tendency to ascribe omniscience to narrators, arguing it oversimplifies complex narrative effects and fosters oppressive interpretive frameworks.

Suggested Readings: “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler

1. Culler, Jonathan. “Omniscience.” Narrative, vol. 12, no. 1, 2004, pp. 22–34. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20107328. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
2. Olson, Barbara K. “‘Who Thinks This Book?’ Or Why the Author/God Analogy Merits Our Continued Attention.” Narrative, vol. 14, no. 3, 2006, pp. 339–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20107394. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
3. Dawson, Paul. “The Return of Omniscience in Contemporary Fiction.” Narrative, vol. 17, no. 2, 2009, pp. 143–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25609360. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
4. Dolis, John. Comparative Literature Studies, vol. 45, no. 3, 2008, pp. 401–04. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25659674. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
5. Nelles, William. “Omniscience for Atheists: Or, Jane Austen’s Infallible Narrator.” Narrative, vol. 14, no. 2, 2006, pp. 118–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30219642. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler

“Lyric, History, and Genre” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in New Literary History in its 40th volume, published in the autumn of 2009 by Johns Hopkins University Press. This article addresses the interplay between lyric poetry, historical development, and the concept of genre, reflecting on their implications for literary theory and criticism. Culler explores how genre functions not as a rigid classification but as a dynamic, historical construct, evolving through cultural and intellectual contexts. He critiques traditional, essentialist views of genres, emphasizing instead their open-ended, socially and historically mediated nature. The article underscores the lyric’s unique performative and temporal aspects, positioning it as a central yet historically complex literary form. Culler’s insights contribute significantly to debates on genre theory, challenging the modern tendency to narrowly frame lyric poetry within dramatic or mimetic models, thus enriching our understanding of its broader historical and theoretical dimensions.

Summary of “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Key Context or Example
Genre	A historical and cultural construct, not a timeless or logical category. Genres evolve through social, cultural, and literary practices.	Ralph Cohen’s concept of genres as open systems (Cohen, 1986).
Lyric	A literary genre characterized by its performativity, focus on enunciation, and a “lyric present” rather than narrative temporality.	Distinguished from dramatic monologues and mimetic modes; Romantic vs Classical views on lyric (Hegel, 1975).
Apostrophe	A figure of address turning to nonhuman, absent, or abstract entities, central to the performative and imaginative nature of lyric poetry.	Examples include Blake’s The Sick Rose and Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind.
Lyric Present	The immediacy and temporal deferral created by lyric poetry, enabling resonance with future readers while focusing on the present moment of enunciation.	Described as part of lyric’s temporal distinctiveness (Culler, 1981).
Performativity	The idea that lyric poetry enacts or performs its meaning, rather than merely describing or representing.	Seen in apostrophic address or enunciation that “creates what it names” (Culler, 2009).
Empirical vs. Theoretical Genres	Empirical genres are observed or practiced classifications (e.g., ballads, novels), while theoretical genres are based on fundamental principles of language or thought.	Northrop Frye’s distinction between radical forms of presentation (e.g., drama, epic, lyric) (Frye, 1957).
Generic Transformation	The process by which genres change and adapt over time, reflecting social and cultural shifts.	The Excellent Ballad of George Barnwell evolving from ballad to prose chapbook to tragedy (Cohen, 1986).
Lyricization	The process through which non-lyric texts (e.g., letters, miscellanies) are framed and read as lyric poetry.	Virginia Jackson’s critique of Emily Dickinson’s critical reception (Jackson, 2005).
Triangulated Address	The structure in which lyric addresses an addressee indirectly, creating a complex relationship between speaker, addressee, and audience.	Sappho’s invocation of Aphrodite, involving quoted dialogues within the poem (Carson, 2003).
Open Systems of Genre	Genres are defined relationally and are open-ended, evolving through historical moments and cultural practices rather than rigid definitions.	Ralph Cohen’s idea that genres adapt to include new members and redefine themselves over time (Cohen, 1986).
Mimetic vs. Non-Mimetic Lyric	Mimetic lyric imitates experience or consciousness (Romantic view), while non-mimetic lyric focuses on performative enunciation and apostrophic address.	Hegel’s romantic theory of lyric vs critiques by René Wellek and others (Hegel, 1975; Wellek, 1970).
Dramatic Monologue	A model for understanding lyric as a fictional representation of a speaker’s consciousness and situation, often reconstructed novelistically.	Critiqued by Culler for reducing lyric to narrative and neglecting performative aspects (Langbaum, 1957).
Lyric as Social Gesture	Lyric can function as a social act, engaging cultural or communal ideas, rather than purely personal or solipsistic expression.	Waller’s Go, Lovely Rose as an example of lyric involving social indirection.
Radical of Presentation	Fundamental modes of literary presentation (e.g., acting, speaking, singing, or writing) that underpin genre distinctions.	Northrop Frye’s theoretical framework for genres (Frye, 1957).

Contribution of “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler

Literary Work	Critique Through Culler’s Framework	Key Theoretical Insights from Culler
Blake’s The Sick Rose	The apostrophic address to the rose establishes it as a sentient addressee, creating a performative moment that foregrounds the poetic act.	Apostrophe as a performative act that constitutes poetic meaning (Culler, 2009).
Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind	The wind is addressed as a powerful, almost divine force, and the poet’s apostrophe functions to merge the speaker’s identity with the wind’s transformative energy.	Apostrophe as a means of creating a transformative relationship between speaker and addressee (Culler, 2009).
Sappho’s Invocation of Aphrodite	The lyric triangulates address among the speaker, the goddess Aphrodite, and the audience, showcasing the complexity of poetic communication in the lyric tradition.	Triangulated address as a key feature of lyric, connecting speaker, addressee, and audience (Culler, 2009).
Waller’s Go, Lovely Rose	The rose becomes a metonym for the speaker’s argument about beauty and temporality, where the indirect apostrophic address softens a potentially direct critique of the beloved.	Lyric as a social gesture; apostrophe as a strategy for gracious and indirect communication (Culler, 2009).

Criticism Against “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler

Representative Quotations from “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Genres are historical assumptions constructed by authors, audiences, and critics to serve communicative and aesthetic purposes.”	This statement emphasizes that genres are not static or natural categories but rather historical constructs shaped by societal and artistic needs. It reflects Culler’s argument that understanding genres requires acknowledging their evolving roles within social and cultural contexts.
“The lyric is characterized by its performativity, addressing an audience in a specific lyric present.”	Culler highlights the temporal immediacy of lyric poetry, suggesting that it functions as an event rather than a representation of past occurrences. This perspective shifts focus to the experiential and dynamic aspects of reading lyric poetry.
“The notion of apostrophe represents what is most embarrassing in lyric: the pretension to vatic action.”	Here, Culler critiques the figure of apostrophe as a bold and perhaps uncomfortable poetic act, where the poet assumes an almost prophetic role. This challenges readers to confront the lyric’s ambitious attempts to animate and interact with its subjects.
“Genres are open systems, defined in relation to one another.”	Culler adopts Ralph Cohen’s theory of genre as fluid and relational rather than rigid and isolated. This reinforces the idea that genres gain meaning through their interaction with other forms, constantly undergoing transformation.
“Reading something as an epic or as a novel involves sets of conventions and expectations even when the text is contesting or undermining them.”	This quotation underscores the importance of generic conventions in shaping both the production and reception of literature. Even when texts defy generic norms, these conventions remain integral to their interpretation.
“Lyric’s historical construction involves both poets and critics, as they contribute to its evolving definitions and boundaries.”	Culler acknowledges the collaborative role of poets and critics in shaping the concept of lyric over time. This perspective situates lyric as a genre deeply entwined with historical and critical discourse.
“Apostrophe works to constitute a poetic speaker taking up an active relationship to a world or element of the world constructed as addressee.”	This explanation of apostrophe emphasizes its function in creating a connection between the poet and their subject, showcasing lyric as a performative and relational genre.
“The test of generic categories is how far they help relate a work to others and activate aspects of works that make them rich, dynamic, and revealing.”	Culler defines the purpose of genre as facilitating connections between works and illuminating their unique qualities. This statement highlights genre’s critical function in literary analysis.
“The lyric strives to be an event in the special temporality of the lyric present.”	Culler reiterates the centrality of the “lyric present,” where the poem exists as an ongoing, immediate interaction. This concept reframes lyric as an active, unfolding experience rather than a static object.
“Foregrounding the generic category of lyric helps promote the possibility of comparisons with other traditions.”	By advocating for a broad conception of lyric, Culler argues for its potential to bridge different literary traditions, encouraging a transhistorical and cross-cultural understanding of the genre.

Suggested Readings: “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler

1. Culler, Jonathan. “Lyric, History, and Genre.” New Literary History, vol. 40, no. 4, 2009, pp. 879–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40666452. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
2. Alvergue, José Felipe. “Lyric Redress: The Racial Politics of Voice and American Personhood.” Criticism, vol. 60, no. 2, 2018, pp. 221–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.13110/criticism.60.2.0221. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
3. BUTTERFIELD, ARDIS. “WHY MEDIEVAL LYRIC?” ELH, vol. 82, no. 2, 2015, pp. 319–43. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24477788. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
4. ECKERT, LINDSEY. “READING LYRIC’S FORM: THE WRITTEN HAND IN ALBUMS AND LITERARY ANNUALS.” ELH, vol. 85, no. 4, 2018, pp. 973–97. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26802860. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler

“Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in 2010 in the journal PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association). This seminal work investigates the evolution and shifts in literary criticism, tracing its roots from ancient modes of judgment in poetic performances to modern interpretive frameworks. Culler explores critical transformations, particularly the break from classical genre-based criticism to a focus on literature as a mode of expression. He draws heavily on theorists like Jacques Rancière to articulate this paradigmatic shift and its implications for literary criticism. The essay underscores how the transition from mimesis to expression has diversified the field, giving rise to a wide array of interpretive methods, such as structuralism and poststructuralism, that engage with texts as dynamic systems of meaning. Its importance lies in framing the challenges and opportunities for criticism in the 21st century, particularly amidst technological advancements and changing conceptions of texts and media. Culler’s insights provoke deeper inquiry into the purpose and methodology of literary criticism, encouraging scholars to reconceptualize its role in a rapidly evolving intellectual and cultural landscape.

Summary of “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Source/Context in the Essay
Mimesis	Representation of reality through art and literature, linked to genre-specific norms and rhetorical analysis.	Central to early literary criticism, which evaluated texts based on their alignment with genre norms and their ability to imitate life (Ford, 2002; Rancière, 1998).
Expression	Literature as a medium for expressing language, emotions, or societal conditions, breaking from mimesis.	A shift in the late 18th and 19th centuries; emphasizes language and meaning over genre-specific propriety (Rancière, p. 49).
Telos	The end goal or purpose of a genre, often defining its evaluative criteria.	Used in classical criticism to determine the success of literary works based on genre-specific aims (Culler, 2010, p. 905).
Structuralism	A theoretical approach focusing on systems and codes that enable meaning in texts.	Criticism turned to analyzing cultural and linguistic systems instead of focusing solely on individual works or authorship (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Interpretative Criticism	The task of deciphering and explaining the hidden or implied meanings in texts.	Emerged as the dominant paradigm in modern literary criticism, focusing on what works “mean” (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Mute Text	The idea that a literary work does not “speak” explicitly, requiring critics to uncover its meanings.	Central to modern interpretative criticism, where critics articulate the “mute” expressions of texts (Rancière, 1998, p. 49).
Performative Literature	Viewing literary works as events or acts rather than static objects.	Discussed in the context of performance studies and interactive forms like rap music (Culler, 2010, p. 907).
Iterability	The capacity of a text or concept to be repeated in different contexts, producing new meanings.	Key to Derridean deconstruction, focusing on the repetition and reinterpretation of literary texts (Klein, 2010).
Narratology	The study of narrative structures and their impact on meaning and reader interpretation.	Revived through cognitive approaches and seen as an alternative to hermeneutics (Fludernik, 2010).
Cultural Codes	Social and cultural systems that underpin the creation and interpretation of meaning.	Structuralism emphasized analyzing these codes to understand literature as a cultural product (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Aesthetic Categories	Frameworks for evaluating artistic and literary experiences, often tied to emotions and cultural trends.	Examples include “cute,” “zany,” and “interesting,” introduced by Sianne Ngai to address contemporary aesthetics (Ngai, 2005).
Digital Texts	Interactive and mutable texts enabled by electronic media, challenging traditional literary paradigms.	Explored through Katherine Hayles’ work on electronic systems and the evolving reader-text interaction (Hayles, 2007, p. 910).
Philology	The study of language and textual meaning through attention to historical and linguistic details.	Reclaimed as a future-oriented discipline focusing on the fissures and divisions within language (Hamacher, 2010).
Revision Narrative	The study of how texts are revised and reinterpreted across cultures and time, revealing cultural mutability.	Highlighted in John Bryant’s analysis of Moby-Dick and its adaptations (Bryant, 2010).
Hauntology	The presence of the past in contemporary texts and contexts, often linked to trauma and memory.	Explored in Shelly Rambo’s work on trauma theory and spectrality (Rambo, 2010).

Contribution of “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler

Literary Work	Theoretical Framework	Critique/Interpretation	Reference from Culler
Flaubert’s Madame Bovary	Expressive Poetics	The novel can be analyzed as a reflection of the emerging 19th-century focus on individual emotions and societal tensions. It moves beyond mimetic norms to explore the language of alienation and despair.	“The new conception of literature observable in Flaubert focuses on internal tensions of modern reflection” (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Melville’s Moby-Dick	Revision Narrative	Analyzing revisions and adaptations of the text, such as Ray Bradbury’s cinematic version, reveals cultural shifts in interpreting themes of colonialism and race.	“Revisions of texts are culturally symptomatic, revealing mutability through which societies reinterpret themselves” (Bryant, 2010).
Joyce’s Ulysses	Derridean Deconstruction	Joyce’s fragmented narrative style illustrates iterability, where meanings shift through repetition and reinterpretation, challenging notions of textual singularity.	“Singularity is necessarily divided, taking part in the generality of meaning without being closed on itself” (Klein, 2010, p. 909).
Celan’s Poetry	Trauma Theory and Hauntology	Celan’s work can be read as haunted by the historical trauma of the Holocaust, with spectral presences embodying memory and loss in language.	“Hauntology addresses dimensions of memory and trauma, particularly in poetic works like Celan’s” (Rambo, 2010).

Criticism Against “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler

• Overemphasis on Historical Evolution
  Critics argue that Culler’s extensive focus on the historical evolution of criticism—such as the transition from mimesis to expression—overshadows more contemporary and urgent theoretical concerns, limiting its applicability to present-day challenges.
• Limited Engagement with Non-Western Literatures
  The essay predominantly centers on Western literary traditions and paradigms, failing to adequately address critical frameworks from non-Western or marginalized literatures, which are increasingly vital in global literary discourse.
• Ambiguity in Theoretical Future
  While Culler raises questions about the future of criticism, he offers limited concrete solutions or new paradigms, leaving many of his inquiries unresolved and overly abstract.
• Neglect of Practical Criticism
  The essay focuses on theoretical developments but provides minimal guidance on applying these paradigms to practical criticism, leaving a gap for readers seeking actionable methods.
• Reliance on Established Theorists
  Critics note that Culler heavily references established figures such as Derrida, Rancière, and Foucault, which may reinforce traditional academic hierarchies rather than exploring emerging or alternative voices.
• Overgeneralization of Paradigms
  Some scholars suggest that Culler’s categorization of paradigms, such as expressive poetics and structuralism, oversimplifies their diverse and nuanced applications in literary criticism.
• Neglect of Aesthetic Pleasure
  The essay downplays the role of aesthetic pleasure and the reader’s emotional engagement with literature, which many believe remains central to literary studies.
• Technological Challenges Underexplored
  While Culler mentions the impact of digital texts, critics argue that he fails to fully explore the complexities and implications of technology on literature and criticism in the 21st century.
• Fragmentation of Ideas
  The essay’s structure, which integrates multiple theoretical perspectives, has been critiqued for being overly fragmented, making it difficult to identify a unified thesis or direction.

Representative Quotations from “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Only when singers became ‘poets,’ craftsmen of words rather than performers, could a properly ‘poetic’ literary criticism emerge as the special knowledge…”	Highlights the historical evolution of literary criticism from oral traditions to text-based analysis, emphasizing the transformation of literature into an artifact that invites systematic critique.
“This cosmological change can be expressed strictly as the term-by-term reversal of the four principles that structured the system of literature as mimesis.”	Describes the shift from classical concepts of literature (mimesis) to modern paradigms, where language, equality of representation, and writing replace fiction, genre norms, and rhetorical propriety.
“Criticism may, of course, still pursue the evaluative project, but…it must inquire what the norms should be for the evaluation of a given text.”	Explains the broadened scope of criticism in the post-normative era, where critics question the very foundations of their evaluative criteria.
“The work is mute, and the critic must speak for it, unfolding the hidden meaning.”	Reflects the interpretive task of criticism under the expressive model, emphasizing the role of critics in uncovering and articulating the deeper significance of a literary work.
“The expressive model opens a vast range of possibilities for literary criticism, enabling the efflorescence of criticism in the second half of the twentieth century.”	Suggests how expressive paradigms have expanded the domain of literary criticism, allowing diverse approaches and interpretations.
“Will criticism continue to be primarily interpretive? Are there new models of interpretation?”	Raises questions about the future direction of literary criticism, urging a reevaluation of its priorities and methodologies in the face of changing cultural and technological landscapes.
“Electronic texts can literalize (and perhaps trivialize) this condition. More significantly, they can lead to a ‘reimagining of the literary work as an instrument to be played.’”	Considers the impact of digital technology on literature, highlighting the potential for interactive texts to reshape our understanding of literary works as dynamic and evolving entities.
“In the humanities, one might conjecture, we prefer to advance through rereading, reinterpreting texts and movements of the past.”	Suggests that progress in literary criticism often arises from revisiting and recontextualizing historical texts, underlining the iterative nature of critical thought.
“Structuralism…laid the groundwork for these investigations…encouraged attention to reading and to such matters as the cultural construction of gender.”	Credits structuralism for its pivotal role in establishing the theoretical foundations of various critical fields, such as gender and cultural studies, despite its later critiques.
“Literary criticism, in particular, advances by rereading, which is also invention, of course, but which legitimizes itself under the banner of fidelity…”	Highlights the dual nature of literary criticism as both interpretative and creative, where reengagement with texts reveals overlooked or misinterpreted elements.

Suggested Readings: “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler

1. Dawson, Paul. “Style, the Narrating Instance, and the ‘Trace’ of Writing.” Style, vol. 47, no. 4, 2013, pp. 466–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/style.47.4.466. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
2. CULLER, JONATHAN. “Introduction: Critical Paradigms.” PMLA, vol. 125, no. 4, 2010, pp. 905–15. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41058288. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
3. Culler, Jonathan. “Problems in the ‘History’ of Contemporary Criticism.” The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association, vol. 17, no. 1, 1984, pp. 3–15. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1315457. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
4. Culler, Jonathan. “Lyric, History, and Genre.” New Literary History, vol. 40, no. 4, 2009, pp. 879–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40666452. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Introduction: “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe

“On The Sublime” by Longinus, translated by W.H. Fyfe and revised by Donald Russell, first appeared in 1995 under Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England. As a foundational work of literary criticism, “On The Sublime” explores the nature and sources of elevated writing, providing profound insights into how sublimity in literature transcends persuasion to transport readers or listeners into a state of exalted emotional and intellectual experience. The text critiques earlier treatments of the sublime, particularly those lacking practical guidance, emphasizing that true greatness in literature combines innate genius with methodical refinement. This blend of nature and art enables expressions that are not merely convincing but transformative. Longinus discusses essential elements of the sublime, such as grandeur of conception, emotional intensity, and stylistic excellence, alongside practical techniques like figurative language and rhythmical harmony. The treatise remains a cornerstone of literary theory, influencing the Romantic era’s emphasis on imagination and elevating the pursuit of literary excellence as a means of touching the divine in human expression.

Summary of “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe

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Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Description	Example/Context
Sublimity	A consummate excellence in language that elevates the soul and inspires awe and wonder.	“Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind” – lofty ideas, powerful emotions, and majestic expression.
Grand Conceptions	Powerful and noble thoughts that elevate the mind and inspire sublimity.	Homer’s depiction of the gods’ battle in the Iliad.
Vehement Emotion	Genuine and appropriately placed emotions that infuse writing with intensity and sublimity.	Euripides’ portrayal of Orestes’ madness in Orestes.
Figures of Thought	Rhetorical and stylistic devices used to amplify emotional and intellectual impact.	Apostrophe: Demosthenes’ “By those who risked their lives at Marathon.”
Figures of Speech	Specific linguistic techniques that enhance expression, such as metaphors and similes.	Hyperbole in Herodotus’ description of the Thermopylae battle.
Nobility of Diction	The choice of words that are majestic, weighty, and suitable for the subject.	Sappho’s description of love’s overwhelming sensations.
Word Arrangement	The use of harmonious and rhythmic word placement to create grandeur and emotional resonance.	Demosthenes’ use of dactylic rhythms in his orations.
Amplification	Accumulating and expanding ideas to emphasize their grandeur and impact.	Thucydides’ descriptions of battles, focusing on their escalating intensity.
Visualization (Phantasia)	The vivid presentation of scenes or events, creating strong imagery in the audience’s mind.	Homer’s detailed portrayal of Ajax’s prayer in the Iliad.
Hyperbaton	Deliberate disruption of natural word order to reflect emotional turmoil or intensity.	Dionysius’ speech in Herodotus: “Our fortunes stand upon a razor’s edge.”
Tumidity	The fault of overblown or exaggerated expression that detracts from true sublimity.	Gorgias’ description of Xerxes as “the Persian Zeus.”
Frigidity	A style that is excessively formal, affected, or devoid of genuine feeling.	Timaeus’ overly intellectual and forced metaphors.
Puerility	An overly elaborate or precious style that sacrifices grandeur for triviality.	Attempts to be excessively clever, as seen in minor Hellenistic writers.
Natural Genius vs. Art	The debate over whether sublimity is innate or can be cultivated through rules and practice.	“Genius needs the curb as often as the spur” – the importance of art in refining natural talent.
Imitation	The practice of emulating great authors and thinkers to achieve sublimity.	Plato’s borrowing and adapting of Homeric grandeur in his philosophical dialogues.
Emotion in Style	The idea that sublime writing must evoke powerful emotional responses in the audience.	“Mother, I beg you, do not drive against me / These snake-like women” – Euripides’ Orestes.
Rhythm and Melody	The impact of rhythmic flow and melodious arrangement of words in creating sublimity.	The use of dactylic rhythms in Homer and Demosthenes’ orations to enhance grandeur.
Hyperbole	A rhetorical device that exaggerates for emphasis but must remain credible to be effective.	Thucydides describing soldiers drinking muddy and bloody water during a retreat.
Critique of Contemporary Style	An analysis of the decline in sublime writing due to moral decay, lack of freedom, and over-reliance on artifice.	Longinus critiques the “flatterers” and “slavery of thought” in contemporary literature.
Timelessness of Sublimity	Sublimity as a universal quality that transcends time and cultural differences.	Sublime works are those that “please all people at all times.”

Contribution of “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe

Literary Work	Aspect Critiqued	Analysis Through Longinus’ “On The Sublime”	Key Reference from Longinus
Homer’s Iliad	Grandeur of Imagery	Longinus praises Homer’s ability to create vast and vivid imagery that evokes awe and grandeur, achieving sublimity.	“Homer, like the ocean, always remains grand even when he subsides” (Ch. 9).
Demosthenes’ Oratory	Emotional Power	Longinus admires Demosthenes’ ability to convey profound emotional intensity, lifting his speeches to the sublime through passion and forceful rhetoric.	“The true sublime resides in emotion and thought” (Ch. 7).
Sappho’s Poetry	Effective Use of Pathos	Sappho’s emotional expressions, especially in her Ode to Anactoria, are highlighted as models of sublimity due to their precision and intensity in conveying human passion.	“Sappho’s fragment stirs the soul through the intensity of emotion” (Ch. 10).
Plato’s Philosophical Dialogues	Sublimity of Thought	Longinus appreciates Plato’s philosophical writing for its lofty ideas and moral vision, achieving sublimity through intellectual depth rather than linguistic ornamentation.	“Plato often reaches sublime heights by the nobility of his thoughts” (Ch. 12).

Criticism Against “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe

• Subjectivity in Defining Sublimity: Critics argue that Longinus’ definition of sublimity relies heavily on subjective criteria, such as personal emotional response, making it less applicable as a universal standard.
• Ambiguity in Core Concepts: The treatise lacks a clear and systematic definition of what constitutes sublimity, blending moral, intellectual, and aesthetic elements without clear boundaries.
• Fragmented Structure: The incomplete nature of the text leaves many ideas undeveloped, leading to interpretive challenges and speculation about Longinus’ full intentions.
• Overemphasis on Rhetoric: Some scholars critique Longinus for focusing predominantly on rhetorical texts, thus marginalizing other forms of literary sublimity, such as narrative or drama.

Criticism Against Its Relevance

• Limited Scope in Literary Application: The examples and analysis are largely confined to classical texts, making the principles less directly applicable to diverse literary traditions and modern works.
• Neglect of Non-Western Traditions: Critics point out that Longinus’ framework excludes or fails to address the aesthetic and literary traditions of non-Western cultures, reflecting a Eurocentric bias.

Criticism Against The Translation by W. H. Fyfe

• Loss of Nuance in Translation: Some scholars believe that Fyfe’s translation, while eloquent, occasionally sacrifices the precision of Longinus’ original Greek phrasing.
• Historical Contextualization: Fyfe’s interpretation of Longinus has been critiqued for not adequately situating the work within its broader historical and philosophical context, potentially altering its meaning.

Criticism Against Methodology

• Overreliance on Classical Exemplars: Longinus’ repeated citation of classical authors, such as Homer and Plato, may alienate readers seeking examples beyond the Greek and Roman literary canon.
• Moralistic Undertones: The association of sublimity with moral greatness is seen as problematic by some, as it conflates aesthetic judgment with ethical considerations.

Representative Quotations from “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind.”	Longinus asserts that true sublimity in writing reflects the grandeur and nobility of the author’s mind. A lofty thought expressed eloquently mirrors the author’s intellectual and moral greatness.
“The effect of genius is not to persuade the audience but rather to transport them out of themselves.”	Sublimity is more than mere persuasion—it inspires and elevates the audience, leaving them awestruck and emotionally moved, transcending ordinary experience.
“Genius needs the curb as often as the spur.”	While natural talent is essential, it must be disciplined by method and structure. Without this balance, raw genius risks excess and incoherence.
“For what is truly great bears repeated consideration; it is difficult, nay, impossible, to resist its effect.”	Sublime works stand the test of time and provoke profound thought. Their impact endures, influencing readers or listeners each time they engage with the text.
“A well-timed flash of sublimity shatters everything like a bolt of lightning.”	Sublimity, when perfectly executed, has an immediate, overwhelming effect akin to the sudden and awe-inspiring power of lightning, striking and captivating the audience instantaneously.
“It is by some natural instinct that we admire, not the small streams … but the Nile, the Danube, the Rhine, and above all the Ocean.”	Longinus emphasizes humanity’s innate admiration for grandeur and magnificence, whether in nature or art. This admiration drives us to value the sublime over the ordinary.
“What is useful or necessary is easily obtained by man; it is always the unusual which wins our wonder.”	Ordinary achievements do not inspire the same admiration as extraordinary ones. The sublime captivates by presenting something extraordinary or transcendent.
“We must consider whether some of these passages have merely some such outward show of grandeur… if all this is peeled off, they may not turn out to be empty bombast.”	Longinus warns against superficial grandeur in writing, which may appear impressive but lacks depth or true substance upon closer examination.
“The true sublime naturally elevates us: uplifted with a sense of proud exaltation, we are filled with joy and pride, as if we had ourselves produced the very thing we heard.”	Sublime works evoke a sense of shared accomplishment and pride in the audience, lifting their spirits and engaging them deeply.
“Weight, grandeur, and urgency in writing are very largely produced by the use of ‘visualizations’ (phantasiai).”	Longinus explains the importance of vivid imagery and mental visualization in achieving sublimity. By making the audience feel as if they are witnessing events firsthand, the writer creates an intense and immediate emotional impact.

Suggested Readings: “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe

1. Godolphin, F. R. B. “The Basic Critical Doctrine of ‘Longinus,’ On the Sublime.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, vol. 68, 1937, pp. 172–83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/283262. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
2. Macksey, Richard. “Longinus Reconsidered.” MLN, vol. 108, no. 5, 1993, pp. 913–34. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2904883. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
3. O’Gorman, Ned. “Longinus’s Sublime Rhetoric, or How Rhetoric Came into Its Own.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 2, 2004, pp. 71–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40232412. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
4. de Jonge, Casper C., and Arjan A. Nijk. “Longinus, On the Sublime 12.4-5: Demosthenes and Cicero.” Mnemosyne, vol. 72, no. 5, 2019, pp. 766–90. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26787697. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
5. Campana, Joseph. “On Not Defending Poetry: Spenser, Suffering, and the Energy of Affect.” PMLA, vol. 120, no. 1, 2005, pp. 33–48. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25486143. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.