Theory Article Summaries Archives

“Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead: Summary and Critique

“Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead first appeared in Critical Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 1, in the early 1990s.

Introduction: “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

“Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead first appeared in Critical Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 1, in the early 1990s. In this work, Snead critiques postmodernist literary theory and its failure to engage with issues of race, particularly in relation to Blackness. He argues that poststructuralist theorists such as Derrida, Barthes, and DeMan, despite their claims of dismantling hierarchies and binaries, perpetuate an exclusionary Eurocentrism that ignores non-Western contributions to intellectual and literary traditions. Snead highlights the paradox wherein postmodernist thought, while deconstructing traditional power structures, continues to operate within a framework that marginalizes Black voices, treating them as either absent or emblematic of otherness without substantive engagement. He extends this critique to postmodernist literature, where Black characters are often depicted as symbolic rather than fully realized individuals. Through detailed analysis, Snead demonstrates how even supposedly progressive literary and theoretical movements can replicate racist exclusions. His work remains crucial in literary studies, compelling scholars to interrogate the racial blind spots within critical theory and the continued dominance of whiteness in intellectual discourse.

Summary of “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

Repression of Race in Literary Criticism
- Snead critiques the academic field of literary criticism for its historical tendency to suppress discussions of race. He describes a “habit of repression, a structure of avoidance” (Snead, p. 32) regarding Blackness in literary discourse.
The Myth of Objectivity in New Criticism
- Initially, Snead believed in the New Critical approach, which emphasized textual autonomy and universal laws, assuming that “blackness, racism, and discrimination took second place” to literary excellence (Snead, p. 32). However, he later realized that this framework implicitly upheld racial biases.
Poststructuralism’s False Promise of Liberation
- Snead initially embraced poststructuralism and deconstruction for their “claims of transforming rigid and habitual systems of value and order in society” (Snead, p. 33). However, he found that poststructuralist theorists such as Derrida and Barthes replicated the same Eurocentric biases, effectively ignoring Black and non-Western intellectual traditions.
Racism in Poststructuralist Theory
- Despite its claims of dismantling hierarchies, poststructuralism “was anything but a theoretical bridge between text and society” (Snead, p. 33). The works of prominent figures such as Barthes, Derrida, and DeMan systematically omitted racial considerations while reinforcing inherited structures of exclusion.
Eurocentric Canon and the Exclusion of Black Voices
- Snead argues that postmodernist theory re-canonizes Western literary traditions, making “reference-points and acknowledged sources of major postmodernists… as white and as Euro-centric as anything offered under the New Criticism” (Snead, p. 33).
Symbolic but Shallow Black Characters in Postmodern Literature
- Black characters in postmodernist literature are often emblematic rather than fully realized figures. Snead critiques works like Ragtime by E.L. Doctorow, where “Coalhouse Walker… is never fully imagined” but instead serves as a literary symbol rather than a character with depth (Snead, p. 34). Similarly, in John Barth’s The End of the Road, the Black character functions as a “witch doctor caricature” (Snead, p. 34).
Historical and Cultural Biases in Western Intellectual Traditions
- Western thought, from Hegel to Saussure, often positions non-Western knowledge systems as inferior. Snead cites Charles Moraz, who dismissed the idea that “Newtonian or Leibnizian invention could have happened in India or with the Indians in America” (Snead, p. 35), revealing an entrenched Eurocentric view of intellectual history.
The Absence of Race in Poststructuralist Discourse
- Snead points out that poststructuralism’s core concern with language and textual analysis results in a “repression of any mention of race” (Snead, p. 37). This avoidance does not eliminate racial bias but instead “tends to re-introduce the repressed term (‘non-Western’) in a dichotomy where it is still placed below the ‘Western’” (Snead, p. 37).
Poststructuralism’s Contradictory Relationship with Non-Western Thought
- Snead identifies the irony in poststructuralist theories of différance, which emphasize deferred meaning. He argues that this concept parallels African rhythms and oral traditions: “Differance is merely another way of saying ‘suspended beats’” (Snead, p. 38). Yet, theorists like Derrida fail to acknowledge such connections, reinforcing the exclusion of Black intellectual traditions.
Conclusion: The Black as a ‘Signifying Absence’
- Snead concludes that postmodernist theory treats Blackness as a “signifying absence, the signifying other” (Snead, p. 39), continuing a long tradition of Eurocentric discourse that either devalues or ignores non-Western thought.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

Theoretical Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference from Snead’s Text
Repression and Avoidance	The systematic exclusion of racial discourse in literary theory, especially in postmodernist thought.	“A habit of repression, a structure of avoidance so imbedded in its traditional ways of thinking” (Snead, p. 32).
New Criticism’s Objectivity Myth	The idea that literary criticism is value-free, focusing only on textual analysis while ignoring race, gender, and class.	“For a fairly brief interval in my life, I… was convinced of the value-free status of ‘close reading’” (Snead, p. 32).
Poststructuralist Anti-Hierarchical Claims	Poststructuralism claims to break down hierarchical structures but paradoxically reaffirms Eurocentric values.	“Much, if not most deconstructionist theory was in fact ostensibly non-racial, but definably racist itself” (Snead, p. 33).
Eurocentrism in Postmodernism	The continued dominance of white European perspectives in literary and theoretical discourse.	“The reference-points and acknowledged sources of major postmodernists were as white and as Eurocentric as anything offered under the New Criticism” (Snead, p. 33).
Symbolic Representation of Blackness	Black characters in postmodernist literature often serve as symbols rather than fully developed individuals.	“Blacks still ‘represent’ otherness and/or dark areas of the white mind” (Snead, p. 34).
Deconstruction and Race	Derrida’s theory of deconstruction, while intended to dismantle hierarchical binaries, fails to engage with racial discourse.	“Poststructuralism’s absolute exclusion of the non-Western… reveals the trace of that non-Western genesis” (Snead, p. 37).
Différance and African Rhythms	The idea of différance (differing and deferring meaning) parallels African rhythm and oral traditions, but poststructuralists ignore this connection.	“Differance is merely another way of saying ‘suspended beats’” (Snead, p. 38).
Logocentrism and Phonocentrism	The prioritization of Western written and spoken discourse over other cultural forms of knowledge.	“That logocentrism which is also a phonocentrism” (Snead, p. 38).
Signifying Absence	The way Blackness is simultaneously referenced and erased in postmodernist theory.	“The black is a signifying absence, the signifying other, in the text of postmodernism” (Snead, p. 39).

Contribution of “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Poststructuralism and Deconstruction

Critique of Deconstruction’s Supposed Universality
- Snead argues that despite claiming to dismantle hierarchies, poststructuralism retains a Eurocentric framework that excludes Black and non-Western perspectives.
- “Much, if not most deconstructionist theory was in fact ostensibly non-racial, but definably racist itself… in the same way as its predecessors had been” (Snead, p. 33).
Challenges Derrida’s Notion of Différance
- Snead identifies parallels between différance and African rhythmic structures, questioning why poststructuralists exclude non-Western traditions.
- “Differance is merely another way of saying ‘suspended beats’” (Snead, p. 38).
Calls Out the Racism of ‘Benign Neglect’
- While classical Western thinkers engaged with race (even in racist ways), poststructuralists often ignore it entirely, reinforcing exclusion.
- “They may have arrived at racist definitions of blackness, too, but at least they did not benignly neglect the issue of race altogether” (Snead, p. 38).

2. New Criticism and Formalism

Exposes the Myth of Literary Objectivity
- Snead critiques New Criticism’s claim of “value-free” close reading, showing how it perpetuates racial exclusions.
- “For a fairly brief interval in my life, I… was convinced of the value-free status of ‘close reading’” (Snead, p. 32).
Challenges the Canon’s Supposed Neutrality
- He argues that both New Criticism and poststructuralism re-canonize Western thinkers while erasing non-Western perspectives.
- “The reference-points and acknowledged sources of major postmodernists were as white and as Eurocentric as anything offered under the New Criticism” (Snead, p. 33).

3. Postcolonial Theory

Critique of Eurocentric Universalism
- Snead highlights how Western theory positions itself as universal while implicitly excluding Black and non-European perspectives.
- “The route whereby ‘human’ is taken to mean ‘white European’ is apparent wherever scholars, philosophers, and critics aim for universals” (Snead, p. 36).
Challenges the Absence of Third-World Epistemologies
- He criticizes postmodernist thinkers for failing to engage with intellectual traditions outside the West.
- “Poststructuralism’s absolute exclusion of the non-Western… reveals the trace of that non-Western genesis” (Snead, p. 37).

4. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Identifies Racism in Theoretical Structures
- Snead exposes how theoretical frameworks that claim neutrality still reinforce racial exclusions.
- “Yet here I am, accusing ‘postmodernist theory and literature’ of racism” (Snead, p. 33).
Critique of ‘Colorblind’ Intellectualism
- He argues that ignoring race does not make a discipline non-racist but instead perpetuates systemic racial erasure.
- “The super-intensive grappling with issues of language… takes the spotlight away from the social referent” (Snead, p. 39).

5. Narrative Theory and Representation Studies

Critique of Black Representation in Postmodern Fiction
- Snead examines how postmodernist literature continues to use Black characters as shallow symbols rather than as fully realized figures.
- “Blacks still ‘represent’ otherness and/or dark areas of the white mind” (Snead, p. 34).
Challenges the Treatment of Blackness as Mere Allegory
- He critiques how even celebrated postmodernist authors, such as Pynchon and Barth, reduce Black figures to literary devices.
- “Coalhouse Walker… is never fully imagined, but… is simply used as a black double for Heinrich von Kleist’s nineteenth-century rebel” (Snead, p. 34).

6. Canon Formation and Cultural Criticism

Exposes the Whitewashing of Literary and Philosophical Traditions
- Snead points out that Western thinkers who influence poststructuralism (Hegel, Freud, Derrida) engage in racial exclusion, either explicitly or through omission.
- “Derrida’s own references… have already described analogous oppositions in terms of ‘non-Western’ versus ‘Western,’ ‘primitive’ versus ‘civilized’ thinking” (Snead, p. 38).
Demands a Rethinking of Literary Meritocracy
- He critiques the assumption that intellectual excellence in literary theory is race-neutral when it is actually shaped by Eurocentric biases.
- “Surely hiring, promotion, publication, and acclaim would follow, based merely on the integrity of the work. In sharp distinction… academia seemed a virtual refuge of meritocracy” (Snead, p. 32).

Examples of Critiques Through “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

Literary Work & Author	Snead’s Critique	Reference from the Article
*E.L. Doctorow – Ragtime* (1974)**	The Black character Coalhouse Walker is not fully developed but is used as a symbolic figure rather than a complex individual.	“Coalhouse Walker, a potentially interesting figure in Ragtime, is never fully imagined, but… is simply used as a black double for Heinrich von Kleist’s nineteenth-century rebel, Michael Kohlhaas” (Snead, p. 34).
*Peter Handke – Short Letter, Long Farewell* (1972)**	The Black elevator operator is a racial stereotype, reflecting the racist imagery common in Hollywood films.	“Peter Handke’s ‘old Negro [elevator] operator’ in Short Letter, Long Farewell differs not at all from racist Hollywood depictions of the same” (Snead, p. 34).
*John Barth – The End of the Road* (1958)**	The character “the Doctor” is portrayed through the racist “witch doctor” trope, reinforcing harmful stereotypes.	“The black character called ‘the Doctor’ in The End of the Road, given his malevolent influence on the main character, is simply an updated ‘witch doctor’ caricature” (Snead, p. 34).
*Thomas Pynchon – Gravity’s Rainbow* (1973)**	While Pynchon’s Black characters are more memorable, they are still primarily used to signify depravity and decadence rather than given narrative depth.	“Thomas Pynchon’s blacks are at least memorable, though often used to signify depravity and decadence” (Snead, p. 34).

Criticism Against “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

1. Overgeneralization of Poststructuralism and Deconstruction

Critics argue that Snead paints poststructuralist theorists like Derrida and Barthes with a broad brush, failing to acknowledge the nuances in their work.
Some scholars note that Derrida, for instance, does engage with non-Western concepts, albeit minimally. His essay “White Mythology” acknowledges the Eurocentrism embedded in Western philosophy.
Snead himself admits that “Of all Derrida’s major essays and readings, only the one entitled ‘La Mythologie Blanche’ even comments upon the implications of its title, and of its own whiteness” (Snead, p. 37).

2. Lack of Engagement with Non-Western Critical Traditions

While Snead critiques the exclusion of Black and non-Western thought, he does not provide substantive engagement with alternative literary or theoretical frameworks from these traditions.
His argument remains centered on critiquing Eurocentric thinkers without offering a clear model for incorporating non-Western intellectual traditions into postmodernist theory.
Some critics argue that Snead’s work, despite its important observations, remains embedded in a Western academic framework rather than actively engaging with alternative epistemologies.

3. Dismissal of Postmodernist Literature’s Self-Critique

Snead critiques postmodernist literature for reducing Black characters to symbols of otherness, but some scholars argue that these works engage in a self-reflexive critique of racial representation.
For example, Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow is often seen as an interrogation of white supremacy, rather than simply a reinforcement of racist tropes.
Critics question whether Snead fully accounts for the irony and metafictional strategies in postmodernist fiction that deliberately expose and critique racial constructs rather than merely perpetuating them.

4. Limited Consideration of Marxist and Materialist Critiques of Race

Snead focuses on poststructuralist theory’s failure to address race but does not sufficiently engage with Marxist or materialist critiques, which analyze race in connection with capitalism and class struggle.
Some scholars argue that a deeper engagement with Marxist literary criticism or Black Marxist thought (such as Cedric Robinson’s Black Marxism) would have strengthened Snead’s argument by situating race within a broader political economy.

5. Insufficient Discussion of Black and Postcolonial Theorists

Snead critiques the absence of race in postmodernist thought but does not extensively engage with Black or postcolonial theorists who have addressed these issues.
For instance, scholars like Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire, and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o had already critiqued the Eurocentrism of Western intellectual traditions.
Some critics argue that Snead could have strengthened his critique by aligning more explicitly with Afrocentric or postcolonial theoretical traditions rather than focusing mainly on deconstructing Western thinkers.

6. Does Not Provide a Clear Alternative to Postmodernist Theory

While Snead effectively critiques the limitations of postmodernist and deconstructionist approaches to race, he does not propose a systematic alternative for incorporating racial and non-Western perspectives into literary theory.
Critics argue that the essay raises important questions but stops short of offering concrete solutions for how literary theory should evolve to address race more fully.

Representative Quotations from “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A habit of repression, a structure of avoidance so imbedded in its traditional ways of thinking…” (Snead, p. 32)	Snead critiques how literary studies have historically suppressed discussions of race, reflecting a broader systemic exclusion of Blackness.
“Poststructuralism’s absolute exclusion of the non-Western… reveals the trace of that non-Western genesis.” (Snead, p. 37)	He argues that while poststructuralism claims to be revolutionary, it continues to erase non-Western intellectual traditions, reinforcing Eurocentrism.
“Much, if not most deconstructionist theory was in fact ostensibly non-racial, but definably racist itself.” (Snead, p. 33)	Snead calls out deconstruction for failing to engage with racial discourse, arguing that its supposed neutrality masks racial exclusion.
“The reference-points and acknowledged sources of major postmodernists were as white and as Euro-centric as anything offered under the New Criticism.” (Snead, p. 33)	He critiques how postmodernist theorists re-canonize European traditions while ignoring or marginalizing non-Western thought.
“Blacks still ‘represent’ otherness and/or dark areas of the white mind.” (Snead, p. 34)	Snead highlights how postmodern literature continues to depict Blackness as symbolic rather than allowing for complex, fully developed Black characters.
“The black is a signifying absence, the signifying other, in the text of postmodernism.” (Snead, p. 39)	He argues that Blackness in postmodernist theory is both present and erased, existing only in the margins as an absent referent.
“Differance is merely another way of saying ‘suspended beats’.” (Snead, p. 38)	Snead critiques Derrida’s différance by drawing a connection between its concept of deferral and African rhythmic structures, which poststructuralists fail to acknowledge.
“Surely hiring, promotion, publication, and acclaim would follow, based merely on the integrity of the work.” (Snead, p. 32)	He critiques the myth of literary meritocracy, showing how systemic racism affects academic recognition.
*“Coalhouse Walker, a potentially interesting figure in Ragtime, is never fully imagined…”* (Snead, p. 34)	He criticizes E.L. Doctorow’s novel for using a Black character as a mere symbol rather than a fully realized individual.
“We all perhaps reveal more by the words we avoid than by the words that we use.” (Snead, p. 39)	Borrowing from Barthes and Freud, Snead argues that postmodernist theorists’ silence on race is itself a revealing act of exclusion.

“Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

“Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic first appeared in 2001 as part of a growing body of interdisciplinary literature that sought to reframe the discussion of race, law, and power in the United States. Published by NYU Press and shaped by decades of legal scholarship and activism, this foundational text introduced readers to the origins, principles, and broader implications of Critical Race Theory (CRT). The book builds upon earlier movements such as civil rights, critical legal studies, and radical feminism, while offering an incisive critique of traditional liberal approaches to race and equality. It asserts that racism is not an anomaly but a normal feature of American society, embedded deeply within its structures and institutions. Delgado and Stefancic underscore key CRT concepts like intersectionality, social construction of race, differential racialization, and the “voice of color” thesis, emphasizing that race is not biologically determined but socially constructed and manipulated to serve dominant interests. Particularly influential in literary theory and cultural studies, CRT’s emphasis on narrative, storytelling, and lived experience challenges canonical modes of representation and legitimizes voices traditionally excluded from discourse. This work’s lasting importance lies in its interdisciplinary reach, serving as a cornerstone for subsequent explorations into race, identity, law, and the power of narrative in shaping collective understanding.

Summary of “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

🔹 1. Racism as Ordinary, Not Aberrational

“Racism is ordinary, not aberrational—‘normal science,’ the usual way society does business, the common, everyday experience of most people of color in this country” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 3).
CRT challenges the assumption that racism is an anomaly and instead emphasizes its systemic, ingrained presence in everyday life.

🔹 2. Interest Convergence & Material Determinism

“Racism advances the interests of both white elites (materially) and working-class people (psychically)” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 3).
This means white society has little motivation to eliminate racism unless it benefits them.

🔹 3. Race as a Social Construct

“Race and races are products of social thought and relations. Not objective, inherent, or fixed… they correspond to no biological or genetic reality” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 3).
CRT emphasizes that race is socially constructed, invented and manipulated based on context.

🔹 4. Microaggressions and Daily Racism

“Social scientists call the event a ‘microaggression,’ by which they mean one of those many sudden, stunning, or dispiriting transactions that mar the days of women and folks of color” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 1).
Even small, often unconscious actions contribute to a larger pattern of racial harm.

🔹 5. Intersectionality and Anti-Essentialism

“No person has a single, easily stated, unitary identity” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 4).
CRT recognizes overlapping identities—race, gender, class, sexuality—and rejects one-size-fits-all categorization.

🔹 6. The Unique Voice of Color

“Minority status… brings with it a presumed competence to speak about race and racism” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 4).
Experiences of people of color provide insights often invisible to white counterparts, justifying the importance of counter-narratives.

🔹 7. Origins in Legal Scholarship and Civil Rights Disillusionment

“CRT sprang up in the mid-1970s, as a number of lawyers, activists, and legal scholars… realized that the heady advances of the civil rights era… had stalled” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 2).
It emerged as a response to the rollback of civil rights reforms and their inadequate reach.

🔹 8. Activist Nature and Transformation

“Unlike some academic disciplines, critical race theory contains an activist dimension… to change [the social situation]” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 2).
CRT is committed to praxis—using knowledge to push for social change, not just analyze structures.

🔹 9. Relationship to Other Movements

“CRT builds on the insights of… critical legal studies and radical feminism… [and] the American radical tradition” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 2).
It is rooted in and influenced by multiple intellectual and political traditions.

🔹 10. Evolving Spin-Off Movements

“New subgroups… include an emerging Asian American jurisprudence, a forceful Latino-critical (LatCrit) contingent, and a feisty queer-crit interest group” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 3).
CRT has diversified into distinct but connected scholarly and activist communities.

🔹 11. Structural Critique of Liberalism

“CRT questions the very foundations of the liberal order, including equality theory, legal reasoning, Enlightenment rationalism, and neutral principles of constitutional law” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 2).
Rather than trusting the law as neutral or fair, CRT interrogates how legal systems uphold power structures.

🔹 12. Racialization Over Time

“Dominant society racializes different minority groups at different times, in response to shifting needs such as the labor market” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 3).
This dynamic racialization supports exploitative systems depending on socio-economic needs.

🔹 13. Evidence of Persistent Racism

“Blacks and Latinos who seek loans, apartments, or jobs are much more apt than similarly qualified whites to be rejected” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 5).
The data backs up CRT’s claim that systemic racism continues to shape real-life outcomes.

🔹 14. Importance of Narrative and Storytelling

“The ‘legal storytelling’ movement urges black and brown writers to recount their experiences with racism and the legal system” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 4).
Storytelling becomes a method to challenge dominant legal and historical narratives.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Quotation (Source)
Microaggression	Subtle, often unintentional acts of racism that occur in everyday interactions.	“…sudden, stunning, or dispiriting transactions that mar the days of women and folks of color” (p. 1).
Ordinariness of Racism	Racism is normal and embedded in everyday life, not an exception.	“Racism is ordinary, not aberrational—‘normal science,’ the usual way society does business” (p. 3).
Interest Convergence	Racial progress occurs only when it aligns with the interests of the white majority.	“Racism advances the interests of both white elites (materially) and working-class people (psychically)” (p. 3).
Social Construction of Race	Race is a socially created category without biological basis, shaped by social and political forces.	“Race and races are products of social thought and relations… not objective, inherent, or fixed” (p. 3).
Differential Racialization	The dominant society racializes different minority groups in different ways depending on historical and economic needs.	“Dominant society racializes different minority groups at different times…” (p. 3).
Intersectionality	People possess multiple, overlapping identities (e.g., race, gender, class) that affect their experiences of oppression and privilege.	“No person has a single, easily stated, unitary identity” (p. 4).
Anti-Essentialism	Rejects the idea that all members of a racial or social group share the same experience or perspective.	“Everyone has potentially conflicting, overlapping identities…” (p. 4).
Voice of Color Thesis	People of color possess unique perspectives on race and law based on their lived experiences.	“Minority status… brings with it a presumed competence to speak about race and racism” (p. 4).
Legal Indeterminacy	There is no single “correct” legal outcome in many cases; results can vary depending on interpretation.	“[Legal cases]… can be decided either way… by emphasizing one line of authority over another” (p. 2).
Revisionist History	Re-examining and challenging traditional historical narratives, especially those that portray progress as linear or neutral.	Implied through critique of “triumphalist history” and reinterpretation of civil rights law (p. 2).
Critical White Studies	Examines whiteness as a racial category and explores white privilege and the social construction of white identity.	“Recently scholars… are examining whites as a group… white privilege…” (p. 5).
Storytelling/Counterstory	The use of personal narratives to challenge dominant legal and cultural discourses that ignore or marginalize minority experiences.	“Urges black and brown writers to recount their experiences… assess law’s master narratives” (p. 4).
Material Determinism	Economic interests play a central role in shaping racial dynamics and preserving systemic racism.	“Racism advances the interests… materially” (p. 3).
Structural Determinism	Social and legal structures are inherently biased in favor of dominant groups and resistant to change.	Mentioned in book organization: “Chapter 2 presents… structural determinism” (p. 5).

Contribution of “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic to Literary Theory/Theories

🔹 1. Narrative Theory / Legal Storytelling

Contribution: CRT introduces storytelling and counterstorytelling as valid and necessary tools to disrupt dominant legal and cultural narratives.
Significance in Literary Theory: It elevates personal narratives, anecdotes, and lived experiences as central forms of knowledge, aligning with literary theories that emphasize subjectivity and voice.
Reference: “The ‘legal storytelling’ movement urges black and brown writers to recount their experiences with racism… to assess law’s master narratives” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 4).

🔹 2. Post-Structuralism / Deconstruction

Contribution: CRT questions the neutrality of language, law, and knowledge, and draws from theorists like Jacques Derrida.
Significance in Literary Theory: It supports the idea that texts (including laws and histories) are not objective, aligning with post-structuralist views that meaning is unstable and power-laden.
Reference: “CRT… questions the very foundations of the liberal order, including… Enlightenment rationalism” (p. 2).

🔹 3. Critical Legal Studies & Literary Indeterminacy

Contribution: Embraces legal indeterminacy—that legal texts can be interpreted multiple ways.
Significance in Literary Theory: This mirrors the idea in literary theory that texts do not have one fixed meaning, but are open to multiple readings.
Reference: “Not every legal case has one correct outcome… one can decide most cases either way” (p. 2).

🔹 4. Intersectionality and Identity Theory

Contribution: CRT foregrounds intersectionality and anti-essentialism, challenging the idea of a single, unified identity.
Significance in Literary Theory: These concepts are vital to feminist and queer literary theory, which critiques fixed identity categories.
Reference: “No person has a single, easily stated, unitary identity” (p. 4).

🔹 5. Postcolonial and Cultural Studies

Contribution: CRT critiques dominant culture’s portrayal of race and racialized bodies through differential racialization and stereotyping.
Significance in Literary Theory: Aligns with postcolonial theory’s focus on representation, colonial discourse, and racial hierarchies in literature.
Reference: “Society racializes different minority groups at different times… Popular images and stereotypes… shift over time” (p. 3).

🔹 6. Reader-Response & Voice-of-Color Thesis

Contribution: CRT’s voice-of-color thesis asserts that marginalized readers bring unique insights to interpreting texts.
Significance in Literary Theory: Resonates with reader-response theory and theories of positional reading, which value the reader’s social and racial position.
Reference: “Minority status… brings with it a presumed competence to speak about race and racism” (p. 4).

🔹 7. Structuralism and Ideology Critique

Contribution: CRT critiques the structural biases of legal and societal systems.
Significance in Literary Theory: This parallels structuralist and Marxist literary theories, which analyze how texts reflect and reinforce ideological systems.
Reference: “CRT… seeks to ascertain how society organizes itself along racial lines and hierarchies” (p. 2).

🔹 8. Revisionist Historiography / Metahistory

Contribution: CRT offers revisionist interpretations of history, challenging “triumphalist” narratives.
Significance in Literary Theory: This aligns with new historicism and metahistorical criticism, which scrutinize how history is written and for whom.
Reference: “Favorable precedent… tends to deteriorate over time, cut back by narrow… interpretation” (p. 2).

🔹 9. Critical Whiteness Studies

Contribution: CRT explores whiteness as a constructed racial identity and locus of power.
Significance in Literary Theory: Informs critical whiteness theory in literature, examining how whiteness is rendered invisible or normative in texts.
Reference: “Critical white studies addresses… whether such a thing as white privilege exists” (p. 5).

🔹 10. Activist Criticism / Transformative Praxis

Contribution: CRT insists on engaged, transformative scholarship, not just abstract critique.
Significance in Literary Theory: Influences activist criticism—approaches that seek real-world change through interpretive work.
Reference: “It not only tries to understand our social situation, but to change it” (p. 2).

Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

Literary Work	CRT Lens Applied	Example of Critique Using CRT Concepts	Relevant CRT Concept
*To Kill a Mockingbird* by Harper Lee	Challenges of liberal legalism and the “white savior” narrative	The novel centers on a white lawyer defending a Black man, yet fails to fully center Black voices or experiences. CRT would critique its reliance on white heroism and its limited challenge to systemic injustice.	Critique of Liberalism, Voice-of-Color Thesis
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Racial anxieties and the construction of whiteness	Tom Buchanan’s remarks about “The Rise of the Colored Empires” reveal anxieties about white decline. CRT would expose the racial undertones of class preservation and how race undergirds Gatsby’s social world.	Critical Whiteness Studies, Social Construction of Race
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	Colonial narratives and dehumanization of Blackness	African characters are voiceless and symbolic rather than human. CRT would critique how the text perpetuates colonial hierarchies by presenting Africa as a backdrop for white moral reflection.	Dehumanization, Racialization, Revisionist History
*Beloved* by Toni Morrison	Counter-narrative and reclaiming voice through historical trauma	Morrison provides a powerful voice of color in narrating the trauma of slavery. CRT would highlight how Beloved revises historical silences, asserting a Black female perspective often erased from official histories.	Voice-of-Color Thesis, Intersectionality, Storytelling

🔍 How CRT Concepts Apply:

Voice-of-Color Thesis: Minoritized writers can articulate experiences and insights inaccessible to white counterparts (Delgado & Stefancic, 2006, p. 4).
Critique of Liberalism: Legal equality without structural reform often upholds racial hierarchies (p. 2).
Social Construction of Race: Race is a fluid, invented concept used for power and control (p. 3).
Critical Whiteness Studies: Whiteness operates as invisible dominance in literature and culture (p. 5).

Criticism Against “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

🔸 1. Accusation of Pessimism

Critics argue CRT is too pessimistic about the permanence of racism in society.
Response in the text: Delgado and Stefancic counter by comparing CRT to medicine: “Is medicine pessimistic because it focuses on diseases and traumas?” (p. 6).

🔸 2. Rejection of Enlightenment Principles

CRT is critiqued for questioning equality theory, rationalism, and neutral legal principles, which are core to Western liberal thought.
Text states: CRT “questions the very foundations of the liberal order” (p. 2), which some view as radical and destabilizing.

🔸 3. Subjectivity over Objectivity

Critics claim CRT relies too heavily on personal narratives and subjective experiences (e.g., legal storytelling), which weakens scholarly neutrality.
CRT, however, argues that counterstories challenge dominant narratives and are essential for revealing hidden structures of racism (p. 4).

🔸 4. Undermining Colorblindness

Some argue CRT rejects the ideal of colorblindness, which they see as crucial for achieving a just society.
CRT responds that colorblindness ignores real power dynamics and only addresses overt racism, not structural inequality (p. 3).

🔸 5. Encouragement of Identity Politics

CRT is accused of promoting identity-based thinking, potentially leading to division rather than unity.
Delgado and Stefancic highlight that intersectionality and anti-essentialism actually deepen understanding of complex social identities (p. 4).

🔸 6. Ideological Bias

Some critics (especially from the political Right) argue CRT reflects a left-wing ideological agenda and is activist rather than analytical.
CRT embraces this, asserting that theory must also aim to transform society, not just interpret it (p. 2).

🔸 7. Relativism and Legal Indeterminacy

The concept of legal indeterminacy—that legal outcomes can be shaped by power and interpretation—is seen as threatening to legal consistency.
CRT uses this to critique how legal systems serve dominant interests, especially in civil rights (p. 2).

🔸 8. Essentialism of the “Voice of Color”

Tension exists within CRT itself between anti-essentialism and the voice-of-color thesis.
Critics argue it risks reducing individuals to their racial identities, though CRT acknowledges this tension (p. 4).

🔸 9. Perceived Lack of Empirical Evidence

Detractors argue CRT relies more on anecdotal experience than empirical, data-driven analysis.
CRT counters that many forms of racism are difficult to quantify and often masked by institutional practices (p. 5).

Representative Quotations from “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Racism is ordinary, not aberrational—‘normal science,’ the usual way society does business…” (p. 3)	This foundational CRT idea challenges the myth that racism is an exception; it is routine and systemic in everyday life and institutions.
2. “Microaggressions… mar the days of women and folks of color” (p. 1)	Highlights how small, often unintentional acts of exclusion or hostility accumulate to reinforce racial hierarchies.
3. “Critical race theory questions the very foundations of the liberal order…” (p. 2)	CRT challenges supposedly ‘neutral’ concepts like equality, legal objectivity, and Enlightenment rationalism, asserting they often mask systemic inequality.
4. “The movement… contains an activist dimension… to change [our social situation]” (p. 2)	CRT is not merely an academic theory; it seeks to transform society by addressing racial injustices actively.
5. “Race and races are products of social thought and relations…” (p. 3)	Rejects the notion that race is biologically real; instead, it’s a social construct used for power and classification.
6. “Minority status… brings with it a presumed competence to speak about race and racism” (p. 4)	The voice-of-color thesis argues that people of color can offer insights into racial issues that white people, due to lack of experience, may not fully grasp.
7. “No person has a single, easily stated, unitary identity” (p. 4)	Emphasizes intersectionality, the idea that identity is multi-layered (e.g., race, gender, class) and cannot be understood through a single lens.
8. “Society racializes different minority groups at different times…” (p. 3)	Refers to differential racialization: society assigns shifting stereotypes and values to racial groups based on political/economic needs (e.g., labor, war).
9. “From conventional civil rights thought, the movement took… the insistence that legal and social theory have practical consequences” (p. 2)	CRT values theory that engages with real-world injustice, rejecting abstract frameworks that don’t address lived experiences.
10. “Consider… that Brown v. Board… may have resulted more from the self-interest of elite whites than a desire to help blacks” (p. 3)	Reflects interest convergence theory: racial progress often occurs only when it benefits white interests. It critiques liberal narratives that overemphasize altruism in civil rights victories.

“Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda: Summary and Critique

“Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda first appeared in 1995 as a chapter in the book Postmodern Legal Movements: Law and Jurisprudence at Century’s End, published by NYU Press.

Introduction: “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

“Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda first appeared in 1995 as a chapter in the book Postmodern Legal Movements: Law and Jurisprudence at Century’s End, published by NYU Press. Minda traces the emergence of Critical Race Theory (CRT) in the late 1980s as a response to the limitations of both traditional civil rights law and the Critical Legal Studies (CLS) movement. Rooted in the lived experiences, cultural narratives, and intellectual traditions of people of color—especially African Americans—CRT offers a race-conscious epistemology that critiques the ostensibly neutral, color-blind legal standards that often reinforce systemic racism. Minda situates CRT within postmodern jurisprudential thought, highlighting its foundational arguments: that race and racism are ingrained in the fabric of legal and social systems, that experiential knowledge from marginalized communities must be central to legal scholarship, and that narrative, storytelling, and identity politics are legitimate and necessary tools for exposing racial subordination. The chapter underscores the significance of CRT in transforming both legal analysis and broader literary theory by challenging universalist and meritocratic paradigms. Minda’s account foregrounds figures like Derrick Bell, Richard Delgado, Mari Matsuda, and Kimberlé Crenshaw, who critiqued mainstream legal discourse for its exclusion of minority perspectives and introduced new interpretive practices that link law with culture, identity, and ideology. As a contribution to legal and literary theory, this chapter establishes CRT as a transformative framework that exposes the racial hierarchies embedded within supposedly objective legal structures.

Summary of “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

🔍 Origins and Epistemology of CRT

Experience of People of Color as Legal Epistemology: CRT emerged as a legal theory based on “actual experience, history, culture, and intellectual tradition of people of color” (p. 167).
Race-Conscious Jurisprudence: It calls for “fundamental changes in the way the law constructs knowledge about race” (p. 167).

⚖️ Critique of Color-Blindness and Formal Equality

Legal Equality Measured Against Whiteness: Traditional legal thinking uses “white” as a benchmark to determine equality (p. 167).
Color-Blind Standards Reinforce Racism: CRT argues these standards “convince minorities that racial discrimination can only be eradicated” via meritocracy, which “accord[s] whites and blacks the same formal rights and process” (p. 167–168).
Race as Cultural Identity: CRT views skin color as “a symbol of cultural and personal identity constructed by white society” (p. 168).

📚 Racial Critiques of Traditional Legal Scholarship

Exclusion from Civil Rights Scholarship: Richard Delgado critiqued civil rights literature for being “held captive by a group of elite white ‘imperial scholars’” (p. 169).
Segregated Legal Academia: Mari Matsuda called the system “segregated scholarship,” arguing that “victims of racial oppression have distinct normative insights” (p. 172).
Racial Distinctiveness Thesis: Minority scholars “share an awareness of racial oppression” that provides their scholarship with a unique perspective (p. 172).

📖 Narrative Jurisprudence & Voice of Color

Storytelling as Method: CRT scholars use “allegories, metaphors, chronicles, and parables” to convey the racialized experience (p. 173).
Voice of Color Justified: Like feminist legal scholars, CRT scholars argue that race and gender “are said to be prerequisites for speaking and writing on” discrimination (p. 173).

🧠 Critique of Critical Legal Studies (CLS)

Failure to Address Race: Kimberlé Crenshaw criticized CLS for “fail[ing] to address the reality of racial oppression” (p. 174).
Victim vs. Perpetrator Perspective: Alan Freeman’s analysis of civil rights law showed it focused on “perpetrator perspective,” missing the “experience of racial discrimination and oppression” (p. 175).
Rights as a Double-Edged Sword: Crenshaw argued rights discourse has transformative potential, even if co-opted by liberalism (p. 176).

🎤 The Racial Critiques Debate

Kennedy vs. CRT Scholars: Randall Kennedy criticized CRT’s “race-based standing” as “anti-intellectual” and warned it might “silence important contributions of white race scholars” (p. 176–177).
Defenses of CRT: Critics of Kennedy emphasized that “translation” and cross-cultural understanding are essential in academia (p. 177).
Postmodernism’s Influence: The debate links CRT to “the multicultural discourses of postmodernism” (p. 178).

🧬 Race Consciousness and Identity Politics

Race as Cultural Heritage: Crenshaw and Patricia Williams treat terms like “Black” as reflecting “heritage, experience, and cultural and personal identity” (p. 179).
Race and Deconstruction: CRT uses “deconstruction” (Derrida) to show how binary oppositions like intelligent/unintelligent map onto white/Black (p. 180).
Hegemony and Myth: CRT applies Gramsci’s theory of hegemony to explain how “white norms” become culturally dominant (p. 181).

🌎 Postmodern Nationalism and Multiculturalism

Move Beyond Black-White Binary: CRT recognizes the need to address racism unique to groups like Asian Americans, who “suffer not just generically as persons of color” (p. 183).
Postmodern Nationalism: Advocates like Gary Peller call for racial identity to be understood “not from a fantasized past but through lived cultural practices” (p. 183).
Multivocality of Race: CRT argues for the recognition of “multiple identities and subjective experiences of people of color” (p. 184).

♀️ Intersectionality and Black Feminist Critique

Black Feminist Voices: Black feminists express the need for their “own narratives of the complicated nature posed by the interrelated forces of racism and sexism” (p. 185).
Anita Hill Case: Crenshaw shows how Hill’s identity as a Black woman was suppressed, unlike Thomas’s more resonant appeal to racial imagery (p. 185).

🧩 Final Reflections

Race-Conscious Law as a Necessity: CRT calls for a race-conscious legal theory to “enable different racial groups to live together in a multicultural and racially diverse society” (p. 184).
Critique of Legal Modernism: Postmodern race theory “decenters” universalist and color-blind models in favor of contextualized, identity-based approaches (p. 185).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

Theoretical Term / Concept	Definition / Explanation	Significance in CRT
Race Consciousness	Awareness of how race and racial identity shape social, political, and legal experiences.	Central epistemological tool in CRT; challenges the myth of color-blindness.
Color-Blindness	The idea that the law should treat individuals without regard to race.	Critiqued for ignoring structural racism and maintaining white norms (Minda, p. 168–171).
Meritocracy	A system in which advancement is based solely on ability or talent.	Viewed as a cultural norm that favors white standards and masks inequality (p. 171).
Voice of Color	The belief that people of color have unique insights due to their experiences with racism.	Justifies storytelling as legal method; validates experiential knowledge (p. 173).
Narrative Jurisprudence	The use of stories, allegories, and personal experiences as legal scholarship.	Challenges traditional objective legal writing and brings marginalized voices into legal analysis (p. 173).
Racial Distinctiveness Thesis	The claim that minority scholars bring a distinctive racial perspective to legal issues.	Undermines assumptions of neutrality in legal academia (p. 172).
Segregated Scholarship	The systemic exclusion of minority voices from mainstream legal scholarship.	Exposed by scholars like Matsuda and Delgado (p. 172).
Postmodern Nationalism	Cultural identity defined not by essentialism but by historical and social context.	Promotes pluralism and multiculturalism in legal theory (p. 183–184).
Intersectionality	Analysis of overlapping social identities, especially race and gender.	Central to Black feminist legal critique (e.g., Anita Hill case) (p. 185).
Interest-Convergence Thesis	The idea that racial justice advances only when it aligns with the interests of whites (Derrick Bell).	Used to critique the motivations behind landmark decisions like Brown v. Board (p. 171).
Perpetrator vs. Victim Perspective	Framework by Alan Freeman distinguishing legal views centered on discriminatory intent vs. effects.	CRT favors the victim perspective rooted in lived experience (p. 175).
Deconstruction	A poststructuralist method (from Derrida) used to reveal contradictions in legal and racial categories.	Employed by Crenshaw to expose racial binaries in law (p. 180–181).
Hegemony	Gramsci’s concept of dominance maintained through cultural norms and consent.	Explains internalized racial hierarchies and dominant legal ideologies (p. 181).
Multivocality of Race	Recognition that racial identity is diverse, fluid, and context-dependent.	Counters essentialist and binary racial thinking (p. 184).
Identity Politics	Political positions based on the interests and perspectives of social groups with which people identify.	Used to advocate for group-based legal recognition and critique legal universalism (p. 179).
“Critique of the Critique”	CRT’s challenge to Critical Legal Studies (CLS) for ignoring racial realities.	Highlights limitations of CLS’s race-neutral leftist critiques (p. 174–176).

Contribution of “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda to Literary Theory/Theories

🔹 1. Postmodernism

Undermines Legal Universalism: Minda explains that CRT “rejects the notio[n] that law can be studied in a way that is culturally neutral” (p. 183), aligning with postmodern critiques of objectivity and emphasizing cultural contingency.
Multiplicity of Truths: Postmodern theory holds that truth is fragmented; CRT follows suit by asserting that “truth is somewhere, if anywhere, in the symphony of experience” (p. 176).
Destabilizes Modernist Subjectivity: CRT “decenters the legal conception of race by revealing the different experiences of racial groups” (p. 184), echoing postmodernism’s critique of stable identity categories.

🔹 2. Narrative Theory

Rise of “Narrative Jurisprudence”: Minda states that CRT incorporates “rich allegories, metaphors, chronicles, and parables” to express racial experiences (p. 173).
Voice as Epistemology: CRT uses narrative not just as illustration, but as a mode of knowing, thereby expanding literary theory’s focus on the role of voice and authorship in meaning-making.
Minority Storytelling as Counter-History: The emphasis on experiential narrative challenges the canonical “legal story,” paralleling literary theory’s turn to subaltern and counter-discourses.

🔹 3. Identity Theory / Cultural Studies

Race as Social Construction: Minda writes that CRT “analyzes modern modes of jurisprudence as an ideology structured by racial attitudes and norms” (p. 179), contributing to cultural theory’s treatment of identity as constructed and performative.
Postmodern Nationalism: The concept critiques essentialist identity but retains group-based cultural specificity (p. 183), mirroring Stuart Hall’s notion of cultural identity as a ‘production’.
Intersectionality as Multivocality: CRT advances multi-positional identity politics, especially via black feminism’s challenge to “single-axis” narratives (p. 185).

🔹 4. Feminist Literary Theory

Shared Methodologies: Like feminist scholars, CRT uses narrative to foreground embodied, gendered, and racial experience (p. 173).
Intersectionality (Crenshaw): The Anita Hill case illustrates how “black feminist legal scholars” must “develop their own narratives” due to marginalization by both race and gender discourses (p. 185).
Critique of Essentialism: Echoing poststructuralist feminism, CRT warns against unitary concepts of identity, stating there is “no essential concept of race, culture, or group identity” (p. 183).

🔹 5. Deconstruction (Jacques Derrida)

Binary Opposition in Racial Ideology: Crenshaw uses deconstruction to critique the “metaphysics of presence” in racial thought—e.g., white = intelligent/moral vs. black = ignorant/immoral (p. 180).
Inversion of Binaries: CRT reveals how law “reproduces” hierarchies via binary oppositions and seeks to invert and destabilize these (p. 181).
Discourse and Power: The text shows how racial identities are “filled with meaning” through language and societal categorization (p. 180), echoing Derrida’s view that meaning is always deferred and constructed through difference.

🔹 6. Reader-Response Theory

Emphasis on Interpretation by Marginalized Readers: CRT contributes to reader-oriented criticism by suggesting that those who “experience discrimination speak with a special voice” (p. 173).
Reader Positionality Matters: The reception and interpretation of legal (and literary) texts depend on one’s social and racial location—questioning the “universal reader” assumption in traditional theory.

Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

Literary Work	CRT Focus (Based on Minda)	Critical Race Theory Analysis	Key Reference from Minda
*To Kill a Mockingbird* by Harper Lee	Perpetrator vs. Victim Perspective	The legal system’s focus on Tom Robinson’s guilt ignores structural racism; reflects the “perpetrator perspective” that “blames the victim” for societal inequality.	“The official perpetrator perspective… was unable to account for the experience of inequality from the ‘victim’s’ perspective.” (p. 175)
*The Bluest Eye* by Toni Morrison	Racial Identity and Internalized Oppression	Pecola’s desire for blue eyes symbolizes how racial identity is constructed by white norms, aligning with CRT’s focus on race consciousness as identity politics.	“Color of skin pigmentation is viewed… as a symbol of cultural and personal identity constructed by white society.” (p. 168)
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	Race as the “Other” / Racial Hierarchy	Africa is presented as the racialized “dark continent,” reinforcing colonial binary hierarchies. CRT critiques the construction of the Black ‘other’ in literature.	“Racist ideology reproduces Derridian dichotomies… associating white with superiority and black with inferiority.” (p. 180)
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	White Normativity and Cultural Myth	The American Dream operates under white cultural codes, excluding minorities. CRT exposes how race is invisible but structurally centered in class and privilege.	“Race discrimination is understood… as an ideology that legitimates the privileged status of white society.” (p. 181)

Criticism Against “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

🔹 Criticisms from Conservative Scholars

Color-Blind Idealism:
Critics like Thomas Sowell argue that CRT undermines the ideal of a color-blind society, claiming the “battle for civil rights was fought and won”, making continued race-conscious remedies like affirmative action unnecessary (p. 170).
Meritocratic Backlash:
Opponents claim CRT rejects merit-based standards and instead promotes racial favoritism, thus politicizing civil rights and turning them into special-interest lobbying (p. 170–171).

🔹 Criticism by Randall Kennedy (Harvard Law) – “Racial Critiques Debate”

Race-Based Standing as Anti-Intellectual:
Kennedy contended that CRT’s idea of “voice of color” and race-based intellectual standing is dangerous, reducing scholarship to racial identity rather than the merit of ideas (p. 175–176).
Silencing White Scholars:
He argued that CRT may discourage or exclude white scholars from race discourse, fearing they lack the “authentic voice” needed to contribute (p. 176).
Racial Essentialism:
Kennedy cautioned that CRT risks reinforcing essentialist racial categories, leading to judgments based on identity rather than content (p. 176).

🔹 Critique from Within: Critical Legal Studies (CLS) Movement

Failure to Ground in Historical Context:
Kimberlé Crenshaw critiqued Alan Freeman and CLS scholars for failing to embed racial analysis in the historical and cultural reality of racial oppression (p. 174–175).
Undermining Liberal Rights Discourse:
Crenshaw warned that CLS’s general attack on rights could disempower minorities, who still see rights discourse as essential for achieving transformation (p. 174).

🔹 Concerns About Identity Politics and Fragmentation

Balkanization of Discourse:
Some critics fear CRT’s emphasis on identity-based scholarship can lead to fragmentation and the erosion of shared norms or standards in academia (p. 181–182).
Race Narratives vs. Universal Standards:
There’s concern that personal narratives, though valuable, may lack rigor or universal applicability, challenging the idea of shared truth or objective legal reasoning (p. 173–174).

🔹 Feminist Parallels and Intersectionality Tensions

Internal Conflicts on Standpoint and Difference:
CRT faces the same “sameness vs. difference” tensions as feminist legal theory—whether race should be foundational in all legal analysis or contextual and intersectional (p. 177–178).
Black Feminist Critique:
Black feminist scholars noted CRT often marginalized gender, requiring the development of intersectional perspectives (e.g., Anita Hill vs. Clarence Thomas case) to reflect multiple identities (p. 184–185).

Representative Quotations from “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Critical race theorists asserted that it was time for ‘different and blacker voices [to] speak new words and remake old legal doctrines.’”	Highlights CRT’s aim to reframe legal discourse by centering the lived experiences and epistemologies of Black scholars, rejecting traditional white-dominated legal narratives.
2. “Race consciousness characterizes the jurisprudentiaI perspective of minority scholars who emphasize the need for fundamental changes in the way the law constructs knowledge about race.”	Shows how CRT challenges the supposedly ‘neutral’ construction of race in law, advocating instead for race-conscious legal reform grounded in minority experiences.
3. “The law’s generalization of the category of race suppresses knowledge about the different cultural experiences and attitudes of racial groups.”	Critiques legal essentialism and color-blind ideologies, calling for nuanced recognition of cultural and racial diversity in legal reasoning.
4. “Color-blind meritocratic standards…accord whites and Blacks the same formal rights and process” but fail to address structural inequities.	Questions the fairness of formal equality when systemic racism persists; emphasizes that equal legal rights don’t guarantee equitable outcomes.
5. “The civil rights movement and its ringing imperative, ‘We Shall Overcome,’ must be seen as part of the American racial fantasy.”	Derrick Bell’s critique of liberal civil rights law: symbolic victories obscure persistent inequality and discourage deeper structural change.
6. “Those who are oppressed in the present world can speak most eloquently of a better one.”	Mari Matsuda’s claim that the oppressed offer unique normative insights and moral authority, advocating for their voices to lead legal critique and reform.
7. “Race narratives are offered to reveal the missing race consciousness of legal and social thought.”	Demonstrates CRT’s use of storytelling to challenge dominant legal epistemologies and inject marginalized perspectives into jurisprudence.
8. “Freeman’s categories also failed to explain the racial backlash…resulting from race-specific affirmative action remedies.”	Crenshaw critiques the CLS model for ignoring the historical and ideological roots of racism, and for inadequately addressing contemporary racial dynamics.
9. “The principal error of the CLS critique of liberal ideology is that CLS assumes that ideologically induced consent is the source of all forms of domination and oppression.”	CRT expands beyond CLS by identifying racism—not just ideology—as a distinct and powerful form of domination requiring specific analysis.
10. “Race is multivocal and must be understood within the intersections of power relations of a multicultural and racially diverse culture.”	Emphasizes the intersectional and postmodern dimensions of CRT, advocating for complex, context-sensitive understandings of racial identity and justice.

“Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum: Summary and Critique

“Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum first appeared in Studies in Philosophy and Education in 2002.

Introduction: “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

“Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum first appeared in Studies in Philosophy and Education in 2002. In this seminal work, Blum critiques the overuse and conceptual inflation of the terms ‘racism’ and ‘racist,’ arguing that their broad application has diluted their meaning and hindered productive discussions about racial issues. He proposes a more precise moral vocabulary to differentiate racial insensitivity, racial ignorance, and racial injustice from what he defines as two core forms of racism: antipathy racism (hostility or hatred toward a racial group) and inferiorizing racism (treating a racial group as inherently lesser). By distinguishing these forms, Blum contends that not all racially problematic actions stem from a racist motive, nor should all racial stereotypes be classified as racist. His work is crucial in literary theory and philosophical discourse as it refines the language used to discuss race, aiming to foster more nuanced and constructive interracial dialogue. Blum’s approach challenges the binary “racism or nothing” framework and encourages a more careful examination of racial issues, ultimately promoting a deeper and clearer moral engagement with race-related social problems.

Summary of “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

1. Overuse and Conceptual Inflation of the Term “Racism”

Blum argues that the term “racism” is frequently overused, leading to a loss of its distinct moral force.
He states, “Instead of the current practice of referring to virtually anything that goes wrong or amiss with respect to race as ‘racism,’ we should recognize a much broader moral vocabulary” (Blum, 2002, p. 203).
He advocates for alternative terms such as racial insensitivity, racial ignorance, racial injustice, racial discomfort, and racial exclusion to more accurately describe different racial ills.

2. Defining Racism: Antipathy and Inferiorizing Racism

Blum defines racism as consisting of two distinct forms:
- Antipathy Racism: Hostility or hatred toward a racial group.
- Inferiorizing Racism: Treating a racial group as inferior or less valuable.
He clarifies, “All forms of racism can be related to either of two general ‘themes’ – inferiorization, and antipathy” (Blum, 2002, p. 210).

3. Distinction Between Racist Actions and Racially Objectionable Actions

Not all racial issues stem from racism, and not all racially insensitive acts are motivated by racist intent.
Blum warns against the oversimplification of racial incidents: “If our only choices are to label an act ‘racist’ or ‘nothing to get too upset about,’ those who seek to garner moral attention to some racial malfeasance will be tempted to call it ‘racist’” (Blum, 2002, p. 207).
He gives the example of a white police officer placing a noose as a prank, which may not be racist in intent but still has racial significance.

4. Racial Stereotypes: Not All Are Racist

Blum distinguishes between racist and non-racist racial stereotypes.
- Example: The stereotype that “blacks are intellectually deficient” is racist because it inferiorizes them.
- However, the stereotype that “blacks are good dancers” is not necessarily racist, although it is still problematic (Blum, 2002, p. 212).
He argues for a historical approach to understanding racial stereotypes, emphasizing that some have deeper, more harmful implications than others.

5. Racist Jokes vs. Racist Individuals

A person who tells a racist joke is not necessarily a racist.
He writes, “A remark can be unquestionably racist without the person making the remark being a racist, or making the remark for a racist reason” (Blum, 2002, p. 209).
He highlights that some individuals may tell racist jokes out of ignorance or a desire to fit in rather than due to racist beliefs.

6. Racial Discomfort and Anxiety Are Not Racism

Many white individuals experience racial discomfort when interacting with people of color, but this is not inherently racist.
Example: A white teacher who is uneasy talking to Black parents is not racist but has racial anxiety, which still affects her effectiveness as an educator (Blum, 2002, p. 213).
Blum asserts that racial anxiety stems from a lack of exposure, not necessarily racist ideology.

7. The Dangers of Racial Profiling and Stereotyping

Blum examines the case of Officer Cornel Young Jr., a Black police officer shot by white colleagues who mistook him for a threat.
He argues that the shooting was not motivated by racial hatred but by implicit racial biases: “Treating blackness as if it were an indicator of suspiciousness or criminality is referred to as ‘racial profiling’” (Blum, 2002, p. 216).
This highlights how racist stereotypes can be dangerous even when there is no explicit racial hatred.

8. The Importance of Clarifying the Meaning of Racism

Blum stresses that defining racism more precisely will improve interracial discussions and reduce unnecessary accusations of racism.
He states, “Fixing on such a definition should encourage us to make use of the considerable other resources our language affords us for describing and evaluating race-related ills” (Blum, 2002, p. 209).
He calls for a distinction between racism and other racial issues, so that society can address all race-related problems without diminishing the seriousness of racism.

Conclusion

Blum emphasizes that while racism is a significant moral failing, not all racial problems should be categorized as racism.
He calls for a broader and more precise moral vocabulary to discuss race-related issues without diluting the meaning of racism.
Ultimately, he argues that “Moral concern is appropriately directed toward this wider domain, and should not be confined to racism appropriately so called” (Blum, 2002, p. 218).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation
Antipathy Racism	Hatred or strong hostility toward a racial group (Blum, 2002, p. 210).
Inferiorizing Racism	Viewing or treating a racial group as inferior or of lesser value (Blum, 2002, p. 210).
Conceptual Inflation	The excessive and indiscriminate use of the term “racism” to describe all racial issues, weakening its moral force (Blum, 2002, p. 207).
Racial Insensitivity	Failure to acknowledge racial differences in a way that respects the experiences of different racial groups (Blum, 2002, p. 203).
Racial Ignorance	Lack of knowledge or awareness about different racial groups and their histories (Blum, 2002, p. 203).
Racial Injustice	Social or systemic unfair treatment of racial groups that perpetuates inequality (Blum, 2002, p. 203).
Racial Discomfort/Anxiety	Uncertainty, unease, or discomfort when interacting with people of different racial groups, even in the absence of racial hostility (Blum, 2002, p. 213).
Racial Exclusion	The marginalization or exclusion of certain racial groups from social, economic, or political participation (Blum, 2002, p. 203).
Racial Homogenization	The tendency to treat all members of a racial group as identical or sharing the same characteristics, ignoring individual differences (Blum, 2002, p. 215).
Racial Profiling	The association of race with criminality or suspicion, leading to disproportionate law enforcement actions against certain racial groups (Blum, 2002, p. 216).
Racist Jokes	Jokes that make fun of or demean racial groups, even when the teller may not personally hold racist beliefs (Blum, 2002, p. 209).
Racist Stereotypes	Generalizations about racial groups, some of which are explicitly racist (e.g., stereotypes about intellectual inferiority), while others may be less harmful but still problematic (Blum, 2002, p. 212).
Moral Overload	The burden placed on the term “racism” when it is used to describe all racial problems, leading to a dilution of its significance (Blum, 2002, p. 209).
Locational Aspect of Racism	The idea that racism can be found in different entities such as individuals, actions, institutions, jokes, or policies, and that its severity depends on the context (Blum, 2002, p. 209).

Contribution of “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Blum’s work aligns with Critical Race Theory (CRT) by exploring how racism is deeply embedded in social structures and language.
His argument that racism is often misapplied and overused mirrors CRT’s concern with how race is socially constructed and manipulated for power dynamics.
He critiques the tendency to label all racial issues as “racism,” emphasizing, “Not all racial incidents are racist incidents. Not every instance of racial conflict, insensitivity, discomfort, miscommunication, exclusion, injustice, or ignorance should be called ‘racist’” (Blum, 2002, p. 207).
This perspective refines CRT’s analytical tools, urging scholars to distinguish between different racial phenomena rather than using a single, broad framework.

2. Postcolonial Theory

Blum’s emphasis on inferiorizing racism contributes to Postcolonial Theory, particularly regarding how colonized subjects are historically perceived as inferior.
His distinction between antipathy racism (racial hatred) and inferiorizing racism (racial hierarchy) mirrors postcolonial critiques of Eurocentrism and its legacy.
“All forms of racism can be related to either of two general ‘themes’ – inferiorization, and antipathy” (Blum, 2002, p. 210).
This distinction helps in postcolonial literary analysis by differentiating between racial domination through hate (as seen in colonial violence) and racial paternalism (as seen in so-called ‘benevolent’ colonial rule).

3. Structuralism and Semiotics

Blum’s work contributes to Structuralist and Semiotic Literary Theory by analyzing how language and terminology shape racial discourse.
He argues that the word “racism” has become overloaded with moral and political meaning, diluting its analytical clarity, which aligns with structuralist concerns about language instability.
“The words ‘racism’ and ‘racist’ have become deeply entrenched in the moral vocabulary of the United States and Western Europe” (Blum, 2002, p. 205).
This insight is relevant for semiotic studies, as it suggests that racial discourse is shaped by shifting linguistic meanings rather than fixed realities.

4. Reader-Response Theory

Blum’s discussion of racial discomfort and anxiety contributes to Reader-Response Theory, particularly regarding how audiences interpret racialized texts.
He argues that not all racial unease is due to racism, stating, “Racial discomfort is quite common… but it is not, in itself, racist” (Blum, 2002, p. 213).
This aligns with Stanley Fish’s notion of interpretive communities, where racial interpretation varies depending on cultural context and personal experience.
It highlights that literature containing racial themes may be interpreted differently depending on the racial awareness and biases of the reader.

5. New Historicism

Blum’s emphasis on historical context in defining racism supports New Historicism, which argues that texts must be understood within their historical and cultural conditions.
He stresses that racial stereotypes must be evaluated in both their historical and contemporary significance, writing, “Stereotypes must be viewed historically as well as contemporarily, and a given stereotype’s resonance with a much more distinctly racist stereotype renders it objectionable” (Blum, 2002, p. 212).
This reinforces New Historicist approaches that contextualize literary depictions of race within broader historical power structures.

6. Ethical Criticism

Blum’s moral argument about the overuse of racism as a term contributes to Ethical Criticism, which evaluates literature based on its moral implications.
He argues that if all racial issues are labeled as “racist,” moral accountability is lost, stating, “The burden placed on the term ‘racism’ when it is used to describe all racial problems leads to a dilution of its significance” (Blum, 2002, p. 209).
This aligns with ethical critics like Martha Nussbaum, who emphasize precision in moral critique within literature.

7. Intersectionality in Feminist Theory

Blum’s broadening of racial discourse beyond black/white binaries contributes to Intersectionality Theory, which examines race, gender, and class together.
He highlights how Latinos, Native Americans, and Asian-Americans are often excluded from race discussions, stating, “Latinos, Native Americans, and Asian-Americans may not be certain how to insert themselves into a discourse which seems to them dominated by ‘black/white’ issues” (Blum, 2002, p. 204).
This aligns with Kimberlé Crenshaw’s intersectional critique of race and gender as multifaceted rather than monolithic.

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

Literary Work	Critique Through Blum’s Framework
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	Blum’s concept of “Conceptual Inflation” applies to how racism is framed in the novel. The story centers on Atticus Finch as a “white savior,” reinforcing an inferiorizing view of Black people by making them passive recipients of justice rather than active agents. The novel also highlights legal injustice but does not deeply explore systemic racism (Blum, 2002, p. 207).
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Blum’s distinction between “Inferiorizing Racism” and “Antipathy Racism” helps critique Conrad’s depiction of African characters. While the novel does not explicitly express racial hatred (antipathy racism), it portrays Africans as uncivilized and dehumanized, lacking agency, which aligns with colonial inferiorizing racism (Blum, 2002, p. 210).
Othello by William Shakespeare	Othello can be analyzed through Blum’s idea of “Racial Anxiety” rather than outright racism. While characters like Iago express racial hatred, Othello himself experiences racial discomfort and internalized racism, as he struggles with his identity and societal perception in Venetian society (Blum, 2002, p. 213). This highlights how racism’s impact can extend beyond direct hostility to include internalized oppression.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain	Using Blum’s concepts of “Racial Profiling” and “Racial Stereotypes,” the novel’s depiction of Jim as superstitious and submissive reinforces problematic racial tropes. However, Twain critiques racism through satire, exposing racial injustice and the absurdity of racial stereotypes, making the novel more nuanced in its racial discourse (Blum, 2002, p. 216).

Criticism Against “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

1. Oversimplification of Racism’s Structural Nature

Some scholars argue that Blum’s focus on individual acts of racism (antipathy and inferiorizing racism) does not fully address structural and institutional racism.
Critics from Critical Race Theory (CRT) contend that racism is deeply embedded in legal, economic, and political institutions, not just in individual attitudes (Blum, 2002, p. 210).
Blum’s emphasis on distinguishing racial issues from racism might distract from systemic oppression and racial inequalities.

2. Risks of Downplaying Everyday Racism

By advocating for a more nuanced moral vocabulary (racial insensitivity, racial ignorance, racial anxiety, etc.), some argue that Blum risks minimizing the harm of “less severe” racial issues (Blum, 2002, p. 207).
Critics worry that distinguishing racism from other racial problems might allow individuals and institutions to dismiss discriminatory actions as merely “insensitive” or “ignorant” rather than truly harmful.
This critique aligns with Toni Morrison’s idea that subtle, everyday racism can be just as damaging as overt racism.

3. Conceptual Inflation vs. Linguistic Evolution

Blum critiques “conceptual inflation”, arguing that overusing “racism” weakens its moral force (Blum, 2002, p. 207).
However, linguists and sociologists counter that language evolves to reflect new social realities, and broader applications of racism (such as microaggressions and systemic biases) are necessary to describe contemporary racial dynamics.
Scholars like Ibram X. Kendi argue that racism should be recognized wherever racial disparities exist, rather than limited to historical definitions.

4. Limited Engagement with Intersectionality

Blum’s work primarily focuses on race as an isolated category but does not deeply engage with intersectionality, the idea that race intersects with gender, class, sexuality, and disability.
Kimberlé Crenshaw’s Intersectionality Theory criticizes frameworks that examine race without considering how multiple systems of oppression interact.
For example, Black women experience racism and sexism simultaneously, but Blum does not fully address how these forms of discrimination overlap.

5. Eurocentric and U.S.-Centered Perspective

Blum’s analysis of racism is largely based on U.S. racial history and Western moral philosophy (Blum, 2002, p. 203).
Some critics argue that his framework does not sufficiently account for racial dynamics in non-Western contexts, such as caste-based discrimination in India or ethnic tensions in Africa.
Postcolonial theorists argue that racism must be examined globally, beyond U.S. legal and social structures.

6. The Practicality of His Distinctions

While Blum’s nuanced definitions are useful for academic discussions, critics question whether they are practical in real-world applications.
Activists argue that insisting on differentiating “racial insensitivity” from “racism” could complicate anti-racist efforts and lead to unnecessary debates rather than action.
Angela Davis and other anti-racist activists emphasize that naming and challenging racism directly is more important than philosophically debating definitions.

Representative Quotations from “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The words ‘racist’ and ‘racism’ have become so overused that they now constitute obstacles to understanding and interracial dialogue about racial matters.” (Blum, 2002, p. 203)	Blum argues that the excessive use of “racist” and “racism” dilutes their meaning, making discussions about race less productive. He calls for a more precise vocabulary to describe different racial issues.
“Not all racial incidents are racist incidents.” (Blum, 2002, p. 207)	He differentiates between racial issues such as insensitivity, ignorance, and injustice versus explicit racism, suggesting that labeling every racial problem as “racist” is counterproductive.
“We should fix on a definition of ‘racism’ that is continuous with its historical usage, and avoids conceptual inflation.” (Blum, 2002, p. 204)	Blum emphasizes that the definition of racism should remain grounded in historical contexts of oppression, rather than being applied loosely to all negative racial experiences.
“Inferiorizing is treating the racial other as inferior or of lesser value and, secondarily, viewing the racial other as inferior.” (Blum, 2002, p. 210)	He introduces “inferiorizing racism”, explaining that it involves both attitudes and behaviors that depict a racial group as less valuable or worthy.
“Antipathy racism is simply a strong dislike, often tinged with hostility, toward individuals or groups because of their race.” (Blum, 2002, p. 211)	He contrasts antipathy racism (hate-based racism) with inferiorizing racism, acknowledging that racial animosity exists even without superiority claims.
“The paternalistic inferiorizing racist often hates those members of the racial group who do not accept the inferior social position he regards as appropriate to their inferior natures.” (Blum, 2002, p. 211)	He discusses historical paternalistic racism, where dominant groups justify oppression by portraying themselves as “benevolent” rulers.
“Racial anxiety is quite common in the United States, especially, I believe, among whites, although it can be found in any racial group.” (Blum, 2002, p. 213)	Blum introduces “racial anxiety”, explaining that discomfort around racial issues is often misinterpreted as racism, even though it stems from ignorance or fear rather than hostility.
“It is bad to tell a racist joke, whether one means to offend, or holds racist attitudes, or not.” (Blum, 2002, p. 209)	He challenges intent-based defenses of racism, asserting that harm exists regardless of intent when racist jokes or comments reinforce stereotypes.
“The stereotype of blacks as good dancers is not racist, on my account. It attributes a positive rather than a negative quality.” (Blum, 2002, p. 212)	He critiques broad applications of the term “racist”, arguing that while stereotypes are harmful, not all racial stereotypes necessarily denote racism.
“We must recognize that ‘racism’ by no means captures all of what can go wrong in the domain of race.” (Blum, 2002, p. 218)	Blum calls for a nuanced moral vocabulary to address racial insensitivity, exclusion, and structural inequalities without over-relying on the term “racism.”

“Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse: Summary and Critique

“Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse first appeared in Nations and Nationalism 1(2) in 1995, spanning pages 163–173.

Introduction: “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

“Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse first appeared in Nations and Nationalism 1(2) in 1995, spanning pages 163–173. The article explores the complex relationship between nationalism and racism in modern history, emphasizing that while nationalism could exist independently of racism, their alliance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries made racism more operational and politically potent. Mosse defines racism as a distinct and total ideology, centered on the human body as both a symbol and a means of exclusion. He argues that racism functioned as a civic religion, shaping social hierarchies through myths, symbols, and aesthetic ideals derived from anthropology, history, and classical imagery. The essay highlights how nationalism, as a flexible and widely adaptable ideology, absorbed elements of racism, particularly in its more extreme, integral forms. However, Mosse insists that nationalism was not inherently racist and could resist racial exclusivity, distinguishing between nationalist patriotism and the racist drive for purity and dominance. His work remains influential in literary theory and historical studies by illustrating how racist ideology constructs rigid, totalizing worldviews, often through visual and symbolic representations of the ideal and the counter-type. Through this lens, Mosse contributes to a broader discourse on the dangers of conflating national identity with racial hierarchies, offering insights relevant to both historical analysis and contemporary debates on identity politics and exclusion.

Summary of “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

Main Ideas:

Distinction Between Racism and Nationalism:
- Racism and nationalism are often linked, but nationalism is a flexible ideology that can exist without racism. However, when the two align, “nationalism made racism a reality, and racism came to dominate nationalism” (Mosse, 1995, p. 163).
Racism as an Ideology and a Totality:
- Racism is a distinct, self-sustaining ideology that “encompasses the whole human personality—its looks, behavior, and intellect” (p. 164).
- It is a “worldview as complete as other ideologies which evolved during the nineteenth century, such as socialism or conservatism” (p. 165).
The Role of Aesthetics and Anthropology in Racism:
- Racism was reinforced by scientific disciplines such as anthropology, history, and physiognomy, creating rigid standards of human appearance and superiority. “Anthropology, history, and this new aesthetic consciousness were all concerned with the search for roots, they could fulfill a longing for immutability and certainty in a world of rapid social change” (p. 164).
The Symbolism of the Human Body in Racism:
- Unlike nationalism, which relied on abstract symbols like flags or anthems, racism used “the human body itself as its most potent symbol” (p. 163).
- Racial aesthetics borrowed heavily from classical Greek ideals, where “harmony, proportion, and ‘quiet greatness’ were seen as the ultimate expressions of racial superiority” (p. 166).
Racism’s Need for a Counter-Type:
- Racism constructs an “ideal type” and a “counter-type” (p. 169).
- The racial enemy, whether Jews, Blacks, or other marginalized groups, was depicted as the antithesis of the racial ideal. “Through the counter-image, we obtain the greatest clarity of what our own ideals should be” (p. 171).
Gender and Racism:
- Racism was deeply gendered, with the male body serving as the primary symbol of racial superiority. “Masculinity symbolized the active life, the hope for the victory of the race over its enemies and the subsequent construction of the ideal racist society” (p. 167).
- Women were depicted as either mothers of the race or the nation, reinforcing strict gender roles (p. 167).
The Political Implications of Racism and Nationalism:
- Nationalism is flexible and has been linked with various ideologies (liberalism, conservatism, socialism), while racism is an “uncompromising worldview that does not tolerate ambiguity” (p. 165).
- The alliance between nationalism and racism often led to extreme political movements, most notably in Nazi Germany: “Racism was the catalyst which pushed German nationalism over the edge, from discrimination to mass extermination” (p. 171).
Racism as a Civic Religion:
- Racism functioned as a “civic religion” with its own myths, symbols, and rituals (p. 165).
- It promised “immutability and redemption, much like traditional religious belief” (p. 165).
The Danger of Trivializing Racism:
- The contemporary misuse of the term “racism” dilutes its historical significance. “A tendency to trivialize racism has been much more common; to make use of the term in contemporary polemics in order to designate all those acts which create or maintain disadvantage” (p. 164).
Conclusion: Nationalism Can Resist Racism:
- While nationalism has historically aligned with racism, it does not have to be racist. “Coming to understand the relationship between racism and nationalism should lead us to build upon the fact that nationalism, as patriotism, always managed to resist the racist temptation” (p. 173).

Key Takeaways:

Racism is a rigid, totalizing ideology, while nationalism is more flexible.
The human body serves as the primary symbol in racist ideology, reinforcing stereotypes of superiority and inferiority.
Racism constructs a “counter-type” as a necessary enemy to its racial ideal.
While nationalism and racism have often merged, nationalism is not inherently racist and has alternative, more inclusive traditions.
Understanding the distinction between the two is essential to resisting racism’s influence in nationalist movements.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article
Racism as a Total Ideology	Racism is a complete worldview, shaping identity through biological, cultural, and aesthetic markers.	“Racism is a totality. It encompasses the whole human personality—its looks, behavior, and intellect” (Mosse, 1995, p. 164).
Nationalism’s Flexibility	Nationalism can adapt to different political ideologies, including liberalism, conservatism, and socialism, making it distinct from racism.	“Nationalism was by far the more flexible ideology, making alliances with almost every political or social movement” (p. 165).
Human Body as a Symbol	Racism is distinguished from nationalism in that it is visually focused, using the human body as a marker of racial identity.	“The human body itself became the predominant racial symbol” (p. 165).
Ideal Type vs. Counter-Type	Racism constructs an ideal racial stereotype and contrasts it with an inferior “counter-type,” reinforcing racial hierarchies.	“Racism centred upon the construction of stereotypes as living and familiar symbols” (p. 165).
Civic Religion	Racism functions as a belief system with rituals, myths, and symbols akin to a religious structure.	“Racism can be called a civic religion, and like any system of religious belief it created its own world of myth and symbol” (p. 165).
Racial Aesthetics	Racist ideology borrows from classical ideals of beauty, especially Greek sculptures, to establish physical standards of superiority.	“The rediscovery of Greek sculpture… set the tone, even if it was modified by subsequent taste” (p. 166).
Masculinity in Racism	The male body represents the ideal racial type, emphasizing physical strength, control, and virility, while women are relegated to reproductive roles.	“Masculinity symbolized the active life, the hope for the victory of the race over its enemies” (p. 167).
Trivialization of Racism	The modern misuse of the term “racism” in political discourse dilutes its historical and ideological significance.	“A tendency to trivialize racism has been much more common… to designate all those acts which create or maintain disadvantage” (p. 164).
Racism’s Need for an Enemy	Racism depends on an enemy figure (Jews, Black populations, etc.) to define itself and justify exclusion and violence.	“Racism depended upon the existence of its enemies, it had always defined itself as at war against hostile and inferior races” (p. 169).
Integral Nationalism	A form of nationalism that seeks absolute unity and often aligns with racism to define an exclusive national identity.	“Without such a marriage [to nationalism], European racism would have remained impotent” (p. 165).
Symbolism in Racism and Nationalism	Both ideologies rely on symbols to create identity, but while nationalism uses flags and anthems, racism uses physical stereotypes.	“Nationalism could annex many of the ideas and the stereotype I have discussed because it too was based upon the principle of separateness” (p. 168).
Racism as a Revolutionary Ideology	Racism, rather than being purely reactionary, functions as a dynamic force advocating radical change.	“Racism supported existing manners and morals and sought to eliminate the socially dangerous counter-type” (p. 172).

Contribution of “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Influence on the Representation of the Other:
- Mosse explores how racism constructs the “counter-type” as an enemy figure, a central concern in postcolonial studies.
- “Racism depended upon the existence of its enemies, it had always defined itself as at war against hostile and inferior races” (Mosse, 1995, p. 169).
Racial Stereotyping and Colonial Discourse:
- His analysis of bodily aesthetics in racial ideology parallels colonial narratives that portray the colonized as inferior based on physical features.
- “The very construction of the human body, its size, sinews, muscles and bones, were made to bear witness to the superiority or inferiority of a race and its culture” (p. 165).

2. Structuralism and Semiotics

Symbolism in National and Racial Identity:
- Mosse highlights how nationalism and racism use symbols to construct meaning, resonating with semiotic analyses of cultural narratives.
- “Nationalism could annex many of the ideas and the stereotype I have discussed because it too was based upon the principle of separateness” (p. 168).
Binary Oppositions in Racial Ideology:
- The racial “ideal type” versus “counter-type” functions as a binary structure akin to Levi-Strauss’s structuralist oppositions (e.g., civilized vs. uncivilized).
- “Through the counter-image we obtain the greatest clarity of what our own ideals should be” (p. 171).

3. Feminist Literary Theory & Gender Studies

Masculinity as a National and Racial Ideal:
- Mosse examines how racial ideology constructs masculinity as an active, dominant force while relegating women to reproductive roles.
- “Masculinity symbolized the active life, the hope for the victory of the race over its enemies and the subsequent construction of the ideal racist society” (p. 167).
Gendered Nationalism and the Role of Women:
- Women in nationalist discourse are depicted either as “mothers of the nation” or passive figures, reinforcing patriarchal ideals in literature and cultural narratives.
- “Women as public symbols were either mothers of the family or mothers of the nation, such as Germania, Britannia or the sedate Marianne” (p. 167).

4. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Racial Stereotypes and Projection:
- The racial counter-type functions as a projection of societal fears, similar to Freud’s theory of the “Other” as a repressed desire or anxiety.
- “The racial myths are familiar enough, they concern the faraway origins, the hardships and triumphs of the race, leading to redemption when the race wars are won” (p. 165).
Racism as an Unconscious Collective Desire:
- The need for absolute racial purity mirrors psychoanalytic anxieties about contamination, reflecting the superego’s imposition of rigid ideological purity.
- “Racism leaves nothing to chance. Whether it legitimizes itself through science or through pseudo-historical scholarship, it does not tolerate what Ezra Pound once called an ‘Indeterminate Wobble’” (p. 165).

5. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Racism as a Socially Constructed Ideology:
- Mosse’s work supports CRT’s assertion that race is not biologically determined but a social construct shaped by historical narratives.
- “Racism as a political slogan could lead to such absurdities as the United Nations first declaring that Zionism is racism, and then repealing this assertion, as if racism’s finality was not one of its chief and most fateful characteristics” (p. 164).
The Institutionalization of Racism Through Nationalism:
- His analysis of how nationalism made racism operational aligns with CRT’s focus on systemic racism.
- “Nationalism made racism a reality, and racism came to dominate nationalism once an alliance between the two movements had been consummated” (p. 163).

6. Cultural Studies & Identity Theory

The Construction of National Identity Through Aesthetic Ideals:
- Mosse shows how national identity is shaped through visual and literary representations, influencing cultural studies’ analysis of media and literature.
- “Anthropology, history, and this new aesthetic consciousness were all concerned with the search for roots, they could fulfill a longing for immutability and certainty in a world of rapid social change” (p. 164).
Populism and the Role of Nationalism in Culture:
- His analysis of nationalist movements as populist forces informs cultural studies on how political ideologies manipulate cultural identity.
- “The racist utopia was populist, it stood outside the present political system” (p. 172).

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

Author & Work	Critique Through Mosse’s Lens	Key Reference from Mosse (1995)
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness	– The novel reinforces racial hierarchies by depicting Africans as the “counter-type” in contrast to European civilization. – Conrad’s portrayal aligns with Mosse’s argument that racism relies on bodily aesthetics to establish superiority and inferiority. – The novel reflects colonial nationalism’s justification of imperialism as a civilizing mission.	“Racism depended upon the existence of its enemies, it had always defined itself as at war against hostile and inferior races” (p. 169).
Margaret Mitchell – Gone with the Wind	– The novel romanticizes the Confederacy, reinforcing racial stereotypes that Mosse identifies as central to racist nationalism. – The depiction of African Americans as passive or inferior supports the aesthetic and cultural markers of racial hierarchy. – The nostalgia for the “Old South” mirrors Mosse’s discussion of nationalism’s tendency to mythologize history.	“Nationalism, even if it was tolerant and respected the culture of other nations, always contained elements which might lead to a greater exclusiveness” (p. 168).
Adolf Hitler – Mein Kampf	– Mosse’s work directly critiques the racial ideology found in Mein Kampf, which constructs an “ideal type” (Aryan) and “counter-type” (Jews, Slavs, etc.). – The book exemplifies Mosse’s argument that racism functions as a civic religion with myths, symbols, and calls for purification. – Hitler’s ideas reflect the extremist nationalism that Mosse warns leads to the weaponization of racism.	“Nationalism made racism a reality, and racism came to dominate nationalism once an alliance between the two movements had been consummated” (p. 163).
Chinua Achebe – Things Fall Apart	– Achebe’s novel subverts the racist nationalist narrative by presenting African society before European colonization. – The book challenges Mosse’s observation that racism was often legitimized through anthropology by portraying Igbo customs as complex and structured. – The colonial figures in the novel embody the “civilizing mission” that Mosse critiques as a justification for racial hierarchy.	“Racism used history, anthropology and aesthetic sensibilities in order to set a standard of human looks, beauty and behaviour” (p. 164).

Criticism Against “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

1. Overemphasis on European Context

Mosse’s analysis is heavily Eurocentric, focusing primarily on racism and nationalism in Europe while neglecting parallel developments in colonial and postcolonial settings.
Critics argue that his framework does not fully account for non-Western experiences of racism and nationalism, such as in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

2. Underestimation of Economic Factors

Mosse emphasizes cultural and aesthetic elements of racism but does not sufficiently engage with economic motivations behind racist ideologies.
Some scholars argue that racism was not just about aesthetics and nationalism but was deeply tied to economic exploitation, capitalism, and colonial labor systems.

3. Lack of Intersectional Analysis

His work does not engage deeply with intersectionality, particularly how race interacts with class, gender, and sexuality.
While he discusses gendered aspects of nationalism, some feminist scholars believe his analysis lacks depth in examining how women of different races experienced racism differently.

4. Limited Discussion on Resistance and Counter-Narratives

The book focuses on how racism and nationalism became dominant ideologies but offers little analysis of anti-racist movements, resistance literature, or alternative nationalist movements that opposed racism.
Critics argue that he does not sufficiently discuss figures and movements that challenged racist nationalism from within their own national traditions.

5. Ambiguous Stance on Nationalism

Mosse acknowledges that nationalism does not necessarily have to be racist, but he does not provide a clear theoretical framework for distinguishing between inclusive and exclusive forms of nationalism.
Some critics argue that this ambiguity leaves room for misinterpretation and fails to fully address how nationalism can be reformed to resist racism.

6. Oversimplification of Racist Ideology

Some scholars believe Mosse portrays racism as a rigid and self-contained ideology without fully exploring its fluidity and adaptability in different historical and political contexts.
The book does not explore how contemporary forms of racism have evolved beyond 19th and 20th-century frameworks.

7. Insufficient Engagement with Contemporary Theories of Race

Since Mosse’s work was published in 1995, it does not engage with more recent developments in critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and decolonial studies.
Some scholars argue that his analysis, while insightful, does not incorporate more recent critiques of Eurocentrism and white supremacy in global contexts.

Representative Quotations from “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Racism is a totality. It encompasses the whole human personality – its looks, behaviour and intellect.” (p. 164)	Mosse argues that racism is not merely an act of discrimination but a comprehensive ideology that dictates social and political structures through rigid racial hierarchies.
“Racism used history, anthropology and aesthetic sensibilities in order to set a standard of human looks, beauty and behaviour.” (p. 164)	This highlights how racist ideology legitimized itself using pseudo-scientific and aesthetic theories to establish racial superiority, reinforcing cultural stereotypes.
“Nationalism made racism a reality, and racism came to dominate nationalism once an alliance between the two movements had been consummated.” (p. 163)	Mosse explains that nationalism and racism, though separate, became intertwined when nationalism sought to define itself through racial purity.
“Racism depended upon the existence of its enemies; it had always defined itself as at war against hostile and inferior races.” (p. 169)	Racism requires a constructed ‘other’—a racial or ethnic enemy—against which superiority is asserted, often leading to exclusion or violence.
“The human body itself became the predominant racial symbol, and a great deal of racist literature was devoted to an explanation of how one could recognise on sight one’s own as against those of a different race.” (p. 165)	This demonstrates the emphasis on physical appearance in racial ideology, where visual cues were used to define and reinforce racial distinctions.
“The racial myths are familiar enough; they concern the faraway origins, the hardships and triumphs of the race, leading to redemption when the race wars are won.” (p. 165)	Mosse compares racism to a civic religion, showing how it creates myths and narratives that justify racial supremacy and conflict.
“Masculinity symbolized the active life, the hope for the victory of the race over its enemies and the subsequent construction of the ideal racist society.” (p. 167)	Racism and nationalism often reinforce gender roles, with masculinity being linked to racial strength and the capacity for dominance.
“The difference between racism and nationalism is sometimes difficult to determine, because both work with almost the same ideal type, gender differences and separateness.” (p. 168)	Nationalism and racism share structural similarities in their reliance on idealized identity types and exclusionary logic, making them susceptible to merging.
“Modern society needs an enemy as a foil who would serve to strengthen its self-image.” (p. 171)	This statement critiques how societies use external and internal enemies to define and justify their political and ideological positions.
“Coming to understand the relationship between racism and nationalism should lead us to build upon the fact that nationalism, as patriotism, always managed to resist the racist temptation.” (p. 173)	Mosse suggests that nationalism can exist without racism, and recognizing their distinction is essential to resisting racialized nationalist ideologies.

“Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger: Summary and Critique

“Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger first appeared in Criticism, Vol. 27, No. 4 (Fall 1985), published by Wayne State University Press.

Introduction: “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger

“Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger first appeared in Criticism, Vol. 27, No. 4 (Fall 1985), published by Wayne State University Press. In this influential article, Brantlinger critically examines Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, engaging with the long-standing debate over whether the novella is primarily an anti-imperialist critique, an embodiment of racist ideology, or a complex work of impressionist literature. Central to Brantlinger’s argument is the idea that Conrad’s text embodies a paradox—while it condemns the brutality of European imperialism, it simultaneously reinforces racist stereotypes about Africa and its inhabitants. Brantlinger situates Heart of Darkness within the broader discourse of Victorian imperialism and literary modernism, analyzing its ambiguous narrative structure and its “schizophrenic” contradictions, as described by theorist Fredric Jameson. He also responds to Chinua Achebe’s famous critique of Conrad as a “bloody racist,” acknowledging that Heart of Darkness employs racialized language and imagery, yet contending that its critique of empire complicates Achebe’s accusations. Ultimately, Brantlinger argues that the novella’s literary power stems from its impressionistic style and moral ambiguity, making it a seminal text for discussions on imperialism, race, and modernist aesthetics. His analysis is significant in literary theory because it highlights the interpretive tensions within Conrad’s novella, illustrating how a single text can simultaneously challenge and reinforce dominant ideologies.

Summary of “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger

Main Ideas:

Chinua Achebe’s Critique of Conrad’s Racism
- Achebe argues that Heart of Darkness is fundamentally racist because it portrays Africa as “the other world,” representing the “antithesis of Europe and civilization” (Brantlinger, p. 363).
- He criticizes Conrad as “a bloody racist” who perpetuates comforting myths about Africa, arguing that white racism is so normalized that its presence in literature often goes unnoticed (p. 363).
Defenses of Conrad’s Alleged Racism
- Critics like Cedric Watts argue that Conrad and Achebe are ultimately on the same side, suggesting that Heart of Darkness actually debunks racist imperialist myths (p. 364).
- While acknowledging Conrad’s use of racist language, Watts contends that Conrad rises above racism through his critique of imperialism (p. 364).
Anti-Imperialist Themes in Heart of Darkness
- Many scholars interpret the novel as an exposé of European imperialism, particularly in King Leopold II’s Congo (p. 365).
- Marlow’s declaration that “the conquest of the earth … is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much” (p. 365) demonstrates Conrad’s recognition of the brutality of imperialism.
Impressionism as a Narrative Device
- Brantlinger explores how Conrad’s impressionistic style creates ambiguity in the novel, making it difficult to determine whether Heart of Darkness is primarily anti-imperialist or racist (p. 365).
- The use of multiple narrative filters, such as Marlow and the anonymous primary narrator, complicates the question of Conrad’s stance on imperialism and racism (p. 366).
Conrad’s Knowledge of Atrocities in the Congo
- Conrad was appalled by the horrors of King Leopold’s rule, which he learned about both from his experiences in 1890 and from later reports, including those by the Congo Reform Association (p. 366).
- Leopold’s regime led to the deaths of an estimated six million Congolese, with systematic forced labor, mutilations, and mass killings (p. 366).
Contradictory Portrayals of Africa
- Despite Conrad’s condemnation of European imperialism, his depiction of Africa and Africans is deeply racialized.
- He portrays Africa as a place of darkness, savagery, and cannibalism, reinforcing Victorian racist tropes (p. 371).
- Brantlinger argues that, while Conrad critiques imperialism, he also presents Africa as the ultimate site of primitivism and horror, making the novel complicit in racist ideology (p. 371).
The Role of Kurtz as a Symbol
- Kurtz represents both the excesses of imperialism and the abyss of human corruption (p. 372).
- Some critics, such as Lionel Trilling, see Kurtz as a “hero of the spirit,” while others recognize him as a nihilistic figure whose final words—”The horror! The horror!”—reflect the moral collapse of imperialist ideology (p. 378).
- Brantlinger suggests that Kurtz’s character is deliberately ambiguous, allowing multiple interpretations (p. 378).
Marlow’s Complicity and the “Hollow Voice”
- Marlow admires Kurtz despite recognizing his atrocities, highlighting a contradiction in the novel’s moral stance (p. 379).
- Brantlinger connects Kurtz’s “hollow voice” to Conrad’s own literary style, suggesting that Heart of Darkness itself is trapped in the same contradictions it critiques (p. 381).
- The novel’s impressionistic ambiguity allows it to be both a critique of and a product of imperialist ideology (p. 381).
Conrad’s View of Imperialism and Nihilism
- Conrad’s critique of empire is not necessarily anti-imperialist; rather, he mourns the loss of “true” imperialism, which he saw as a noble enterprise now corrupted by greed (p. 382).
- Brantlinger argues that Heart of Darkness ultimately reflects Conrad’s own disillusionment with modern civilization and art, portraying a world where ideals have collapsed into fraud and nihilism (p. 382).
Final Assessment of Heart of Darkness
- Brantlinger acknowledges the novel’s enduring power, arguing that it remains one of the few pre-World War I British novels that critically examines imperialism (p. 383).
- However, its anti-imperialist message is undercut by its racism and impressionistic style, which obscure its political stance (p. 383).
- Ultimately, Heart of Darkness is a novel about the failure of meaning itself—its final message is “the horror” of civilization’s own emptiness (p. 384).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Application in Brantlinger’s Analysis
Racism	Prejudicial treatment and representation of racial groups, often reinforcing stereotypes.	Brantlinger examines Achebe’s critique that Heart of Darkness perpetuates racist views by depicting Africa as primitive and “the other world” (p. 363).
Anti-Imperialism	Opposition to colonialism and empire-building, highlighting their exploitative and violent nature.	Conrad critiques the brutality of Belgian rule in the Congo, yet his criticism is ambiguous and does not fully escape imperialist ideology (p. 366).
Impressionism	A literary style emphasizing subjective perception and ambiguity over objective reality.	Brantlinger argues that Conrad’s impressionistic style makes it difficult to determine whether Heart of Darkness is anti-imperialist or racist (p. 365).
Manicheanism	A worldview that divides reality into absolute opposites (e.g., good vs. evil, civilization vs. savagery).	Heart of Darkness reinforces Manichean oppositions, particularly in its racialized contrast between Europeans and Africans (p. 371).
Commodity Fetishism	A Marxist concept where economic value is abstracted from human labor and social relations.	Brantlinger references Edward Said’s argument that the European characters in the novel fetishize ivory and power, much like how imperialism treats colonies as commodities (p. 370).
Schizophrenic Writing	Fredric Jameson’s idea that modernist texts exhibit deep contradictions, both stylistically and ideologically.	Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is both anti-imperialist and racist, creating an unresolved tension in its narrative (p. 374).
Colonial Adventure Romance	A literary genre glorifying European exploration, conquest, and heroism.	Conrad both critiques and participates in the imperialist adventure romance tradition, making his position ambiguous (p. 374).
Nihilism	The belief in the absence of inherent meaning or value in life.	Kurtz embodies nihilism, abandoning all moral constraints in his pursuit of power, which Brantlinger connects to Conrad’s own disillusionment (p. 378).
Eurocentrism	A perspective that prioritizes European culture, values, and perspectives as superior.	Conrad’s Africa is presented as a place of darkness, reinforcing Eurocentric stereotypes despite its critique of European imperialism (p. 372).
Dehumanization	The process of reducing people to objects, animals, or mere functions.	Africans in Heart of Darkness are depicted through animalistic imagery, reinforcing their dehumanization within the novel (p. 371).
Propaganda	Misleading or biased information used to promote a political cause or ideology.	Conrad criticizes the way imperialism disguises its violent nature with noble rhetoric, yet his own work sometimes echoes imperialist discourse (p. 382).
Symbolism	The use of objects, characters, or themes to represent larger abstract ideas.	Heart of Darkness uses light and darkness symbolically, but these metaphors reinforce racialized meanings (p. 371).
Ambiguity	The presence of multiple, often conflicting meanings within a text.	Conrad’s use of multiple narrative layers and unreliable narrators creates interpretive ambiguity, making the novel open to both anti-imperialist and racist readings (p. 365).
Universalism vs. Cultural Relativism	The debate over whether moral and ethical principles are absolute or culturally specific.	Conrad critiques European imperialism, but his portrayal of Africans assumes European superiority, reflecting a failure of cultural relativism (p. 371).

Contribution of “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Critique of Imperialist Discourse:

Brantlinger engages with Heart of Darkness as both a critique and an embodiment of colonial ideology. He acknowledges that the novel exposes the atrocities of Belgian rule but simultaneously reinforces racist views.
“Heart of Darkness expresses not only what Conrad saw and partially recorded in his ‘Congo Diary,’ but also the revelations of atrocities which began appearing in the British press as early as 1888” (p. 366).
This aligns with postcolonial theory’s concern with how colonial narratives construct and reinforce power dynamics.
Manichean Oppositions in Colonial Discourse:

He highlights how Conrad reproduces binary oppositions (light/dark, civilization/savagery), a central concern in postcolonial theory.
“Despite momentous departures from traditional European usage . . . the fiction gravitates back to established practice, registering the view of two incompatible orders within a Manichean universe” (p. 371).
This reflects Fanonian and Said’s critiques of colonial literature’s reliance on polarized worldviews.
Response to Achebe’s Critique:

Brantlinger situates his argument within Chinua Achebe’s famous criticism that Heart of Darkness is racist.
“Achebe is therefore right to call Conrad’s portrayal of Africa and Africans ‘racist'” (p. 371).
By engaging with Achebe, Brantlinger contributes to postcolonial debates over whether Conrad’s novel subverts or reinforces imperialism.

2. Marxist Literary Theory

Imperialism as Economic Exploitation:

Brantlinger aligns with Marxist critiques of imperialism, showing how Heart of Darkness reveals the economic motives behind colonialism.
“To tear treasure out of the bowels of the land was their desire, with no more moral purpose at the back of it than there is in burglars breaking into a safe” (p. 370).
This aligns with Lenin’s view of imperialism as an economic venture.
Commodity Fetishism:

Drawing on Edward Said, Brantlinger suggests that Conrad critiques the commodification of African land and people under capitalism.
“Imperialism itself is perceived as the dark within Europe . . . yet despite momentous departures, the fiction gravitates back to established practice” (p. 371).
This reflects Marxist concerns with how ideology masks economic exploitation.

3. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Kurtz as the Freudian Id:

Brantlinger connects Kurtz’s descent into savagery with Freudian theories of the unconscious, particularly the id.
“It little matters what, in terms of psychological symbolism, we . . . say [Kurtz] represents: whether the Freudian id or the Jungian shadow or more vaguely the outlaw” (p. 375).
This aligns with Freudian interpretations that see Heart of Darkness as an exploration of suppressed desires.
The Novel as a Psychological Journey:

Heart of Darkness is interpreted as an inward psychological journey where Kurtz represents repressed European desires.
“Guerard adds that ‘it little matters what, in terms of psychological symbolism, we . . . say [Kurtz] represents: whether the Freudian id or the Jungian shadow or more vaguely the outlaw'” (p. 375).
This aligns with psychoanalytic readings of literature as an expression of repressed impulses.

4. Formalism & Narratology

Impressionism and Narrative Ambiguity:

Brantlinger discusses how Conrad’s impressionistic style complicates the novel’s meaning.
“The narrative frame filters everything that is said not just through Marlow, but also through the anonymous primary narrator” (p. 365).
This contributes to narratological discussions of unreliable narration.
Schizophrenic Textuality (Fredric Jameson’s Contribution):

He applies Fredric Jameson’s theory of “schizophrenic writing,” arguing that Conrad’s novel simultaneously critiques and embodies imperialist ideology.
“Conrad’s fiction betrays a symptomatic split between a modernist ‘will to style’ and the reified, mass culture tendencies of romance conventions” (p. 374).
This aligns with postmodernist and narratological critiques of textual contradictions.

5. New Historicism

Contextualizing Heart of Darkness in Imperial History:

Brantlinger situates the novel within historical events such as King Leopold’s atrocities in the Congo.
“The bloodiest period in the history of Leopold’s regime began about a year later” (p. 368).
This approach reflects New Historicist concerns with embedding literary texts in their socio-political contexts.
Conrad’s Engagement with Colonial Propaganda:

He examines how Heart of Darkness reflects and critiques the propaganda justifying imperialism.
“More revolting to see without a mask was that falsehood which had been hiding under the words which for ages had spurred men to noble deeds” (p. 367).
This aligns with New Historicist critiques of language as a tool of power.

6. Deconstruction

The Collapse of Meaning in Heart of Darkness:

Brantlinger explores how Conrad’s language undoes its own messages.
“Conrad constructs a story in which the ‘meaning’ does not lie at the center, not even at ‘the heart of darkness,’ but elsewhere, in ‘misty halos’ and ‘moonshine'” (p. 375).
This aligns with Derridean deconstruction, where texts subvert their own intended meanings.
Undermining the Stability of Binary Oppositions:

While Heart of Darkness relies on light/dark and civilization/savagery oppositions, it also destabilizes them.
“Viewed one way, Conrad’s anti-imperialist story condemns the murderous racism of Kurtz’s imperative. Viewed another way, Conrad’s racist story voices that very imperative” (p. 381).
This aligns with Derrida’s argument that texts contain the seeds of their own deconstruction.

Examples of Critiques Through “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger

Literary Work	Critique Through Brantlinger’s Analysis
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	Brantlinger argues that Heart of Darkness is both anti-imperialist and racist, embodying contradictions through its “impressionist” style. While it critiques imperialist violence, it also portrays Africa as the “other,” reinforcing racial stereotypes (Brantlinger, p. 370).
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s work serves as a counter-narrative to Conrad’s portrayal of Africa. Brantlinger’s analysis highlights how Achebe critiques Heart of Darkness for its racist portrayal, calling Conrad “a bloody racist” and accusing him of normalizing white racism against Africa (Brantlinger, p. 363).
Rider Haggard’s King Solomon’s Mines	Brantlinger links Haggard’s adventure novel to the “imperialist imagination,” showing how it upholds the Manichean dichotomy of civilized vs. savage. Like Conrad, Haggard romanticizes the European explorer’s role, though with less irony (Brantlinger, p. 374).
E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Brantlinger’s critique of imperialist fiction extends to Forster’s work, which, though critical of British colonial rule, still frames Indians through a European gaze. His analysis suggests that Forster, like Conrad, struggles with dismantling imperialist ideology fully (Brantlinger, p. 372).

Criticism Against “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger

Overemphasis on Impressionism
- Some critics argue that Brantlinger leans too heavily on the concept of “impressionism” as a means to explain Conrad’s ambiguities, potentially oversimplifying the complexities of Conrad’s narrative structure (Brantlinger, p. 373).
Contradictory Position on Racism and Imperialism
- Brantlinger simultaneously argues that Heart of Darkness is both anti-imperialist and racist, which some critics see as an unresolved contradiction rather than a nuanced interpretation. This stance has been challenged for not offering a clear resolution (Brantlinger, p. 372).
Reduction of Conrad’s Political Intentions
- By focusing on the “schizophrenic” nature of the text, Brantlinger may underplay Conrad’s more direct political critique of imperialism, as seen in his letters and support for the Congo Reform Association (Brantlinger, p. 367).
Minimal Engagement with Postcolonial Theory
- Despite referencing Achebe, Brantlinger does not deeply engage with postcolonial theorists who provide alternative readings of Heart of Darkness, such as Edward Said or Homi Bhabha, leaving a gap in his theoretical framework (Brantlinger, p. 370).
Comparison with Other Imperialist Literature
- Some critics argue that Brantlinger does not fully distinguish Heart of Darkness from other imperialist adventure narratives, such as those by Rider Haggard or Rudyard Kipling, thereby overlooking Conrad’s irony and subversion (Brantlinger, p. 374).
Inconsistent Treatment of Kurtz
- Brantlinger’s reading of Kurtz as both a critique of European imperialism and a figure admired by Conrad creates ambiguity. This has been criticized for lacking a definitive stance on whether Kurtz is a condemnation or a tragic hero (Brantlinger, p. 379).

Representative Quotations from “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Achebe’s diatribe has provoked a number of vigorous defenses of Heart of Darkness, which predictably stress Conrad’s critical stance toward imperialism and also the wide acceptance of racist language and categories in the late Victorian period.” (p. 364)	Brantlinger contextualizes Chinua Achebe’s criticism of Heart of Darkness, noting that many defenders of Conrad argue he was critiquing imperialism rather than endorsing it. However, the acceptance of racist language complicates the issue.
“The politics of Conrad’s story are complicated by its ambiguous style. I will use ‘impressionism’ as a highly inadequate term to refer to its language and narrative structure.” (p. 365)	Brantlinger highlights the difficulty in categorizing Conrad’s style. He refers to “impressionism” to describe the ambiguous and layered nature of Conrad’s narrative, which obscures definitive ideological positions.
“Conrad universalizes ‘darkness’ partly by universalizing fetishism. If the ‘natives’ in their darkness set Kurtz up as an idol, the Europeans worship ivory, money, power, reputation.” (p. 370)	This passage critiques Heart of Darkness for portraying African cultures as fetishistic while showing European imperialists as obsessed with wealth and control, drawing an implicit parallel between the two.
“Achebe is therefore right to call Conrad’s portrayal of Africa and Africans ‘racist.’ It is possible to argue, as does Parry, that Conrad works with the white-and-black, light-and-darkness dichotomies of racist fantasy in order to subvert them, but she acknowledges that the subversion is incomplete.” (p. 371)	Brantlinger acknowledges Achebe’s argument that Conrad’s depiction of Africa is racist. He suggests that while some critics believe Conrad subverts these stereotypes, his critique remains incomplete.
“The omission of the Arabs means that Conrad does not treat cannibalism as a result of war, but as an everyday custom of the Congolese, even though he probably saw no evidence of it when he was there.” (p. 372)	This criticism points out how Conrad distorts reality by emphasizing African savagery while omitting key historical contexts, such as the Arab presence in the Congo.
“Conrad’s stress on cannibalism, his identification of African customs with violence, lust, and madness, his metaphors of bestiality, death, and darkness—these features of the story are drawn from the repertoire of Victorian imperialism and racism that painted an entire continent dark.” (p. 371)	Brantlinger connects Conrad’s descriptions to broader Victorian imperialist and racist tropes, suggesting that Heart of Darkness participates in rather than merely critiques these ideas.
“One of the most remarkable perversions of the criticism of Heart of Darkness has been to see Kurtz not as an abomination—a ‘hollow man’ with a lust for blood and domination—but as a ‘hero of the spirit.'” (p. 378)	He criticizes interpretations of Kurtz as a tragic hero, arguing instead that he should be seen as a figure of imperialist brutality rather than spiritual depth.
“Viewed one way, Conrad’s anti-imperialist story condemns the murderous racism of Kurtz’s imperative. Viewed another way, Conrad’s racist story voices that very imperative, and Conrad knows it.” (p. 381)	Brantlinger highlights the dual nature of Heart of Darkness, suggesting that while it criticizes imperialism, it also reflects and perpetuates its racist ideologies.
“At the hollow center of Heart of Darkness, far from the ‘misty halos’ and ‘moonshine’ where the meaning supposedly resides, Conrad inscribes a text which, like the novel itself, cancels out its own best intentions.” (p. 381)	He argues that the novel’s ambiguity undermines its anti-imperialist message, leaving it open to multiple, contradictory interpretations.
“The fact that there are almost no other works of British fiction written before World War I which are critical of imperialism, and hundreds of imperialist ones which are racist through and through, is a measure of Conrad’s achievement.” (p. 383)	Despite his critiques, Brantlinger acknowledges Heart of Darkness as a rare pre-WWI British novel that critiques imperialism, even if it remains flawed in its portrayal of race.

“About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya: Summary and Critique

“About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism” by Natalja Zamkovaya first appeared in The Russian Academic Journal, Vol. 29, #3 (2014) and explores the complexities of colonial racism, its evolution into neo-racism, and its implications in modern society.

Introduction: “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

“About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism” by Natalja Zamkovaya first appeared in The Russian Academic Journal, Vol. 29, #3 (2014) and explores the complexities of colonial racism, its evolution into neo-racism, and its implications in modern society. The article situates racism as a central factor in language-cultural discrimination, emphasizing its transformation from overt colonial oppression to subtler, institutionalized forms of exclusion. Zamkovaya integrates the theoretical insights of Étienne Balibar and V. Malahov, highlighting how neo-racism operates through cultural differentiation rather than biological inferiority. The study critically examines racism’s structural mechanisms, such as the fixation of migrants as racialized subjects and the role of the state in perpetuating exclusion through legislation and social institutions. Malahov’s analysis, which distinguishes Russian racism from its Western counterparts by its emphasis on “civilization” rather than “blood,” aligns with Balibar’s concept of “differentiation racism,” wherein cultural distinctions serve as a basis for exclusion. Additionally, the work examines multiculturalism’s paradoxical role in sustaining racial hierarchies, echoing Slavoj Žižek’s assertion that multiculturalism functions as a veiled form of racism by reinforcing fixed cultural identities. The article’s significance in literary theory and social thought lies in its interrogation of the ideological and institutional foundations of racism, contributing to discussions on nationalism, migration, and the intersection of cultural and ethnic identity. By juxtaposing Western and post-Soviet perspectives, Zamkovaya offers a nuanced understanding of how colonial and postcolonial racism persist in contemporary society, making her work a valuable resource for scholars studying race, identity, and globalization.

Summary of “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

Colonial Racism and Neo-Racism
Zamkovaya explores the transformation of traditional “colonial racism” into modern “neo-racism” or “postcolonial racism,” which operates through more subtle discrimination strategies (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
Key Theoretical Foundations
- Étienne Balibar’s theory is central to understanding neo-racism, emphasizing “differentiation racism,” which focuses on cultural differences rather than biological inferiority (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30).
- Russian scholar V. Malahov contributes to the discussion by analyzing racism in Russia, emphasizing that it is based on “civilization arguments” rather than “blood arguments” (Malahov, 2007, p. 86).
Ethnicity and National Community Formation
- The ethnic element plays a role in national identity, including the potential reduction of ethnos into a “quasi-natural community” (Malahov, 2007, p. 23).
- Racism is fundamentally linked to the differentiation between groups, categorizing the “Stranger” as an object of discrimination (Malahov, 2007, p. 82).
Racism as a Mechanism of Social Exclusion
- Racism is a “strategy of removal” used to exclude certain groups from social integration (Malahov, 2007, p. 84).
- This exclusion is supported by ideological and institutional mechanisms, such as legislation and state-sponsored social organizations (Malahov, 2007, p. 104).
Migration and Neo-Racism
- The discourse of race has shifted to the category of migration, with migrants replacing traditional racial categories in discrimination narratives (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30).
- Malahov argues that migration issues are reframed as cultural conflicts, distancing them from socioeconomic concerns (Malahov, 2007, p. 93).
Multiculturalism as a Modern Form of Racism
- While multiculturalism is often viewed as an anti-racist ideology, it paradoxically reinforces racism by emphasizing cultural “Difference” (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110).
- Malahov describes multiculturalism as a “variety of minor despotisms,” leading to the creation of new cultural hierarchies (Malahov, 2007, p. 153).
Comparative Analysis: Russia vs. Germany
- Malahov compares racism in Russia and Germany, highlighting that racism in Russia is more deeply embedded in national identity discourse (Malahov, 2007, p. 113).
- In Germany, racism is mitigated by European integration, whereas in Russia, it is exacerbated by the dominance of ethnic nationalism (Malahov, 2007, p. 113).
Protective Nationalism vs. Expansionist Nationalism
- Some forms of nationalism, such as “protective nationalism,” do not necessarily lead to racism (Thomson, 2008, p. 32).
- V. Zhabotinskyi’s nationalism exemplifies an identity-based movement that resists colonial oppression without engaging in racial segregation (Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66).
Conclusion: Rethinking Racism and Nationalism
- Zamkovaya concludes that racism is an autonomous phenomenon that does not always accompany nationalism, challenging conventional narratives (Arendt, 1951, p. 206).
- The study underscores the importance of distinguishing between ethnic identity and racial discrimination in contemporary discourse on nationalism and migration (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference
Colonial Racism	Traditional form of racism based on overt discrimination, often tied to imperial rule and biological inferiority.	Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65
Neo-Racism / Postcolonial Racism	A modern form of racism that focuses on cultural differentiation rather than biological inferiority. It operates through implicit discrimination strategies.	Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30; Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65
Differentiation Racism	A type of racism where exclusion is based on cultural differences rather than biological or ethnic inferiority.	Malahov, 2007, p. 82
Ethnic Substrate	The foundational ethnic identity that underlies racial differentiation and determines social hierarchies.	Malahov, 2007, p. 23
Quasi-Natural Community	The idea that ethnic groups function as “natural” communities, despite being socially constructed.	Malahov, 2007, p. 23
Civilization Racism	A variant of racism that does not rely on race or biology but rather on the perceived superiority of one civilization over another. This is particularly relevant in the Russian context.	Malahov, 2007, p. 86
Meta-Racism	A form of racism that functions at a structural level, operating through institutions rather than direct discrimination.	Malahov, 2007, p. 32
Migration as a Substitute for Race	The concept that in modern racism, migrants have replaced traditional racial categories as the primary target of discrimination.	Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30
Cultural Racism	A form of racism that emphasizes cultural differences as a justification for exclusion, rather than biological characteristics.	Freud (as cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)
Multiculturalism as a Form of Racism	The paradox that multiculturalism, while ostensibly anti-racist, reinforces racial divisions by emphasizing cultural “Difference.”	Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110
Protective Nationalism	A form of nationalism that seeks to preserve a national identity without engaging in racial discrimination.	Thomson, 2008, p. 32
Expansionist Nationalism	A type of nationalism that seeks to expand national identity at the expense of other groups, often associated with colonialism.	Malahov, 2007, p. 113
Double Identity in Nationalism	The idea that individuals can hold multiple national identities simultaneously, challenging the assumption of exclusive national loyalty.	Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66
Cultural Equilibrium	A concept in neo-racism where societal boundaries function as “prevention measures” to maintain cultural stability.	Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30
Ethnos Reduction	The process of reducing ethnicity to a social construct that serves nationalistic or exclusionary purposes.	Malahov, 2007, p. 23
Stranger/Alien as an Object of Racism	The idea that racism is fundamentally about categorizing certain people as outsiders or threats.	Malahov, 2007, p. 82
Nationalism without Racism	The possibility of a nationalist ideology that does not rely on racial segregation or exclusion.	Arendt, 1951, p. 206

Contribution of “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

The article builds on postcolonial theory by analyzing how racism evolved from colonial oppression to cultural differentiation in the modern world (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
The concept of neo-racism, which replaces biological racism with cultural exclusion, is aligned with Edward Said’s Orientalism, where the “Other” is categorized as culturally inferior rather than racially subordinate (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30).
Zamkovaya’s discussion of “Arabian phobia” and its connection to Islam as a cultural construct mirrors postcolonial critiques of racialization through religion (Malahov, 2007, p. 32).

2. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

The article contributes to Critical Race Theory by emphasizing how legal and social institutions perpetuate racism through the category of migration (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67).
Malahov’s argument that Russian racism is based on a “civilization argument” rather than race reflects CRT’s focus on structural and systemic racism rather than individual prejudice (Malahov, 2007, p. 86).
The study’s examination of racialized legislation and social policies aligns with CRT’s assertion that racism is embedded in law and governance (Malahov, 2007, p. 104).

3. Multiculturalism and Literary Representation

The paradox of multiculturalism as a disguised form of racism connects to literary studies on identity politics and representation (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110).
The discussion of how multiculturalism maintains “fixed cultural identities” contributes to debates on essentialism vs. constructivism in identity politics (Malahov, 2007, p. 153).
J. Serl’s critique of representation in education—that literature is reduced to identity-based selections rather than aesthetic or intellectual value—supports concerns in literary canon debates (Serl, 2002, p. 38).

4. Nationalism and Literature

The analysis of protective nationalism vs. expansionist nationalism contributes to theories on national literature and identity formation (Thomson, 2008, p. 32).
V. Zhabotinskyi’s nationalism, which respects cultural pluralism, supports cultural pluralism theory in literary discourse (Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66).
The study’s claim that national consciousness does not always require racial exclusion challenges traditional nationalist narratives in literary theory (Arendt, 1951, p. 206).

5. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Zamkovaya references Freudian concepts such as “concentration” to explain how cultural racism reintegrates biological racism into discourse, paralleling psychoanalytic interpretations of racial and cultural identity (Freud as cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
The fear of migrant invasion as a psychological mechanism aligns with Lacanian psychoanalysis, where the “Other” represents a threat to self-identity (Malahov, 2007, p. 93).

6. Discourse Analysis and Ideology in Literature

The study of racism as a discourse of power and exclusion contributes to Michel Foucault’s discourse theory, demonstrating how racial hierarchies are maintained through language and institutional narratives (Malahov, 2007, p. 82).
The discussion of “recoding the problem of social cooperation into cultural disposition” supports Foucault’s view that social problems are reframed ideologically to serve dominant power structures (Malahov, 2007, p. 93).

Examples of Critiques Through “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

Literary Work	Critique Based on Zamkovaya’s Theories	Key Concepts from Zamkovaya
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness	The novel’s portrayal of Africa and its inhabitants aligns with colonial racism, depicting Africans as “savages” and Europe as the superior civilization. Zamkovaya’s concept of civilization racism (Malahov, 2007, p. 86) can be applied to show how the West justifies colonial domination not through race, but through cultural superiority.	Colonial Racism, Civilization Racism, Ethnos Reduction (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65; Malahov, 2007, p. 23)
Chinua Achebe – Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s novel challenges neo-racism by depicting Igbo society’s complexity, contradicting colonial narratives. The European characters in the novel display differentiation racism (Malahov, 2007, p. 82), treating the Igbo people as culturally inferior rather than biologically lesser.	Neo-Racism, Differentiation Racism, Cultural Racism (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30; Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)
J.M. Coetzee – Disgrace	The post-apartheid tensions in Disgrace reflect migration as a substitute for race (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30), where white South Africans experience the shift in power dynamics and struggle with postcolonial racism. The novel illustrates the tension between protective nationalism and expansionist nationalism (Thomson, 2008, p. 32; Malahov, 2007, p. 113).	Postcolonial Racism, Migration as a Substitute for Race, Nationalism Without Racism (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65; Arendt, 1951, p. 206)
Toni Morrison – Beloved	The novel explores racial trauma and historical memory, aligning with Zamkovaya’s idea that racism is a mechanism of removal (Malahov, 2007, p. 84). The ghosts of slavery persist in the characters’ consciousness, reflecting the discourse of exclusion analyzed in Zamkovaya’s work.	Racism as a Mechanism of Removal, Discourse Analysis, Cultural Memory (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65; Malahov, 2007, p. 82)

Criticism Against “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

1. Lack of Empirical Evidence

The article relies heavily on theoretical frameworks from Balibar and Malahov but does not provide substantial empirical data to support claims about racism’s evolution in different societies (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65).
It lacks specific case studies or statistical evidence to illustrate how neo-racism operates in practice.

2. Overgeneralization of Multiculturalism as Racism

The claim that multiculturalism is a disguised form of racism (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110) is debatable, as it does not account for contexts where multicultural policies promote inclusion and diversity.
Zamkovaya’s reliance on Malahov’s critique of multiculturalism (Malahov, 2007, p. 153) does not fully engage with the positive aspects of multicultural policies, particularly in Western democracies.

3. Limited Engagement with Non-European Perspectives

The discussion of postcolonial racism focuses primarily on Western and Russian scholars (Balibar, Malahov, and Freud) while neglecting important voices from the Global South, such as Frantz Fanon or Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o.
This Eurocentric bias weakens the analysis by ignoring how postcolonial racism manifests differently in non-Western societies.

4. Insufficient Distinction Between Nationalism and Racism

Although the study argues that nationalism can exist without racism (Arendt, 1951, p. 206), it does not fully explore cases where nationalism inherently leads to racial discrimination.
The assumption that “protective nationalism” (Thomson, 2008, p. 32) is free of exclusionary practices is questionable, as nationalism often creates in-group vs. out-group dynamics.

5. Theoretical Inconsistencies

Zamkovaya’s discussion of cultural racism vs. biological racism is somewhat contradictory—while claiming that neo-racism is based on cultural exclusion, she also acknowledges the persistence of ethnic-biological racism (Malahov, 2007, p. 32).
The study does not sufficiently address how these two forms of racism intersect in contemporary discourse.

6. Minimal Focus on Contemporary Globalization and Digital Racism

The article primarily analyzes racism in traditional contexts (colonialism, migration, and multiculturalism) but does not consider how racism manifests in digital spaces, such as social media and AI-based discrimination.
The role of globalization in reshaping racism in the 21st century is underexplored.

Representative Quotations from “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation & Theoretical Perspective
1. “Racism is one of the strategies of removal. The mechanism of removal is a fundamental social mechanism, and removal should underline the definite ideological background.” (Malahov, 2007, p. 84, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)	This statement aligns with Critical Race Theory (CRT), which examines how racial exclusion is embedded in social structures. It suggests that racism functions as a systematic exclusionary mechanism, ensuring marginalized groups remain outside dominant societal institutions.
2. “Using migration category, which substitutes the notion of race, but on the other hand — leads to the decomposition of class consciousness.” (Balibar & Wallerstein, 2002, p. 30, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This reflects neo-racism or cultural racism, where discrimination shifts from biological justifications to cultural ones. It also connects with Marxist theory, suggesting that focusing on cultural differences among migrants disrupts class solidarity.
3. “The meaning of Russian racism is based not on the ‘blood argument’ but on the ‘civilization argument.'” (Malahov, 2007, p. 86, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)	This reinforces civilization racism, a concept where superiority is justified based on cultural development rather than race. It connects to Edward Said’s Orientalism, where the West justifies dominance over non-Western societies by portraying them as culturally inferior.
4. “Differentiation racism, meta racism, and second position racism are typical features of neo-racism and modified colonial principle.” (Malahov, 2007, p. 32, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This highlights the evolution of racism, where modern discrimination operates through differentiation rather than overt oppression. It relates to postcolonial theory, showing how racism adapts under new socio-political conditions.
5. “Multiculturalism is the disavowed, transformed self-referent form of racism, fixed distant racism, which respects the identity of the ‘Difference’ but only at a distance.” (Zhizhek, 2005, p. 110, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	Slavoj Žižek critiques multiculturalism as a subtle form of exclusion, where cultural differences are acknowledged but kept separate. This aligns with cultural relativism debates in postmodern theory.
6. “Arabian phobia is based upon a world outlook not compliant with the European one, forming a typical mixture of ‘Arabian ethnos’ with Islamic religion, which means — with cultural phenomenon.” (Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 65)	This connects with Islamophobia as a form of cultural racism, where entire ethnic groups are defined by religious identity. It mirrors Balibar’s notion that modern racism operates through cultural markers rather than biological differences.
7. “The process of making migration ethnic results in its consideration in the field of ethnic-national discourse.” (Malahov, 2007, p. 104, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This relates to Benedict Anderson’s concept of imagined communities, showing how migrant identities are racialized within nationalist discourses. Migration becomes a racial category, reinforcing national boundaries.
8. “Protective nationalism characterizes such notions, created by common memory, which feel danger for themselves—either due to their small numbers or threats from expansive neighbors.” (Thomson, 2008, p. 32, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This introduces protective nationalism, which contrasts with expansionist nationalism. It links to Herder’s romantic nationalism, where national identity is preserved through cultural unity rather than conquest.
9. “For the one who is Ukrainian by nationality, all the other connections with the tribe, race, etc., may have only secondary meaning: the choice of culture is identified neither by ‘race’ nor by ‘tribe’ but by recognizing national affiliation.” (Zhabotinskiy, 1991, p. 66, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	This challenges ethno-nationalist perspectives, suggesting that nationalism can exist independently of racial identity. It aligns with civic nationalism, where identity is defined by cultural and political factors rather than ethnicity.
10. “Racism from the very beginning has been contradicting national borders, no matter on what criteria it’s been distinguished—geographical, lingual, ethnographical or any other.” (Arendt, 1951, p. 206, cited in Zamkovaya, 2014, p. 67)	Hannah Arendt’s perspective supports the argument that racism transcends nationalism, often operating as a global ideological system. This aligns with globalization studies, suggesting racism persists even as borders become fluid.

“Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta: Summary and Critique

“Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta, first appeared in Science, Vol. 336, on May 18, 2012, explores the evolutionary and psychological origins of human bias, particularly the tendency to divide the world into ingroups and outgroups.

Introduction: “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

“Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta, first appeared in Science, Vol. 336, on May 18, 2012, explores the evolutionary and psychological origins of human bias, particularly the tendency to divide the world into ingroups and outgroups. Culotta delves into how these biases, often unconscious and deeply ingrained, shape human interactions, foster prejudice, and contribute to social conflicts ranging from everyday discrimination to large-scale violence. Drawing on interdisciplinary research from psychology, anthropology, and evolutionary biology, the article discusses how implicit biases are not necessarily rooted in racial differences per se but rather in an ancient predisposition toward coalitionary thinking. Studies cited in the article demonstrate how even primates display outgroup bias, indicating that such tendencies have deep evolutionary roots. Furthermore, the research highlights the role of environmental and situational factors in amplifying or mitigating these biases, suggesting that while prejudice is an automatic response, it can be overridden through conscious effort and social conditioning. In the broader context of literary theory and cultural studies, Culotta’s work is significant because it provides a scientific foundation for analyzing themes of racial and social division in literature. Her discussion of implicit bias and the construction of “us versus them” narratives aligns with postcolonial theory, critical race studies, and social psychology, offering a lens through which literary texts can be examined in relation to historical and contemporary power structures. This article underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in understanding and deconstructing racism, making it a valuable resource for scholars in both the sciences and the humanities.

Summary of “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

1. The Evolutionary Roots of Prejudice

Humans instinctively categorize others into ingroups and outgroups, a tendency that appears to be deeply embedded in our evolutionary history (Culotta, 2012).
This unconscious bias influences social interactions and often leads to discrimination before rational thought intervenes: “Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color” (p. 825).
Research suggests that early human survival depended on group cooperation, which also fostered suspicion toward outsiders.

2. Ingroup Loyalty and Outgroup Hostility

Humans show strong favoritism toward their ingroups, even when these groups are arbitrarily defined: “In arbitrarily constructed, meaningless groups with no history, people still think that those in their ingroup are smarter, better, more moral, and more just than members of outgroups” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 825).
Psychological experiments show that people are more likely to trust and help ingroup members while remaining suspicious or hostile toward outsiders.
This phenomenon manifests in social conflicts, racial discrimination, and intergroup violence worldwide.

3. The Role of Implicit Bias in Modern Society

Studies using the Implicit Associations Test reveal that even people who consciously reject racism still demonstrate implicit biases: “This is in every single one of us, including me” (Banaji, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827).
Experiments show that people are more likely to mistake a harmless object (e.g., a phone) for a weapon when held by an outgroup member (p. 827).
These biases appear early in life; research on toddlers shows they associate positive emotions with their own race and negative emotions with outgroups (p. 827).

4. Primate Studies Suggest Bias is Evolutionary

Research on rhesus macaques shows that even primates display outgroup bias, indicating that this tendency is deeply ingrained in social species (Culotta, 2012, p. 827).
Macaques stare longer at outgroup faces and associate them with negative stimuli, reinforcing the idea that intergroup prejudice has evolutionary roots.
Harvard psychologist Mahzarin Banaji describes this as “core to our species” (p. 827).

5. Environmental and Social Triggers for Prejudice

Context influences how strongly people react to outgroups; threat perception increases bias:
- “Canadians taking tests in the dark rated Iraqis as less trustworthy and more hostile” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827).
- Exposure to violent or fearful stimuli (e.g., a horror movie scene) heightens implicit racial bias (p. 827).
Fear and uncertainty amplify these biases, leading to tragic real-world consequences such as the Trayvon Martin shooting (p. 827).

6. The “Warrior Male Hypothesis” and Gendered Prejudice

Men, more than women, tend to exhibit stronger intergroup bias, likely due to evolutionary pressures favoring male coalition-building (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827).
Historically, men were more likely to be involved in intergroup conflicts, shaping biases toward outgroup males as threats (p. 827).
Black men in the U.S. experience disproportionate bias in legal and social systems, receiving harsher punishments and facing higher rates of racial profiling (p. 827).

7. Mitigating Bias: Can Prejudice Be Reduced?

While implicit biases are deeply ingrained, they are not immutable; researchers explore ways to counteract them:
- “Making people feel safer can moderate this bias” (Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827).
- Exposure to diverse groups and positive interactions can help rewire automatic prejudices.
- Conscious efforts, such as reading job applications carefully rather than skimming, help counteract bias in decision-making (p. 827).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Implicit Bias	Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence behavior toward certain groups.	“Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Ingroup Favoritism	The tendency to prefer and prioritize members of one’s own social group over others.	“People still think that those in their ingroup are smarter, better, more moral, and more just than members of outgroups.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Outgroup Bias/Outgroup Hate	The automatic preference for one’s own group and negative perception of outsiders.	“If groups compete for territory or resources, favoring the ingroup necessarily means beating the outgroup and can escalate into hostility.” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Coalitionary Psychology	The evolutionary adaptation to form social groups for cooperation and survival, leading to biases toward outsiders.	“Our central adaptation is to group living.” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Arbitrary-Set Prejudice	Prejudice based on socially constructed group identities rather than biological differences.	“In Sri Lanka, it may be Tamils; in Northern Ireland, Catholics or Protestants; in India, the Untouchables.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Implicit Associations Test (IAT)	A psychological test measuring unconscious biases by evaluating response times to word-image pairings.	“It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Warrior Male Hypothesis	The theory that men evolved to form strong coalitions and display higher levels of intergroup bias due to historical warfare.	“Back in the Pleistocene, outgroup males really were dangerous.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Threat-Detection System	The psychological mechanism that exaggerates perceptions of danger from outgroups to avoid potential threats.	“Like smoke detectors, the system is designed to give many false alarms rather than miss a true threat.” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Stereotype Formation	The cognitive process of assigning generalized characteristics to a group based on limited experiences.	“Taiwanese toddlers assumed that a smiling racially ambiguous face was Taiwanese, but a frowning one was white.” (Dunham, Banaji, & colleagues, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Primate Outgroup Bias	Evidence that even non-human primates categorize individuals into “us” and “them,” suggesting evolutionary roots of bias.	“Macaques stared longer at photos of the faces of outgroup members than at ingroup faces.” (Santos et al., cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Situational Triggers of Prejudice	Environmental factors (e.g., darkness, fear, perceived threat) that increase implicit biases and discrimination.	“Canadians taking tests in the dark rated Iraqis as less trustworthy and more hostile.” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Intergroup Competition Theory	The idea that competition for resources or power increases hostility between groups.	“More cooperative groups won battles.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 826)

Contribution of “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Reinforces the concept of “Othering”: Culotta’s discussion of outgroup bias aligns with postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, who describe how colonial powers create the “Other” to justify dominance.
Reference from the article: “Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Application to literary texts: Novels like Heart of Darkness (Conrad) and Things Fall Apart (Achebe) depict how colonizers and natives construct each other as the Other, reflecting the automatic biases discussed by Culotta.

2. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Supports the idea that racism is systemic and unconscious: The study of implicit bias in the article reinforces CRT’s argument that racism is not just overt discrimination but is deeply embedded in social and psychological structures.
Reference from the article: “It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Application to literary texts: Toni Morrison’s Beloved and Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man explore how systemic racism shapes identity and social interactions, paralleling findings on implicit bias.

3. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Explains unconscious fear and prejudice: Culotta’s argument about implicit racial fear mirrors Freudian concepts of the unconscious mind shaping behavior.
Reference from the article: “These prejudices tap into very ancient parts of our minds, and it’s happening at a very quick, automatic level.” (Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Application to literary texts: In Native Son (Richard Wright), Bigger Thomas’s fear-driven responses to white authority reflect deep-seated, unconscious biases on both sides.

4. Structuralism and Semiotics

Shows that racial categorization is a constructed system of meaning: The study’s findings on arbitrary group formation align with structuralist views that meaning is not inherent but socially constructed.
Reference from the article: “People easily form coalitions based on meaningless traits such as preferring one painter over another.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Application to literary texts: Chinua Achebe’s No Longer at Ease and Nella Larsen’s Passing explore how racial identity is constructed rather than biologically determined.

5. Feminist Literary Theory (Intersectionality)

Highlights how racial prejudice disproportionately affects men: The Warrior Male Hypothesis in the article aligns with feminist intersectionality, which examines how race and gender intersect in oppression.
Reference from the article: “Black men are more likely to be victims of hate crimes, receive harsher jail sentences for comparable offenses, pay more money for cars—the list goes on and on.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Application to literary texts: The Color Purple (Alice Walker) and Their Eyes Were Watching God (Zora Neale Hurston) explore how racial and gender biases affect Black men and women differently.

6. New Historicism

Explains how historical context shapes prejudice: The article’s discussion of intergroup violence supports New Historicist views that racism must be examined in historical and cultural contexts.
Reference from the article: “Ethnic distinctions, however, are presumably quite old.” (Boyd, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Application to literary texts: William Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom! and Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird reflect historical racism rooted in longstanding social structures.

7. Cognitive Literary Theory

Explains how literature can reshape biases: Research in the article suggests that human cognition can override implicit bias, supporting cognitive literary theory’s argument that reading fosters empathy.
Reference from the article: “Making people feel safer can moderate this bias.” (Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Application to literary texts: Books like To Kill a Mockingbird and The Kite Runner challenge readers’ biases by humanizing marginalized characters.

Examples of Critiques Through “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

Literary Work	Critique Through “Roots of Racism”	Relevant Concept from the Article	Quotation from Culotta (2012)
To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee)	The novel exposes implicit racial bias in a legal and social system that favors the white ingroup over Black outgroups. Tom Robinson’s wrongful conviction reflects deeply ingrained prejudices that operate beyond rationality.	Implicit Bias & Threat-Detection System	“It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Heart of Darkness (Joseph Conrad)	The portrayal of Africans as the “Other” aligns with the evolutionary tendency to dehumanize outgroups. Marlow’s shifting perspective on Africa and its inhabitants highlights the psychological mechanisms behind colonial racism.	Ingroup vs. Outgroup Bias & Othering	“Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Invisible Man (Ralph Ellison)	The protagonist’s struggle for identity reflects the impact of social categorization and racial stereotypes. The novel critiques how outgroup prejudice shapes self-perception and societal roles.	Arbitrary-Set Prejudice & Stereotype Formation	“The greatest prejudice is often aimed at people without an address, such as gypsies and the homeless.” (Fiske, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Beloved (Toni Morrison)	The haunting presence of Beloved symbolizes the lasting trauma of racial oppression. The novel illustrates how historical discrimination continues to affect Black identity and group belonging.	Historical Context of Prejudice & Intergroup Competition	“Ethnic distinctions, however, are presumably quite old.” (Boyd, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)

Criticism Against “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

1. Overemphasis on Evolutionary Determinism

The article heavily relies on evolutionary psychology to explain racism, potentially reducing racism to a biological inevitability rather than a complex socio-historical construct.
Critics argue that this naturalization of bias risks excusing discrimination as an unchangeable aspect of human nature rather than a product of social, political, and economic structures.
Example: The claim that “our central adaptation is to group living” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826) can be interpreted as downplaying the role of historical and institutional factors in shaping racism.

2. Lack of Intersectionality

The article does not fully address how race intersects with other social categories like gender, class, or nationality.
While the Warrior Male Hypothesis suggests that men are more targeted by racial prejudice (p. 827), it fails to discuss how women of color experience discrimination differently.
This limitation weakens the article’s applicability to feminist and intersectional studies, which emphasize the diverse and layered experiences of oppression.

3. Insufficient Engagement with Sociocultural Theories of Racism

Culotta’s analysis lacks engagement with Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Postcolonial Studies, which emphasize racism as a historically constructed and legally reinforced system of power.
Scholars like Derrick Bell and Edward Said argue that racism is not just an evolutionary byproduct but a tool of systemic oppression.
The article acknowledges that “ethnic distinctions, however, are presumably quite old” (Boyd, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826), but fails to critically examine how colonialism, capitalism, and law shape modern racial hierarchies.

4. Overgeneralization of Primate Studies

The use of rhesus macaque studies to explain human prejudice may be an oversimplification of human social behavior.
Critics argue that human prejudice is influenced by language, culture, and ideology, which are absent in primates.
Example: While Culotta cites that “macaques stared longer at photos of outgroup members than at ingroup faces” (Santos et al., cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827), human racism involves complex sociopolitical factors that primates do not experience.

5. Insufficient Solutions for Reducing Bias

While the article discusses implicit bias and threat-detection systems, it offers limited practical strategies for reducing racism beyond individual cognitive adjustments.
The suggestion that “making people feel safer can moderate this bias” (Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827) is valid but does not address structural racism, policy reforms, or educational interventions.
Critics argue that changing individual biases alone will not dismantle systemic racism embedded in laws, institutions, and social practices.

Representative Quotations from “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (p. 825)	This statement highlights the concept of implicit bias, showing how humans unconsciously categorize others based on perceived group membership, which can lead to irrational fears.
“People easily form coalitions based on meaningless traits such as preferring one painter over another—and then favor others in their ‘group.’” (p. 825)	Demonstrates how ingroup bias is not necessarily tied to deep-seated historical conflicts but can emerge in arbitrary and trivial contexts.
“It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	This reinforces findings from Implicit Association Tests (IAT), where individuals unconsciously associate negative traits with outgroups faster than with their own group.
“Humans are the only animal that cooperates so extensively with nonkin.” (p. 826)	Suggests that human social structures are unique in their ability to expand cooperation beyond genetic relatives, making group dynamics complex and flexible.
“One can be expected to be treated more nicely by ingroup members than by outgroups.” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)	Highlights ingroup favoritism, where people trust and assist their own group more than outsiders, a core concept in social identity theory.
“In the distant past, we had very little experience interacting with people who were physically very different from us.” (Boyd, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)	Counters racial essentialism by arguing that racial prejudice is a modern phenomenon, not an innate evolutionary adaptation.
“Seeing such apparent bias in primates suggests it is evolutionarily ancient.” (Banaji, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Connects human prejudice to primate behavior, implying that outgroup bias has been present in social species for millions of years.
“Like smoke detectors, the system is designed to give many false alarms rather than miss a true threat.” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Explains the threat-detection system, which primes people to be overly cautious around outgroups, even when there is no real danger.
“Black men are more likely to be victims of hate crimes, receive harsher jail sentences for comparable offenses, pay more money for cars—the list goes on and on.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Discusses racial disparities in justice and economics, showing how biases translate into real-world discrimination.
“Making people feel safer can moderate this bias.” (Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Suggests that reducing fear and insecurity in society can help decrease implicit racial biases, providing a potential solution to intergroup prejudice.

“Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby: Summary and Critique

“Racism in Literature” by Jennie Ruby first appeared in Off Our Backs in the August-September 1988 issue (Vol. 18, No. 8, p. 19), published by off our backs, inc. and preserved through JSTOR.

Introduction: “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

“Racism in Literature” by Jennie Ruby first appeared in Off Our Backs in the August-September 1988 issue (Vol. 18, No. 8, p. 19), published by off our backs, inc. and preserved through JSTOR. The article explores how racism manifests in literary history, particularly within feminist scholarship, by examining the contradictions and prejudices of revered literary figures. It highlights discussions from a workshop where white feminist scholars grappled with the racial biases of past writers, such as Virginia Woolf and Harriet Beecher Stowe, and their failure to fully transcend the racial prejudices of their times. The absence of women of color from the workshop’s panel further illustrated the exhaustion felt by marginalized scholars who are often expected to educate others on these issues. The article also discusses the evolution of feminist consciousness in literature, citing Grace Paley’s shift in language use and the presence of racism within narratives that simultaneously sought to challenge it. Moreover, it examines how literary criticism must acknowledge the flaws of feminist foremothers to ensure a more honest historical reckoning. The article’s significance in literary theory lies in its call for scholars to confront and analyze racism within feminist literature rather than overlook it, thereby advancing a more inclusive and self-aware literary discourse. Ruby’s work serves as an essential critique of how literature both reflects and perpetuates societal biases, urging readers and scholars to adopt a more critical lens when engaging with literary history.

Summary of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Main Ideas:

The Persistence of Racism in Feminist Scholarship
- Many revered feminist figures exhibited racist and sexist views, forcing scholars to confront these contradictions (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Linda Koolish emphasized that “as white scholars we will always be writing about territory not our own” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Absence of Women of Color in Feminist Literary Discourse
- Despite half of the invited scholars being women of color, none participated in the workshop, suggesting fatigue from continuously addressing racial issues (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- The workshop’s audience was predominantly white, further reflecting the exclusion of racial minorities in academic discussions (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racist Elements in Literature by White Women Writers
- Glennis Carr’s research on interracial friendships in literature showed that white female authors often contained both racist and anti-racist elements in their writing (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Harriet Beecher Stowe was noted for avoiding some racial stereotypes but maintaining a racist “light skin/darker skin schema of salvation” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Evolution of Feminist Consciousness in Language
- Judith Arcana observed how Grace Paley transitioned from using the generic male pronoun to addressing sexist language in her works (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Paley also reconsidered her use of terms like “fairy” and “queer” in narrative voice, demonstrating a personal struggle to unlearn biases (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racism in Australian Women’s Literature
- Dale Spender found that Australian women writers frequently addressed racism and class issues, but many still produced racist work (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey was initially praised for highlighting a Black woman’s devotion but later criticized for racial insensitivity (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Subjectivity of Literary Interpretation
- Spender’s experiment with reading 100 anonymous books revealed that assumptions about an author’s identity shape how readers interpret literature (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- She questioned, “How much do your own ideas determine what you read?” suggesting that readers project their biases onto texts (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Historical Bias in Literary Scholarship
- Emily Toth’s research on Kate Chopin showed how early male biographers shaped perceptions of female writers, often omitting women’s perspectives (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Chopin’s The Awakening was not officially banned but was effectively silenced by negative reviews from male critics (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reevaluating Feminist Foremothers
- Annette Kolodny argued that if feminist pioneers had been perfect, they would have left nothing for future scholars to critique and improve upon (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Susan Koppelman emphasized the need for honesty about the flaws of past feminist figures, stating, “What does it do to oppressed people if we deny that they were oppressed?” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Unavoidable Bias in Literary Criticism
- The discussion concluded that just as past writers could not escape their prejudices, today’s scholars must acknowledge their own biases (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Carr noted, “You cannot stand in some sort of pure place from which to judge things,” reinforcing the idea that objectivity in literary critique is impossible (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Application in the Article
Historical Bias	The tendency of historical narratives to reflect the perspectives of dominant groups while marginalizing others.	Emily Toth’s research on Kate Chopin shows how early male biographers shaped perceptions of female writers, often excluding women’s perspectives (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Intersectionality	The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, gender, and class, which create overlapping systems of oppression.	The absence of women of color in the feminist workshop reflects how racial and gendered oppression interact in academic discourse (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Authorial Intent vs. Reader Interpretation	The debate over whether meaning in literature is determined by the author’s intent or the reader’s interpretation.	Dale Spender’s experiment showed that readers project biases onto texts, shaping their understanding based on assumed author identity (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racialized Feminism	A critique of feminism that acknowledges how racial biases have historically influenced feminist thought and activism.	Linda Koolish emphasized that white feminist scholars must acknowledge their racial privilege when analyzing literary history (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Literary Canon and Exclusion	The process by which certain works are considered “classic” while others are marginalized due to racial, gender, or class biases.	The discussion highlights how feminist foremothers’ racist views are often overlooked in literary scholarship (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of a particular cultural narrative that reinforces existing power structures.	Harriet Beecher Stowe’s work, despite its anti-slavery themes, reinforces racial hierarchies through its portrayal of light-skinned characters as more redeemable (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Textual Silencing	The suppression of certain voices or perspectives in literature and literary criticism.	The Awakening was not officially banned, but negative reviews by male critics effectively silenced its impact (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Evolving Language and Consciousness	The idea that language use reflects shifts in societal awareness and ideological changes.	Grace Paley’s shift from generic male pronouns to gender-inclusive language illustrates changing feminist consciousness (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Race and Representation in Literature	The ways in which racial identities and experiences are depicted in literary works.	Glennis Carr’s research highlights the coexistence of racist and anti-racist elements in literature written by white women (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reader-Response Criticism	A literary theory emphasizing the role of the reader in shaping the meaning of a text.	Spender’s reading experiment showed how the perceived identity of an author can alter a reader’s interpretation of a work (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Contribution of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from the Article	Reference from the Article
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	The article exposes the racial biases embedded in feminist literature, showing how even well-intentioned feminist authors, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe, reinforced racial hierarchies.	“Racism and anti-racism coexist, as in Harriet Beecher Stowe, who avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Feminist Literary Criticism	Challenges the idealization of feminist foremothers by revealing their racism and sexism, urging scholars to acknowledge their flaws rather than erase them.	Annette Kolodny states, “If our foremothers had not shared the prejudices of their time, we would have had to invent faults for them” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Intersectionality (Black Feminist Thought)	Highlights how mainstream feminism often excludes women of color, both in academic discourse and literary analysis.	“Of 34 scholars invited to speak at this workshop, half were women of color… No women of color agreed to participate” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Addresses how white feminist authors wrote about race from a privileged perspective, often misrepresenting people of color.	Linda Koolish states, “As white scholars we will always be writing about territory not our own” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reader-Response Theory	Demonstrates that interpretation of literature is influenced by the identity of both the reader and the perceived author.	“Spender related her experience of reading 100 anonymous books and finding that she could not necessarily tell whether the author had been a man or a woman” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Literary Canon and Exclusion	Questions the selection of literary texts in the canon, showing how historical biases have shaped literary scholarship.	“Kate Chopin’s The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Historical Materialism in Literature	Examines how literature reflects the economic and social conditions of its time, particularly regarding race and gender.	“Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey was intended to describe the devotion of a Black woman for her child. In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Language and Power (Linguistic Turn in Literary Studies)	Investigates how language reflects evolving feminist consciousness, particularly in how words like “queer” and gendered pronouns are used in literature.	“Judith Arcana spoke on the rising consciousness she sees in Grace Paley’s writing… Paley has characters protest sexist language” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through “Racism in Literature”	Reference from the Article
To the Lighthouse – Virginia Woolf	Woolf, despite being a feminist icon, expressed racist views, highlighting the racial biases of admired literary figures.	“Virginia Woolf talked about Leonard’s curved nose,” illustrating how even celebrated feminist writers held prejudices (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Harriet Beecher Stowe	While the novel critiques slavery, Stowe maintains racial hierarchies by portraying light-skinned Black characters as more redeemable.	“Harriet Beecher Stowe avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Awakening – Kate Chopin	Chopin’s work was not officially banned but was dismissed by male critics, showing gender bias in literary criticism.	“The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Incredible Journey – Cathryn Martin	Martin’s attempt to depict Black motherhood was progressive in 1923 but later viewed as reinforcing racial stereotypes.	“In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Criticism Against “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Lack of Representation of Women of Color’s Perspectives
- While the article critiques the absence of women of color in literary discussions, it does not include direct perspectives or voices from these marginalized groups, leading to a potential gap in its analysis (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Overgeneralization of Feminist Writers’ Racism
- The article presents feminist foremothers’ racial biases but does not explore the complexities of their ideological growth. It risks reducing their legacies to their flaws without fully contextualizing their historical limitations (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Limited Engagement with Critical Race Theory
- While the article highlights racism in literature, it does not engage deeply with Critical Race Theory (CRT) frameworks that would provide a more nuanced critique of systemic racism in literary production and reception.
Focus on White Feminist Scholarship
- The article predominantly centers white feminist perspectives, despite its critique of the racial biases within feminism, which may limit its effectiveness in advocating for an intersectional approach (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Absence of Contemporary Literary Criticism
- The analysis does not incorporate insights from Black feminist scholars or postcolonial theorists who have extensively critiqued race and literature, potentially leading to a less comprehensive evaluation of the issue.
Potential for Presentism
- The article risks judging historical figures and literary works by contemporary moral standards without fully considering the constraints and context of their time (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Limited Solutions for Addressing Racism in Literature
- While Ruby identifies racism in feminist literature, the article does not offer clear strategies for addressing or resolving these issues in modern feminist literary criticism (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Representative Quotations from “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“All knowledge belongs to the person knowing it, and human beings are inevitably flawed… We don’t see things the way they are, we see them the way we are.”	This statement emphasizes the subjectivity of knowledge and perception, particularly in the interpretation of literature and history. It underscores how biases shape literary criticism and historical understanding.
“As white scholars, we will always be writing about territory not our own.”	This quote from Linda Koolish acknowledges the limitations of white scholars in analyzing racial issues. It highlights the need for scholars to recognize their positionality when engaging with racialized literature.
“The audience appeared to be entirely made up of white women.”	This observation critiques the racial homogeneity in feminist literary discussions, pointing out the lack of participation from women of color and the exclusionary nature of mainstream feminism.
“Racism and anti-racism coexist, as in Harriet Beecher Stowe, who avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist.”	This critique of Uncle Tom’s Cabin highlights how even anti-slavery literature can reinforce racial hierarchies, showing that well-intentioned works can still contain problematic elements.
“Virginia Woolf talked about Leonard’s curved nose.”	This quote illustrates how revered feminist authors, like Woolf, held and expressed racial prejudices, challenging the tendency to idolize literary figures without acknowledging their flaws.
“The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men.”	This statement reflects the gendered nature of literary criticism and how male-dominated literary institutions historically dismissed or marginalized female authors.
“In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough.”	This commentary on Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey reveals the shifting standards of literary critique and how perspectives on race change over time.
“How much do your own ideas determine what you read?”	This rhetorical question raises issues related to reader-response theory, suggesting that readers project their own biases onto literature, influencing their interpretation.
“We must be as honest as possible about our history.”	This quote calls for transparency in literary and historical analysis, urging scholars to critically examine past figures rather than idealizing them.
“You cannot stand in some sort of pure place from which to judge things.”	This statement acknowledges the inevitability of bias in literary criticism, emphasizing that no perspective is completely objective or detached from historical context.

“The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody: Summary and Critique

The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody first appeared in Sociological Perspectives in 2020, offering a comprehensive analysis of how sociologists conceptualize racism.

Introduction: “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody first appeared in Sociological Perspectives in 2020, offering a comprehensive analysis of how sociologists conceptualize racism. The article introduces a framework that distinguishes between four primary constructs: (1) individual attitudes, (2) cultural schema, (3) preexisting consequential inequalities (racial dominance), and (4) processes that create or maintain racial dominance. Through a content and citation analysis of 1,037 sociology journal articles from 1995 to 2015, the authors demonstrate how different scholarly communities define and apply the term “racism,” revealing significant fragmentation within sociological discourse. Their research highlights how racism has evolved as a concept, encompassing both structural and cultural dimensions while also being subject to political and disciplinary contestation. The study’s significance in literary theory and sociological literature lies in its methodological rigor and its call for a more differentiated yet inclusive understanding of racism. By mapping the diverse ways racism is theorized, Shiao and Woody provide a vital resource for scholars seeking to navigate the complexities of racial discourse, bridging gaps between competing perspectives while advocating for a nuanced, multi-dimensional approach to racism in both research and public sociology.

Summary of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

🔹 Conceptual Ambiguity of “Racism”

Inflated and Deflated Usage:
- The concept of racism has been stretched to include a variety of social phenomena—individual bias, institutional discrimination, systemic inequality, etc. This inconsistency weakens the term’s conceptual clarity.
- “The wide and also inconsistent use of ‘racism’ has meant that the term now ‘weakens rather than enhances arguments concerning race’” (Wilson 1987:12).
Moral Condemnation vs. Analytical Use:
- Racism is often used as a label of condemnation rather than as a precise analytical concept:
  - “Its purpose is not descriptive but rather to ‘signal the speaker’s unambiguous condemnation of the belief or practice in question’” (Quillian 2006:301).

🔹 Proposed Framework: Four Meanings of Racism

Shiao and Woody categorize “racism” into four distinct constructs, expanding on Bonilla-Silva’s (1997) framework.

Type of Racism	Definition	Example Constructs
1. Attitudes (Racism1)	Racism as individual mental states, biases, or prejudices	Negative perceptions of nonwhite groups, racial resentment, group position ideologies (Bobo & Tuan 2006)
2. Cultural Schema (Racism2)	Racism as socially constructed cultural meanings	Racialization processes, dominant racial ideologies (Omi & Winant 1986), controlling images (Collins 1990)
3.1 Structural Racism: Racial Dominance (Racism3.1)	Preexisting inequalities due to historical racial hierarchy	Segregation, economic disparity, criminal justice bias (Alexander 2012), systemic white advantage (Feagin 2013)
3.2 Structural Racism: Maintenance Processes (Racism3.2)	Mechanisms that sustain racial inequality	Discrimination, exclusion, state policies, racial violence (Wimmer 2013), cultural mobilization (Bonilla-Silva 2018)

1️⃣ Racism as Individual Attitudes (Racism1)

Racism often conceptualized as prejudice, bias, or personal bigotry.
Example: Jennifer Hochschild et al. (2012) argue that racism has “failed as ‘a language with which to understand persistent racially inflected disadvantage’” (p. 145).
Critique:
- Reduces racism to an “individual disease” and ignores systemic aspects (Byrd 2011:1013).
- Limits public discourse to individual morality rather than institutional solutions.

2️⃣ Racism as Cultural Schema (Racism2)

Racism as social meanings and representations embedded in culture.
Example: Omi & Winant’s racialization framework—”the extension of racial meaning to a previously racially unclassified relationship, social practice, or group” (1986:64).
Racial meanings shape:
- Group hierarchy (Kim 1999)
- Media portrayals (Golash-Boza 2016)
- Self-identity negotiation (Waters 1999)

3️⃣ Structural Racism: Racial Dominance (Racism3.1)

Existing racial inequalities embedded in institutions.
Forms of preexisting racial dominance:
- Economic disparity (e.g., housing segregation, redlining)
- Cultural dominance (e.g., white racial frame) (Feagin 2009).
- Educational and health inequalities
Key Example:
- Reskin (2012) describes how race-linked disparities across multiple domains create a self-reinforcing “race discrimination system”.

4️⃣ Structural Racism: Maintenance Processes (Racism3.2)

How racial inequalities persist over time.
Active discrimination: Legal barriers, workplace hiring biases, voter suppression (Pager et al. 2009).
Political mobilization of racism: White nationalism, anti-immigrant sentiment (Bobo 2017).
Racial violence and coercion: Ethnic cleansing, police brutality, historical genocide.

🔹 Empirical Findings: Citation Analysis of 1,037 Sociology Papers

Shiao and Woody conducted a citation and content analysis of 1,037 sociology journal articles (1995-2015) to examine how “racism” is used.

Findings:

Six Distinct Citation Communities
- Different scholarly subfields define and use “racism” differently.
- Example: U.S. sociologists emphasize racism as structure, while European scholars focus on cultural dimensions.
Prevalence of Structural Racism (Racism3)
- 48.9% of papers define racism structurally, but often without clear differentiation.
- Growing prominence of “systemic racism” theories (e.g., Bonilla-Silva 2001, Feagin 2006).
Fragmentation Among Sociologists
- Different subfields focus on different aspects of racism.
- Tension between attitudinal vs. structural conceptions.

🔹 Implications for Sociological Research & Public Understanding

Need for an inclusive yet differentiated approach.
- Rather than arguing over a single definition of racism, scholars should use multiple interconnected frameworks.
- “A singular concept may obscure multiple social processes at play” (Pascoe & Diefendorf 2018:124).
Implications for Public Sociology:
- Calls for greater clarity in anti-racism discourse:
  - Anti-Racism1: Changing individual attitudes.
  - Anti-Racism2: Challenging racial narratives & stereotypes.
  - Anti-Racism3.1: Eliminating racial disparities in institutions.
  - Anti-Racism3.2: Dismantling discriminatory structures.

🔹 Conclusion

Conceptual fragmentation in the meaning of “racism” affects both academic discourse and public understanding.
Proposed solution: A differentiated approach that integrates attitudes, culture, and structure rather than pitting them against each other.
Final Thought:
- The persistence of racism depends on the balance between different forms of racism and the effectiveness of anti-racist efforts across all dimensions.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Term/Concept	Definition	Relevant Citation(s)
Racism1 (Attitudes)	Racism as individual-level prejudice, bias, or beliefs about racial groups.	Bobo & Charles (2009); Hochschild et al. (2012)
Racism2 (Cultural Schema)	Racism as shared cultural meanings that shape group hierarchies, representations, and identities.	Omi & Winant (1986); Brubaker (2015); Bonilla-Silva (2018)
Racism3.1 (Structural Racism – Racial Dominance)	Preexisting racial inequalities embedded in social institutions.	Feagin (2013); Alexander (2012); Reskin (2012)
Racism3.2 (Structural Racism – Maintenance Processes)	Processes that maintain or reinforce racial inequalities, including discrimination, state policies, and social exclusion.	Wimmer (2013); Pager et al. (2009)
Racialization	The process of assigning racial meanings to individuals, groups, or social practices.	Omi & Winant (1986)
Colorblind Racism	A racial ideology that denies racial disparities and inequality by promoting a “race-neutral” perspective.	Bonilla-Silva (2018)
Symbolic Racism	A form of racism based on covert negative attitudes toward minority groups, often framed in non-racial terms.	Kinder & Sears (1981)
Cultural Repertoires	The set of available cultural narratives, frames, and schemas that individuals draw from in racial interactions.	Lamont et al. (2017)
White Racial Frame	The dominant racial worldview that upholds whiteness as normative and superior.	Feagin (2009)
Normative Whiteness	The cultural dominance of whiteness as the default racial category in society.	Bell & Hartmann (2007)
Racial Formation Theory	A framework that explains how race is socially constructed and redefined over time through political and cultural processes.	Omi & Winant (1986, 2015)
Systemic Racism	A holistic framework that sees racism as embedded in every aspect of social systems, rather than just individual actions.	Feagin (2006)
Racial Hierarchy	The structural positioning of racial groups in a system of dominance and subordination.	Jung (2015)
Racial Domination	The various ways that power is exercised along racial lines, including symbolic, economic, and political power.	Desmond & Emirbayer (2009)
Group Position Theory	The idea that racial attitudes are shaped by the perceived position of one’s racial group in the social hierarchy.	Blumer (1958); Bobo & Tuan (2006)
Ethnic Boundary-Making	The processes through which racial/ethnic group boundaries are created, reinforced, or challenged.	Wimmer (2013)
Double Consciousness	The concept that racial minorities experience a duality of self-awareness, seeing themselves through both their own and the dominant group’s perspective.	Du Bois ([1903] 2017)
Racist Racial Projects	Political or cultural initiatives that explicitly reinforce racial hierarchies and inequalities.	Omi & Winant (2015)
Antiblack Racism, Islamophobia, Orientalism, Settler Colonialism	Forms of cultural mobilization that sustain racial inequalities by justifying exclusion and subordination.	Smith (2012); Jung (2015)
Symbolic Coercion	The process by which dominant racial ideologies are imposed on marginalized groups, shaping their perceptions.	Jung (2015)
Cultural Mobilization	The active shaping of racial discourse to legitimize racial inequality.	Bonilla-Silva (2018)
White Favoritism	The subtle ways that whites provide advantages to other whites, maintaining racial disparities without overt racism.	DiTomaso (2013)
Social Closure	The exclusion of racial minorities from resources, opportunities, and institutions.	Wimmer (2013)
Implicit Bias	Unconscious racial attitudes that affect decision-making and behavior.	Pager et al. (2009)
Structural Violence	The indirect, institutionalized harm caused by systemic racial inequalities.	Ray & Seamster (2016)

Contribution of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution of the Article	Relevant References from the Article
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	– Expands CRT by distinguishing between four constructs of racism: individual attitudes, cultural schema, preexisting racial dominance, and structural processes that maintain dominance. – Engages with CRT’s focus on systemic racism rather than individual prejudice.	– “Sociologists use racism as an explanation for racial differences that qualify for characterization as racial inequalities, but beyond this shared trope, sociologists refer to a range of distinct phenomena.” (Shiao & Woody, 2020, p. 3) – “Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 4)
Postcolonial Theory	– Contributes to postcolonial discourse by discussing how racism operates through cultural mobilization and symbolic coercion. – Extends discussions on Orientalism and Settler Colonialism as racial projects.	– “These mobilizations span the social functions associated with the century-spanning ideologies of antiblack racism, Orientalism, and settler colonialism.” (p. 8) – “Cultural racism operates as a strategy of ‘sorting out’ outsiders from insiders.” (p. 7)
Structuralism	– Offers a structuralist analysis of racism by linking it to deep schema and dominant ideologies. – Identifies racism as a system of signification that organizes social relations.	– “By culture, sociologists refer to the many kinds of schema with which humans make sense of the world, including themselves, all of which affect the social connotations of group membership.” (p. 3)
New Historicism	– Engages with historical changes in the meaning of racism over time, particularly through citation analysis of sociological discourse. – Highlights how historical and political racial projects shape contemporary understandings of race.	– “Our empirical analysis captures a critical period from Bonilla-Silva’s call for sociologists to renew their attention to racism to the establishment of a journal that provides U.S. sociologists of race with a distinctive publication outlet.” (p. 5)
Discourse Analysis	– Expands on Michel Foucault’s idea of discourse by demonstrating how racism is maintained through language, cultural schema, and social institutions. – Highlights racist discourse in media and public policy.	– “Racism as culture includes discourse, ideology, and language, shaping representations of racial groups and their social positions.” (p. 7)
Intersectionality Theory	– Highlights the absence of intersectionality in sociological studies of racism. – Identifies how different forms of dominance (racial, gender, class) intersect in structural racism.	– “The infrequent citation of female authors in all communities except Community E may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 16)
Sociology of Literature	– Contributes to literary sociology by analyzing how racism is represented and conceptualized in scholarly writing. – Examines citation patterns and thematic shifts in sociological discussions of race.	– “The result has been a fragmentation in the discipline’s conception of racism across citation communities, each using different meanings of racism.” (p. 18)
Marxist Literary Theory	– Highlights how racism functions within economic and class structures. – Discusses racial capitalism and labor market discrimination.	– “One of the most important privileges of being white in the United States is not having to be racist in order to enjoy racial advantage.” (p. 6) – “Racial dominance includes economic power that privileges Whites in terms of job placement, advancement, wealth, and property accumulation.” (p. 9)
Feminist Theory	– Acknowledges the gendered dimensions of racism. – Discusses women’s role in far-right racist movements and normative whiteness in feminist spaces.	– “The infrequent citation of female authors may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 16) – “Cultural dominance involves prejudice and the necessity of double consciousness.” (p. 8)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Literary Work	Critique Using Shiao & Woody’s Framework	Key Theoretical Constructs from the Article
*1. To Kill a Mockingbird* (Harper Lee)**	– The novel portrays racism primarily as individual prejudice (Racism1), rather than addressing structural or cultural racism (Racism3.1 & Racism3.2). – Atticus Finch’s role as a moral white savior reinforces a colorblind approach to racism, avoiding deeper structural critique. – The novel lacks an exploration of cultural schema and historical racial dominance, which shape legal and social inequalities.	– “Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 4) – “This second tendency, which is also prevalent outside academia, treats racism as an ‘individual disease,’ limiting its utility for fully representing the organization of social life along racial lines.” (p. 2)
*2. Heart of Darkness* (Joseph Conrad)**	– The novel reinforces colonial racism (Racism2) through representations of Africa and its people as the “Other”. – The absence of African voices and reliance on cultural schemas of savagery vs. civilization mirrors dominant racial ideologies. – It serves as an example of racial dominance through symbolic coercion rather than explicit racial violence.	– “These schema range from the binary oppositions that make up a given society’s fundamental tools of thought to cultural repertoires defined as the available schemas, frames, narratives, scripts, and boundaries that actors draw on in social situations.” (p. 3) – “The symbolic power to classify one group of people as ‘normal’ and other groups of people as ‘abnormal’…” (p. 9)
*3. The Great Gatsby* (F. Scott Fitzgerald)**	– While the novel critiques class and social mobility, it ignores the role of racial dominance (Racism3.1) in maintaining inequalities. – Tom Buchanan’s fear of “the rise of the colored races” reflects racial attitudes (Racism1), but this racism is framed as an individual flaw rather than a structural force. – The erasure of Black, Indigenous, and immigrant experiences reinforces the white racial frame.	– “Racial dominance includes economic power that privileges Whites in terms of job placement, advancement, wealth, and property accumulation.” (p. 9) – “The social meanings that people impose on each other, as they make sense of, and respond to, their lived experiences.” (p. 4)
*4. Beloved* (Toni Morrison)**	– Morrison’s novel exemplifies structural and historical racism (Racism3.1 & Racism3.2) through the legacy of slavery. – Unlike many classic works, it explicitly critiques racial dominance and the trauma of systemic oppression. – Cultural mobilization (Racism3.2) is central, as the novel illustrates how racist cultural schema sustain intergenerational trauma.	– “The legacies of historic boundary-making processes and the new forms of racial dominance that maintain inequalities of older forms.” (p. 10) – “Without conceptions of racism as culture, sociologists lose the vocabulary for the social meanings that people impose on each other.” (p. 4)

Criticism Against “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

1. Lack of Engagement with Intersectionality

The article primarily analyzes racism through a structural and sociological lens but does not extensively engage with intersectionality, which considers race alongside gender, class, sexuality, and disability.
While the authors acknowledge cultural dominance and white racial framing, they do not deeply explore how racism intersects with other social inequalities.
“The infrequent citation of female authors in all communities except Community E may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 17)

2. Overemphasis on Academic Citation Networks

The study focuses on academic discourse around racism, particularly citation patterns in sociology journals, but does not sufficiently account for real-world applications of these theories.
While useful for mapping theoretical trends, it does not clarify how these academic perspectives influence public policy, activism, or lived experiences of racism.
The authors themselves acknowledge that their study may be detached from public sociology:
- “Future research might examine the meaning of racism at the interface of social science and lay audiences (e.g., in college, and even K–12, textbooks).” (p. 20)

3. Minimal Engagement with Non-Western Conceptions of Racism

The article centers U.S. and European sociological frameworks, neglecting global perspectives on racism from Africa, Latin America, Asia, and Indigenous communities.
The framework could have been expanded to incorporate colonialism, settler colonialism, and neocolonial power structures more comprehensively.
While the study mentions ethnic boundary-making, it does not fully explore racism in non-Western contexts.

4. Conceptual Overcomplication

The article introduces four categories of racism (Racism1, Racism2, Racism3.1, Racism3.2), but these distinctions may not be practical for broader sociological or public discussions.
The differentiation between preexisting consequential inequalities (Racism3.1) and processes that maintain racial dominance (Racism3.2), while theoretically sound, might blur in practical applications.
Some scholars might argue that this complicates rather than clarifies the debate on how racism operates in society.

5. Limited Examination of Racial Ideology in Mass Media and Popular Culture

The framework does not sufficiently address how racism is reinforced and transmitted through mass media, pop culture, and social media.
While cultural schema (Racism2) is discussed, it focuses more on academic discourse rather than how racial ideologies are shaped and challenged in popular culture.
This is particularly important in the 21st century, where digital racism and algorithmic bias play a growing role in perpetuating racial inequalities.

6. Reliance on Western-Centric Scholars and Theories

The majority of the citations in the study come from U.S. and European sociologists, reinforcing a Western-centric perspective.
It overlooks decolonial thinkers and scholars from the Global South who have critically analyzed race outside the Western racial framework (e.g., Frantz Fanon, Aníbal Quijano, Walter Mignolo).
The dominance of U.S. sociological paradigms may limit its applicability in understanding racism globally.

7. Assumption That Structural Racism is Universally Accepted in Sociology

The authors assume that structural racism has become the dominant framework in sociology, but this overlooks ongoing debates about race, class, and power.
Some sociologists (e.g., William Julius Wilson) argue that economic inequality plays a greater role than race in contemporary disparities, which the article does not directly address.
The political implications of defining racism primarily through structure vs. attitudes could have been further debated.

Representative Quotations from “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody with Explanation

No.	Quotation	Explanation
1	“Racism is one of the most important words in the lexicon of contemporary sociology, and yet constructing a precise theory of racism is difficult because it is a concept that is both inflated and deflated.” (p. 1)	The authors highlight the conceptual ambiguity of racism, emphasizing how the term is both overused and underdefined, making it difficult to apply consistently across sociological discourse.
2	“Sociologists use racism to refer to four constructs: (1) individual attitudes, (2) cultural schema, and two constructs associated with structural racism: (3) preexisting consequential inequalities and (4) processes that create or maintain racial dominance.” (p. 2)	This is the core framework proposed by the authors, breaking racism into four interrelated constructs that expand beyond individual prejudice to include cultural and structural dimensions.
3	“Some researchers have argued that the wide and also inconsistent use of ‘racism’ has meant that the term now ‘weakens rather than enhances arguments concerning race’ (Wilson 1987:12).” (p. 2)	Here, the authors cite a critique by William Julius Wilson, arguing that the broad use of racism as a catch-all term may dilute its analytical power.
4	“Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 5)	This statement stresses the importance of structural racism in understanding long-term racial inequalities, rejecting the idea that racism is merely personal bias or prejudice.
5	“Researchers cite publications, whether positively or negatively, that they regard as relevant to their own (Moody and Light 2006).” (p. 9)	This quotation explains their methodology, indicating that citation patterns reveal how different academic communities define and discuss racism.
6	“In contrast to the stable share of articles using any type of structure, the percentage of articles using ‘undifferentiated’ dominance nearly doubles over the 20-year period, from 17.7% (1995–1999) to 30.1% (2010–2015).” (p. 12)	The authors use quantitative evidence to demonstrate a shift in sociological focus, showing increased attention to structural racism over time.
7	“Our finding of a fragmented, if not combative, agreement on conceptualizing racism as structure also raises broader questions for the sociology of race/ethnicity.” (p. 18)	The article critiques disciplinary fragmentation, showing how different academic groups use distinct definitions of racism, which may lead to intellectual silos.
8	“Future research might examine the meaning of racism at the interface of social science and lay audiences (e.g., in college, and even K–12, textbooks).” (p. 20)	The authors argue for public sociology, suggesting that academic definitions of racism should be studied in educational and mainstream discourse.
9	“Our differentiated conception of racism implies a differentiated conception of anti-racism (i.e., practices that seek to diminish racism), in distinction from non-racist practices that only seek to avoid increasing racism.” (p. 21)	This distinction between anti-racism and non-racism is crucial: anti-racism actively fights racism, whereas non-racism merely avoids participation.
10	“An inclusive but differentiated conception of racism suggests that its persistence depends importantly on the distribution of anti-racisms that stand against it.” (p. 22)	The authors conclude that fighting racism requires multiple strategies, addressing individual, cultural, and structural aspects rather than relying on one-size-fits-all solutions.

Introduction: “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

Summary of “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racist Traces in Postmodernist Theory and Literature” by James Snead

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Introduction: “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

Summary of “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

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🔍 How CRT Concepts Apply:

Criticism Against “Critical Race Theory: An Introduction” by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic

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Introduction: “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

Summary of “Critical Race Theory” by Gary Minda

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Introduction: “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

Summary of “Racism: What It Is And What It Isn’t” by Lawrence Blum

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Introduction: “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

Summary of “Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse

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Introduction: “Heart of Darkness: Anti-Imperialism, Racism, or Impressionism?” by Patrick Brantlinger

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Introduction: “About Some Aspects of “Colonial Racism”by Natalja Zamkovaya

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Introduction: “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

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Introduction: “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Summary of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

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Introduction: “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Summary of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

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