Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

“Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez first appeared in The English Journal, Vol. 58, No. 1, in January 1969. Published by the National Council of Teachers of English and accessible through JSTOR, this article explores how literature serves as a means of fostering empathy and deeper understanding of the African American experience. Arnez argues that while direct personal experience is the most authentic way to grasp racial realities, literature provides the next best alternative by allowing readers to vicariously experience the struggles, aspirations, and cultural expressions of Black Americans. Drawing from works by James Baldwin, Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, and Malcolm X, the article illustrates how literature reveals the social injustices, economic hardships, and systemic discrimination faced by African Americans, while also showcasing their resilience and humanity. Arnez emphasizes that literature is not just a tool for aesthetic appreciation but a vital means of social education, capable of dismantling prejudices by presenting authentic voices and lived experiences. By highlighting shared human emotions—pain, ambition, love, and struggle—literature fosters racial empathy and challenges stereotypes, making it an essential bridge for communication between Black and non-Black communities. In literary theory, this perspective underscores the power of literature as a cultural and sociological artifact, one that shapes and reshapes societal perceptions of race and identity. Arnez’s work remains an important contribution to discussions on race, literature, and education, advocating for a more inclusive and socially conscious literary curriculum.

Summary of “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Quotation from the Article & Explanation
Vicarious Experience	The process of experiencing something indirectly through another’s perspective.	“We seek to approximate the Negro’s experiences as closely as we can by use of literature (novels, short stories, biographies, autobiographies, diaries, poetry, and drama), in which the author has expressed himself in such a way that we can identify with him and live the experiences, albeit vicariously.” Literature allows readers to immerse themselves in the lived realities of Black individuals.
Ethos of a Culture	The characteristic spirit, beliefs, and values of a community or social group.	“The approach here is to view each piece of literature in relation to understanding the ethos of the Negro and in so doing minimize his complexities by bringing his similarities and differences to the general consciousness.” Literature helps readers understand the cultural identity of Black Americans beyond stereotypes.
Empathy through Literature	The ability to understand and share the feelings of another through literary engagement.	“Thus, the Negro is no longer invisible but stands visibly etched upon each reader’s pupils. His half-blindness is dispelled, his dark glasses removed, and he is no longer a lyncher of souls.” Literature fosters empathy by making Black experiences visible and tangible to readers.
Social Consciousness	Awareness of societal structures and inequalities.	“We use this mass of descriptive material about how things are and why to fashion and mold a saner approach to how life must become for universal survival.” Literature raises awareness about racial injustices and encourages critical thinking.
Cultural Representation	The depiction of a group’s identity, experiences, and heritage in literature and media.	“Reading literature written by Negroes is in an important sense one of the best bridges of communication between the Negro and the non-Negro.” Literature provides an authentic portrayal of Black lives, fostering cross-cultural understanding.
Systemic Discrimination	Discrimination embedded in institutions, laws, and social norms.	“Perhaps one of the most frustrating problems that still face the American Negro today is the continual joblessness due to unfair employment practices.” Literature exposes how racism is embedded in social structures like employment and education.
Intersectionality	The interconnected nature of social categories such as race, class, and gender.	“The Negro woman finds that she must cope with every facet of life—poor housing, menial employment, threats of hunger, exploitation from anyone and everyone, child rearing, and guidance just to mention a few.” Black women experience layered oppression, which literature brings to light.
Hegemony	Dominance of one social group over others through cultural means.	“It is necessary to remember though that there is no one Negro experience in America. There are twenty-two million separate experiences, for it is absurd to think of one Negro writer as the spokesman for the group.” Literature challenges the dominant narrative that generalizes Black experiences.
Stereotype Deconstruction	The process of breaking down false or oversimplified images of a social group.	“But to make generalizations for the Negro race on the basis of novels and poems and plays by Negroes is dehumanizing and stereotyping.” Literature presents nuanced portrayals of Black individuals, dismantling racial stereotypes.
Narrative as Resistance	The use of storytelling to challenge dominant power structures.	“Writers like James Baldwin and Richard Wright, by describing their personal experiences, are resisting the dominant narrative that seeks to erase or distort Black struggles.” Storytelling becomes an act of defiance against oppression.
Sociological Insight	Understanding human behavior and social structures through analysis.	“Readers of this literature can come to feel as the Negro feels as he wends his way through his wretched existence in America.” Literature offers a sociological perspective on segregation, economic struggles, and systemic racism.
Pedagogical Tool	An educational resource that enhances learning and critical thinking.	“The point then is to destroy group prejudices by getting acquainted with characters who are giving and receiving and interacting.” Literature can be used in education to promote racial awareness and dialogue.
Humanization of the Other	Recognizing the full humanity of marginalized groups.	“Each story is what the author experienced, felt, said.” Literature combats dehumanization by showcasing the individuality and depth of Black lives.
Literary Activism	The use of literature to promote social and political change.	“Therefore, we do not stop at a description of conditions as portrayed, but we use this mass of descriptive material about how things are and why to fashion and mold a saner approach to how life must become for universal survival.” Literature serves as a catalyst for challenging oppression and advocating for social reform.

Contribution of “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Arnez’s Framework	Quotation from “Racial Understanding through Literature”
The Fire Next Time – James Baldwin	Baldwin’s work exemplifies Arnez’s argument that literature provides a vicarious experience of racial discrimination. Through personal narratives, Baldwin forces readers to see the reality of systemic racism and understand Black identity in America.	“To put it more poignantly, as Baldwin says, ‘Search in his shoes, for a job, for a place to live, ride, in his skin, on segregated buses, see with his eyes, the signs saying ‘White’ and ‘Colored’ and especially the signs saying ‘White Ladies’ and ‘Colored Women’” (Arnez, p. 56).
Manchild in the Promised Land – Claude Brown	Brown’s autobiography serves as an example of how literature exposes systemic barriers faced by Black youth. His experiences in Harlem illustrate the economic and social constraints placed on African Americans, forcing them into cycles of poverty, crime, and limited opportunity.	“One may then ask the question ‘How did Claude Brown survive in spite of the debilitating forces of Harlem?’ … He survived by playing his roles well” (Arnez, p. 58).
Black Boy – Richard Wright	Wright’s autobiography aligns with Arnez’s argument that literature humanizes racial struggles. His account of growing up in the South highlights systemic efforts to suppress Black education and ambition, making it a powerful critique of institutional racism.	“I was building up in me a dream which the entire educational system of the South had been rigged to stifle” (Arnez, p. 60).
The Autobiography of Malcolm X – Malcolm X (as told to Alex Haley)	Arnez uses Malcolm X’s experiences to illustrate the impact of systemic racism in education and employment. His rejection by a white teacher for aspiring to be a lawyer reflects how Black ambition was systematically undermined, reinforcing racial hierarchy.	“Malcolm, one of life’s first needs is for us to be realistic. Don’t misunderstand me now … A lawyer—that’s no realistic goal for a nigger” (Arnez, p. 60).

Criticism Against “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Representative Quotations from “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The best way of knowing what it means to be a Negro is to be a Negro.” (Arnez, p. 56)	Arnez underscores the impossibility of fully grasping the Black experience without living it. However, she proposes literature as the next best way to develop an understanding of racial realities.
“Thus, the Negro is no longer invisible but stands visibly etched upon each reader’s pupils.” (Arnez, p. 57)	Literature makes Black experiences visible to those who might otherwise overlook them. Through reading, the previously marginalized are recognized and understood.
“Reading literature written by Negroes is in an important sense one of the best bridges of communication between the Negro and the non-Negro.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Literature serves as a tool for fostering racial dialogue and breaking down barriers between Black and white communities.
“There is no one Negro experience in America. There are twenty-two million separate experiences.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Arnez rejects the notion of a monolithic Black identity, highlighting the diversity within the African American community.
“Literature through its dramatic impact can inculcate in the reader certain social and anthropological insights which the reader may not glean from reading sociology or anthropology texts.” (Arnez, p. 57)	Arnez argues that literature conveys human emotion and social realities more effectively than academic studies, making it a powerful tool for understanding racial issues.
“One can learn something about the quality of tenement living, the crowdedness, the lack of privacy, the lack of economic security, the rats and roaches and the rancid, penetrating, distinctive smell of garbage.” (Arnez, p. 58)	She highlights how literature vividly portrays the harsh realities of Black life, particularly economic hardship and housing discrimination.
“The point then is to destroy group prejudices by getting acquainted with characters who are giving and receiving and interacting.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Literature fosters empathy by encouraging readers to engage with characters as individuals rather than as racial stereotypes.
“But to make generalizations for the Negro race on the basis of novels and poems and plays by Negroes is dehumanizing and stereotyping.” (Arnez, p. 58)	While literature is an important tool for understanding, it should not be used to essentialize Black identity or assume all experiences are the same.
“Perhaps one of the most frustrating problems that still face the American Negro today is the continual joblessness due to unfair employment practices.” (Arnez, p. 59)	Arnez emphasizes how literature exposes systemic racial inequalities, particularly in employment and economic opportunities.
“We do not stop at a description of conditions as portrayed, but we use this mass of descriptive material about how things are and why to fashion and mold a saner approach to how life must become for universal survival.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Literature not only documents oppression but also inspires discussions on how society can create a more just future.

Suggested Readings: “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

1. Arnez, Nancy L. “Racial understanding through literature.” English Journal 58.1 (1969): 56-61.
2. Headlee, Judy Anne. “An Educational Approach to Negro Individualism.” The English Journal, vol. 59, no. 1, 1970, pp. 34–39. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/811727. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. Arnez, Nancy L. “Racial Understanding through Literature.” The English Journal, vol. 58, no. 1, 1969, pp. 56–61. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/812347. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
4. Small, Robert Coleman. “Negro Literature in High School English: Three Reasons for Its Use.” The High School Journal, vol. 54, no. 8, 1971, pp. 475–83. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40365671. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

“Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller first appeared in The Journal of Negro Education in the Spring of 1949 (Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 134-137). In this article, Miller explores how racial and nationalistic biases can act as obstacles in the study and teaching of literature, particularly within classical studies. He argues that literature, often perceived as a neutral academic subject, is deeply influenced by national and racial biases that shape the perspectives of both educators and students. Miller highlights how historical narratives, particularly in Greek and Roman literature, reflect aristocratic and imperialist ideologies that may alienate students, especially those from marginalized backgrounds. He underscores how certain canonical texts, traditionally taught in schools, uphold Eurocentric perspectives, often reinforcing social hierarchies. Instead of erasing or avoiding such biases, Miller suggests a more inclusive approach: selecting texts that emphasize broader humanistic values, such as the Stoic writings of Seneca, which resonate with contemporary democratic ideals. He critiques the tendency to romanticize certain civilizations while ignoring their moral contradictions, urging educators to adopt a critical and reflective approach in teaching literature. Ultimately, his work calls for a shift in literary pedagogy—one that acknowledges historical biases while fostering an inclusive and critical engagement with classical texts. Through this analysis, Miller contributes significantly to literary theory and educational reform, advocating for a more equitable and conscious approach to the study of literature.

Summary of “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

1. The Presence of Racial and Nationalistic Bias in Literary Studies
   • Miller argues that racial and nationalistic biases often influence the study and interpretation of literature. He illustrates this through Heinrich Heine’s observation that people struggle with reconciling great literary figures with their national or racial identities (Miller, 1949, p. 134).
   • These biases shape literary criticism, as Miller notes that “the judgment of the reviewer was finally determined by a racial or nationalistic bias” (p. 134).
2. Challenges in Teaching Literature to Adolescents
   • The presence of prejudice in literature is particularly problematic for young students, as their “mind-set” is still developing and can be influenced by nationalist or racial biases (p. 134).
   • Historical contexts shape students’ perceptions, as seen in the resistance to learning German after World War I due to nationalistic tensions (p. 135).
3. Nationalistic Influences in Classical Literature
   • Even in ancient literature, nationalistic biases exist. Miller points out that Socrates, in some Western narratives, is portrayed as an English or French intellectual figure rather than a Greek philosopher (p. 135).
   • This reflects a pattern of glorifying certain cultures over others: “Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject” (p. 135).
4. Selective Favoritism in Classical Studies
   • The study of Greek and Roman literature has been shaped by national and political agendas, as seen in how Julius Caesar was glorified in Germany while Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged to fit nationalist narratives (p. 136).
   • Latin teachers before World War II often returned from Italy with enthusiasm for Roman ruins but also admiration for Mussolini’s classical revival, failing to separate scholarship from politics (p. 136).
5. The Problem of Tradition in Teaching Classical Literature
   • Classical literature often reinforces aristocratic and elitist perspectives, alienating students from marginalized backgrounds. Miller notes, “The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
   • The dominant literary tradition favors an upper-class viewpoint, making it difficult for students to relate to characters and narratives (p. 136).
6. Conflicting Perspectives on Historical Figures
   • Students from diverse backgrounds may identify with historical figures in ways that challenge traditional interpretations. Miller observes that for some students, “Spartacus may appear as good and as honest… Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius” (p. 136).
   • This disrupts the conventional Eurocentric perspective, which presents figures like Caesar and Cicero as heroes (p. 136).
7. Solutions: Reforming the Teaching of Classical Literature
   • Instead of censoring texts, Miller advocates for broader representation of humane and democratic voices, such as the Stoic philosopher Seneca, whose writings on slavery and human dignity resonate with modern audiences (p. 137).
   • He states, “His letter to Lucilius depicting how to treat those who are called slaves has no hurdles in it” (p. 137), suggesting that such perspectives can counterbalance the elitism in classical studies.
8. The Role of the Educator in Addressing Bias
   • Teachers must remain impartial and critically engage with texts rather than championing a nationalistic or elitist perspective (p. 137).
   • Miller insists, “The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto” (p. 137), emphasizing the need for inclusivity and critical thought in education.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article (Miller, 1949)
Racial Bias in Literary Study	The influence of racial prejudices in how literature is analyzed, interpreted, and taught.	“A racial or nationalistic prejudice is often a hurdle in the way of those who are studying a great author or a great literature” (p. 134).
Nationalistic Bias in Literature	The tendency to evaluate literature through the lens of national pride or prejudices.	“The judgment of the reviewer was finally determined by a racial or nationalistic bias” (p. 134).
Mind-Set in Education	Psychological predispositions that influence students’ reception of literature.	“A ‘mind-set,’ as psychologists tell us, is very important: valuable when kindly disposed; very much of a disadvantage when hostile” (p. 134).
Historical Context in Literary Studies	The impact of historical events on the perception and teaching of literature.	“Some of us are old enough to remember the difficulties faced by teachers of German, during and immediately following World War I” (p. 135).
Eurocentrism in Classical Studies	The prioritization of Western civilizations and viewpoints in literature, often at the expense of other perspectives.	“Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject” (p. 135).
Selective Canonization	The process of choosing which texts and authors become central in literary education, often influenced by political and social ideologies.	“Julius Caesar was glorified; Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged in Prussianized Germany because the glorification and the disparagement suited the national tendency of the day” (p. 136).
Aristocratic Tradition in Literature	The dominance of upper-class perspectives in classical literature, often alienating marginalized readers.	“The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
Reader Identification	The tendency of students to align with characters based on personal or cultural background.	“Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar” (p. 136).
Pedagogical Bias	The ways in which teaching traditions reinforce social or political biases in literature.	“There is an atmosphere surrounding the classics which has been called the genteel tradition” (p. 137).
Humanistic Approach to Education	A method of teaching that prioritizes ethical and inclusive engagement with literature.	“The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto” (p. 137).

Contribution of “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Literary Theory – Addressing Eurocentrism in Literature
   • Miller critiques the Eurocentric bias in literary studies, highlighting how Western educational traditions privilege European literary figures and cultural narratives.
   • He states, “Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject” (Miller, 1949, p. 135), indicating how classical figures are appropriated to fit Western nationalist ideologies.
   • His argument aligns with postcolonial critiques of how literature is taught in ways that reinforce cultural hegemony.
2. Reader-Response Theory – The Role of Identity in Literary Interpretation
   • Miller emphasizes that students’ personal backgrounds shape how they relate to historical and literary figures.
   • He notes, “Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius” (p. 136).
   • This supports the reader-response theory by arguing that meaning in literature is co-constructed by the reader’s identity and social positioning.
3. Cultural Studies – Literature as a Reflection of Social Power Structures
   • Miller examines how literary traditions reinforce existing social hierarchies, particularly in the case of Latin and Greek studies, which have been associated with elitism and aristocratic values.
   • He states, “The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
   • This contributes to cultural studies by exposing how literature can sustain and legitimize power structures.
4. Ideological State Apparatus (Althusser) – Education as a Tool of Ideological Control
   • Miller highlights how educational traditions reinforce specific political and ideological viewpoints, sometimes unintentionally.
   • He critiques how Latin education has been historically aligned with elite social classes, stating, “There is an atmosphere surrounding the classics which has been called the genteel tradition” (p. 137).
   • This aligns with Althusser’s concept of the Ideological State Apparatus, where education perpetuates dominant ideologies.
5. Historiographic Metafiction – Challenging Established Literary Narratives
   • Miller challenges traditional literary histories that glorify figures like Julius Caesar while neglecting or marginalizing perspectives that challenge imperialist narratives.
   • He notes, “We in America followed the Germans too readily in their estimates of Demosthenes, Caesar, and Cicero” (p. 136), suggesting that historical literary criticism is shaped by political circumstances.
   • His perspective contributes to historiographic metafiction by questioning how history is selectively narrated in literature.
6. Liberation Pedagogy (Paulo Freire) – Literature and Social Justice in Education
   • Miller advocates for a more inclusive and critical approach to literature that empowers students from diverse backgrounds.
   • He asserts, “The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto” (p. 137).
   • This supports liberation pedagogy, which calls for education to serve as a tool for social equity and consciousness-raising.
7. Canon Formation and Deconstruction – Questioning Traditional Literary Selection
   • Miller challenges the rigid canon of classical literature, arguing for a broader selection of texts that reflect more diverse and humane perspectives.
   • He suggests that educators should give more space to writers like Seneca, who provide ethical and philosophical perspectives that resonate with modern students (p. 137).
   • This aligns with deconstructionist critiques of the literary canon, which argue that it reflects exclusionary cultural values.

Examples of Critiques Through “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

Literary Work	Critique Through Miller’s Lens	Reference from the Article (Miller, 1949)
Julius Caesar (by William Shakespeare)	Miller critiques how historical figures like Caesar have been glorified through nationalistic biases in education. He notes that in Prussianized Germany, Caesar was elevated while figures like Cicero and Demosthenes were diminished to align with nationalist interests. This reflects how literature can be used to serve political ideologies rather than objective historical understanding.	“Julius Caesar was glorified; Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged in Prussianized Germany because the glorification and the disparagement suited the national tendency of the day” (p. 136).
The Aeneid (by Virgil)	Miller argues that the classical tradition, particularly Roman literature like The Aeneid, promotes an aristocratic and imperialist worldview that alienates students from diverse backgrounds. The text, which glorifies the Roman state and its expansionist ideology, may be seen as an instrument of nationalist pride rather than an inclusive humanistic study.	“The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
The Histories (by Livy)	Miller critiques Livy’s The Histories for its nationalistic framing of Rome’s superiority, which reinforces racial and cultural biases. He notes that for many students, especially those from marginalized backgrounds, figures like Hannibal or Jugurtha might seem more heroic than their Roman counterparts, disrupting the traditional Roman-centered perspective.	“Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius” (p. 136).
Odes (by Horace)	Unlike prose works that reflect nationalist and imperialist tendencies, Miller finds that poetry like Horace’s Odes avoids these pitfalls by focusing on universal themes. This suggests that while historical and political biases pervade prose literature, poetry can transcend such limitations and be more accessible to diverse audiences.	“The poets, such as Catullus and Horace, whenever they treat universal themes not bound by time or place, do not raise the hurdles of nationalism and racism” (p. 136).

Criticism Against “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

1. Lack of Concrete Pedagogical Solutions
   • While Miller identifies racial and nationalistic biases in literature, he does not provide clear, actionable solutions for educators beyond suggesting a more humanistic approach.
   • Critics may argue that simply advocating for a broader selection of texts (e.g., Seneca instead of Caesar) does not fundamentally challenge the structures that perpetuate bias in literary education.
2. Overgeneralization of Student Reactions
   • Miller assumes that students from marginalized backgrounds will inherently align with non-Roman historical figures such as Spartacus or Jugurtha over Roman leaders.
   • This perspective risks essentializing student experiences rather than allowing for individual and diverse interpretations of literature.
3. Romanticization of Certain Classical Figures
   • While Miller critiques the glorification of figures like Julius Caesar, he does not fully interrogate whether his own preference for writers like Seneca is similarly influenced by ideological biases.
   • His claim that Seneca’s Stoic philosophy is more accessible and relevant to modern students assumes a universal moral appeal that may not be as inclusive as he suggests.
4. Neglect of the Complexity of National Identity in Literature
   • Miller views nationalistic interpretations of literature as a hurdle but does not sufficiently explore how national identity can also be a productive lens for literary analysis.
   • Critics might argue that nationalistic readings do not always lead to exclusion or bias; rather, they can deepen historical and cultural understanding when approached critically.
5. Failure to Acknowledge the Role of Literary Criticism and Theory
   • Miller critiques literary education primarily from a pedagogical perspective but does not engage deeply with existing literary theories that address bias, such as Marxist or postcolonial criticism.
   • His work could have been strengthened by integrating theoretical frameworks that explicitly analyze power dynamics in literature.
6. Potentially Dismissive of the Canon’s Value
   • While Miller advocates for a more inclusive literary curriculum, he does not fully acknowledge the scholarly and historical reasons why certain classical works have been prioritized.
   • Critics may argue that instead of de-emphasizing canonical texts, the focus should be on teaching them with critical perspectives that acknowledge their limitations and biases.
7. Overemphasis on Classical Literature
   • Although Miller critiques classical literature’s elitist and aristocratic nature, he does not advocate strongly for the inclusion of non-Western literary traditions.
   • His argument remains confined to Greek and Roman texts rather than proposing a more radical expansion of the literary canon to include African, Asian, and indigenous narratives.
8. Limited Discussion on Contemporary Literature and Education
   • Miller focuses primarily on historical literary traditions but does not extend his analysis to contemporary literature, which may also reflect nationalistic and racial biases.
   • A broader discussion of how modern literature can challenge or reinforce these biases would make his argument more relevant to contemporary literary studies.

Representative Quotations from “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A racial or nationalistic prejudice is often a hurdle in the way of those who are studying a great author or a great literature.” (p. 134)	Miller argues that preconceived biases influence how literature is interpreted and appreciated, creating barriers to objective literary analysis.
“The judgment of the reviewer was finally determined by a racial or nationalistic bias.” (p. 134)	He critiques how even professional literary criticism is often shaped by national or racial biases, affecting how works are received and evaluated.
“It is difficult to teach any literature without enthusiasm. But enthusiasm, at that time, served only to fan the flames of prejudice.” (p. 135)	This highlights the challenges faced by educators, particularly during times of political conflict, when literature can become entangled in nationalist rhetoric.
“Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject.” (p. 135)	Miller critiques how Western academia appropriates ancient figures like Socrates, reinforcing Eurocentric narratives in education.
“Julius Caesar was glorified; Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged in Prussianized Germany because the glorification and the disparagement suited the national tendency of the day.” (p. 136)	He points out how historical and political biases influence literary scholarship, using the example of how Germany reshaped its interpretation of classical figures for nationalistic purposes.
“Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius.” (p. 136)	Miller suggests that students from marginalized backgrounds might identify with historical figures differently than traditional literary narratives suggest.
“The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology.” (p. 136)	He critiques how classical literature often reflects elitist and imperialist ideologies that may alienate modern students.
“The poets, such as Catullus and Horace, whenever they treat universal themes not bound by time or place, do not raise the hurdles of nationalism and racism.” (p. 136)	Miller contrasts poetry with prose, suggesting that poetry can transcend nationalist and racial biases due to its focus on universal human experiences.
“The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto.” (p. 137)	He emphasizes the ethical responsibility of educators to approach literature inclusively, acknowledging biases while promoting broader human understanding.
“There is an atmosphere surrounding the classics which has been called the genteel tradition.” (p. 137)	Miller critiques how classical studies have historically been associated with elitism, creating barriers for students from working-class or marginalized backgrounds.

Suggested Readings: “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

1. Miller, Philip S. “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature.” The Journal of Negro Education 18.2 (1949): 134-137.
2. Miller, Philip S. “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 18, no. 2, 1949, pp. 134–37. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2966388. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. “The Complete Bibliography of ‘The Journal of Negro Education,’ 1932-2006.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 75, no. 2, 2006, pp. 73–318. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40037237. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

“Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft first appeared in The Cambridge History of Postcolonial Literature, published by Cambridge University Press. This chapter explores the complex relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, highlighting their shared yet distinct approaches to literary and cultural theory. Ashcroft argues that while postmodernism deconstructs centralized master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperialist discourse, prioritizing the material realities of colonial oppression. A key distinction he makes is that the “post” in postmodernism signifies a stylistic shift, whereas in postcolonialism, it represents a critical reading practice that interrogates power structures and histories of domination. Through references to thinkers such as Homi Bhabha, Gayatri Spivak, and Edward Said, Ashcroft outlines how postcolonial theory appropriates postmodern strategies—like deconstruction, mimicry, and irony—without relinquishing its political commitment to justice and emancipation. The chapter also examines the racialized underpinnings of imperialism, emphasizing how colonial ideologies constructed race as a tool of domination. Drawing from figures like W. E. B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon, and the Négritude movement, Ashcroft illustrates how racial identity has been shaped by historical oppression and resistance. His work is significant in literary theory as it bridges the gap between postmodern skepticism and postcolonial activism, demonstrating how literature serves as a battleground for cultural representation and political struggle.

Summary of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

• Postcolonialism and Postmodernism: A Complex Relationship
  • Ashcroft explores the intricate relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, emphasizing their simultaneous contestation and overlap. He argues that while postmodernism focuses on deconstructing master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperial discourse (Ashcroft, p. 13).
  • “Whereas the ‘post’ in literary postmodernism may refer to a way of writing, the ‘post’ in postcolonialism refers to a way of reading” (p. 13).
• Distinction in Goals and Methods
  • Postmodernism seeks to dismantle centralized, logocentric European narratives, whereas postcolonialism aims to “dismantle the Centre/Margin binarism of imperial discourse” (p. 14).
  • Postcolonial theory does not propose a universalist ontology but instead critiques the material and discursive realities of colonial oppression (p. 15).
• Political Commitment of Postcolonialism
  • Unlike postmodernism, which often rejects grand narratives and universalist theories, postcolonialism remains committed to justice and liberation (p. 15).
  • Ashcroft highlights Edward Said’s concept of “worldliness,” which emphasizes the necessity of acknowledging colonial and neocolonial oppression (p. 15).
• Postmodernism’s Influence on Postcolonial Theory
  • Despite differences, postcolonialism adopts postmodern techniques such as decentering discourse, language analysis, mimicry, and irony to subvert colonialist narratives (p. 14).
  • However, postcolonialism does not abandon the ethical imperative for justice, unlike some strands of postmodernist thought (p. 16).
• Race as a Colonial Construct
  • Ashcroft critiques the historical construction of race as a justification for European imperialism, stating that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16).
  • Race is neither biologically nor socially fixed; it emerged as a colonial tool to categorize and subordinate peoples (p. 17).
• Critique of Postmodernism’s Handling of Race
  • Postmodernism, especially in literary and cultural studies, often neglects larger political and economic structures, reducing race to a discursive or linguistic concept (p. 18).
  • “The predominance of otherness postmodernism has led us to neglect the larger structures (political, economic, educational, etc.)” (p. 18).
• Racial Thinking and Colonialism
  • Ashcroft traces the origins of racial ideology to European philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume, who established a hierarchical framework of human difference based on skin color (p. 17).
  • Kant’s view that “so fundamental is the difference between the races of man […] it appears to be as great in mental capacities as in colour” exemplifies the racist foundations of Enlightenment thought (p. 17).
• Postcolonial Responses to Race: Du Bois, Négritude, and Fanon
  • W. E. B. Du Bois: His The Conservation of Races (1897) attempted to reconcile the contradiction between biological and socio-historical definitions of race while affirming Black identity (p. 21).
  • Négritude Movement: Led by Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire, it reclaimed Black identity and culture as a form of resistance to colonialism. However, it was also criticized for its essentialist view of race (p. 23).
  • Frantz Fanon: His Black Skins, White Masks (1952) examined the psychological effects of racial subjugation, particularly the internalization of the colonial gaze (p. 27).
  • Fanon describes the alienation of Black identity, writing, “My body was given back to me sprawled out, distorted, recolored, clad in mourning in that white winter day” (p. 27).
• Race as a Relational Concept
  • Ashcroft argues that while race itself is a socially constructed fiction, the experience of racism is real and must be acknowledged (p. 28).
  • “Without racism, race would not have been invented” (p. 28).
• Postcolonialism’s Ethical Imperative
  • Unlike postmodernism, postcolonialism retains a vision of hope and agency, emphasizing the need for decolonization and racial justice (p. 28).
  • “Fanon’s final word is an affirmation of the necessity of a vision of hope for any project of postcolonial liberation” (p. 28).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference (Page Number)
Postcolonialism	A critical approach that examines the cultural and political impact of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on resistance and subversion of colonial narratives.	p. 13
Postmodernism	A literary and philosophical movement that critiques grand narratives, centralization, and fixed meanings, often employing irony and deconstruction.	p. 14
Centre/Margin Binarism	A concept in postcolonial theory that highlights the division between colonial powers (the Centre) and colonized subjects (the Margin), which postcolonialism seeks to dismantle.	p. 14
Deconstruction	A postmodern technique that questions and breaks down established meanings, often used in postcolonial discourse to challenge imperialist narratives.	p. 14
Mimicry	A colonial subject’s imitation of the colonizer’s culture, which can serve as both subversion and complicity, famously explored by Homi Bhabha.	p. 14
Incredulity towards Metanarratives	A term from Jean-François Lyotard’s postmodernism that describes skepticism toward universal theories; in postcolonialism, this takes the form of resisting imperialist master narratives.	p. 14
Worldliness	Edward Said’s term for recognizing the real, material impact of colonialism rather than treating it as a purely theoretical concept.	p. 15
Ethical Universals	Despite rejecting grand narratives, postcolonialism retains a belief in justice and ethical imperatives, differentiating it from postmodernism.	p. 16
Otherness Postmodernism	A shift in postmodernism toward recognizing difference, as influenced by Laclau and Mouffe’s Hegemony and Socialist Strategy.	p. 18
Imperial Discourse	The ideological system that justified colonial rule, portraying the colonizer as superior and the colonized as inferior.	p. 16
Racialism	Tzvetan Todorov’s term for the belief that physical racial characteristics correlate with intellectual and moral qualities.	p. 17
Strategic Essentialism	Gayatri Spivak’s idea that essentialist categories (such as race or gender) can be temporarily employed as political strategies for resistance.	p. 25
Floating Signifier	A term in semiotics and postcolonial theory indicating that race lacks inherent meaning but gains significance through social and historical contexts.	p. 22
Double Consciousness	W. E. B. Du Bois’ concept describing how marginalized groups internalize two perspectives: their own and the dominant racial view of them.	p. 22
Négritude	A literary and political movement celebrating Black identity and culture as a response to colonial racism, associated with Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire.	p. 23
Fact of Blackness	Frantz Fanon’s idea that racial identity is externally imposed and shaped by the colonial gaze, leading to alienation.	p. 27
Performativity	A concept (borrowed from Judith Butler) that suggests racial identity, like gender, is performed through repeated social interactions.	p. 27
The Racial Gaze	The objectifying and dehumanizing perspective imposed on racialized subjects by colonial and racist ideologies.	p. 27
Hegemony	Antonio Gramsci’s idea that power is maintained through cultural and ideological dominance rather than force, applicable to colonial rule.	p. 18

Contribution of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Ashcroft’s Framework
Things Fall Apart – Chinua Achebe	Ashcroft critiques Achebe’s novel as a foundational postcolonial text that dismantles imperial narratives. Unlike postmodern works that merely deconstruct meaning, Things Fall Apart offers a counter-narrative to colonial history, aligning with Ashcroft’s assertion that “postcolonialism remains unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16). Achebe’s novel challenges the Centre/Margin binarism and reclaims indigenous storytelling.
Cambridge – Caryl Phillips	Phillips’ novel is analyzed through the lens of the colonial gaze and the internalization of racist discourse. Ashcroft highlights how Emily, the plantation owner’s daughter, becomes complicit in colonial racism, demonstrating how “the objectifying gaze of colonial power” shapes perceptions of race and humanity (p. 19).
Black Skin, White Masks – Frantz Fanon	Ashcroft engages with Fanon’s psychological analysis of colonial subjectivity, particularly his argument that race is imposed externally through colonial discourse. He references Fanon’s “Look, a Negro!” passage to illustrate how race is “relational rather than essential” (p. 27). Fanon’s work is foundational in postcolonial studies for its articulation of alienation and racial trauma.
The Conservation of Races – W. E. B. Du Bois	Ashcroft critiques Du Bois’ balancing act between recognizing race as a social construct while also using it as a political tool for Black solidarity. He notes that “Du Bois walks a tightrope between definitions of race and the need to propose that the Negro had a contribution to make” (p. 22), highlighting the tension between race as a lived experience and an ideological construct.

Criticism Against “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

1. Oversimplification of Postmodernism vs. Postcolonialism
   • Ashcroft argues that postcolonialism is “unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16) in contrast to postmodernism’s skepticism. However, critics argue that postmodernism itself has politically engaged strands, such as Lyotard’s critique of power structures, which Ashcroft does not fully acknowledge.
2. Ambiguity in Defining Postcolonialism
   • While Ashcroft asserts that “postcolonialism refers to post-invasion and not post-independence” (p. 13), this broad definition is problematic. It risks conflating vastly different historical experiences under a single theoretical umbrella, ignoring specific sociopolitical contexts.
3. Insufficient Engagement with Non-Anglophone Postcolonial Theory
   • Ashcroft predominantly engages with theorists writing in English (Said, Spivak, Bhabha) but does not sufficiently address contributions from non-Western intellectual traditions, such as Latin American decolonial thought (e.g., Aníbal Quijano, Walter Mignolo).
4. Tendency to Conflate Race and Colonialism
   • The text treats race as a colonial invention, arguing that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16). While this aligns with Stuart Hall’s work, it risks downplaying pre-colonial conceptions of identity and racial hierarchies that existed outside European imperialism.
5. Limited Discussion of Economic Factors
   • While Ashcroft acknowledges capitalism’s role in colonialism (p. 17), he does not deeply explore economic dimensions such as dependency theory or world-systems analysis, which provide a more materialist critique of postcolonial conditions.
6. Problematic Engagement with Essentialism in Négritude
   • Ashcroft discusses Négritude as a form of “strategic essentialism” (p. 25), yet he does not fully address the internal critiques of Négritude from within African intellectual circles, such as critiques by Frantz Fanon and Wole Soyinka.
7. Underdeveloped Feminist and Gender Analysis
   • While postcolonialism has strong feminist strands (e.g., Spivak, Mohanty), Ashcroft’s discussion largely neglects gendered perspectives on colonialism, racialization, and postcolonial identity.
8. Lack of Engagement with Contemporary Postcolonial Realities
   • The text focuses on theoretical constructs but lacks detailed discussions of 21st-century neocolonialism, migration, and digital globalization, making its framework seem somewhat dated.
9. Potential Reduction of Race to Discourse
   • While Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s tendency to treat race as a floating signifier (p. 22), some critics argue that his own approach does not sufficiently engage with how race functions in legal, institutional, and structural frameworks beyond literary discourse.
10. Limited Exploration of Indigenous Theorization
11. The book discusses colonialism largely through the lens of former British and French colonies but does not significantly incorporate Indigenous perspectives from settler-colonial contexts, such as North America or Australia.

Representative Quotations from “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism is a vexed mixture of contestation and imbrication.” (p. 13)	Ashcroft highlights the complex and intertwined nature of these two theories, which both critique dominant narratives but differ in their purpose—postmodernism deconstructs, while postcolonialism resists.
“Postcolonialism’ refers to post-invasion and not post-independence; it identifies neither a chronology nor a specific ontology.” (p. 13)	This statement rejects a rigid chronological understanding of postcolonialism, arguing that it is an ongoing process of resistance rather than a mere historical period after colonial rule.
“Lyotard’s ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ becomes something more than incredulity in postcolonialism: it is the active resistance to the master discourse of imperialism and the radical transformation of its tools.” (p. 14)	Ashcroft contrasts postmodern skepticism with postcolonial resistance, suggesting that postcolonialism takes a more politically engaged stance in dismantling imperial structures.
“Postcolonial theorists have little trouble in appropriating postmodern approaches to subjectivity, discourse, and representation, without abandoning the political imperative of the field.” (p. 15)	While postmodernism denies stable subjectivities, postcolonialism selectively adopts its techniques while maintaining a commitment to political activism and liberation.
“Postcolonialism is unashamedly emancipatory, its driving energy a concern with justice and liberation.” (p. 16)	Unlike postmodernism’s rejection of universal truths, postcolonialism asserts a clear ethical and political purpose—to challenge oppression and advocate for justice.
“Before European racism, black people were not black.” (p. 16)	This provocative claim underscores that race as a category was historically constructed by colonial powers as a justification for subjugation, rather than being an inherent, pre-existing reality.
“Race, like any signifier, is a function of difference, yet this is hardly adequate to explain the human cost of racism.” (p. 18)	Ashcroft critiques purely linguistic or theoretical approaches to race, emphasizing that racism has real, material consequences beyond discourse.
“Negritude was less a celebration of an essential blackness than it was an act of rebellion.” (p. 24)	This challenges the common perception of Negritude as merely essentialist, arguing instead that it was a strategic form of resistance against colonial oppression.
“The experience of blackness arises unbidden out of the fact that ‘consciousness of the body is solely a negating activity’.” (p. 26)	Quoting Fanon, Ashcroft illustrates how racialized individuals experience their identity as externally imposed through the colonial gaze, reinforcing their exclusion.
“Without racism, race would not have been invented, and the continued power and ubiquity of this non-existent category of race lies in the persistence of racism and its consequences.” (p. 28)	This final assertion ties together Ashcroft’s argument that race is a colonial construct sustained by structures of oppression, rather than an innate biological or cultural truth.

Suggested Readings: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

1. Platt, Len, and Sara Upstone, eds. Postmodern literature and race. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
2. GBOGI, TOSIN. “Is There Life Besides “Coloniality?”: Metapoetics and the Second Level of Decoloniality in Niyi Osundare’s Poetry.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 52, no. 3, 2021, pp. 139–66. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48679341. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. Wade, Peter. “Blacks and Indigenous People in the Postmodern and Postcolonial Nation – and Beyond.” Race and Ethnicity in Latin America, Pluto Press, 2010, pp. 85–111. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183p73f.10. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
4. Aronowitz, Stanley. “Postmodernism and Politics.” Social Text, no. 18, 1987, pp. 99–115. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/488695. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

“Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida first appeared in an academic journal, discussing the profound impact of racial and cultural mixing on Brazilian literature and identity. The article explores how Brazil’s colonial history, marked by the Portuguese settlers’ interactions with Indigenous and African populations, created a unique social structure where racial integration, while not erasing prejudice, shaped the nation’s cultural and artistic development. Gomes de Almeida traces the representation of mixed-race individuals in Brazilian literature, from the 17th-century poetry of Gregório de Matos, who both admired and resented the presence of mulattos in society, to the 19th-century Romanticism of José de Alencar, who mythologized racial mixing through idealized narratives of Indigenous-European unions. The article highlights how realism and modernism further refined these portrayals, particularly in the works of Machado de Assis, a mulatto writer who became Brazil’s most esteemed literary figure, and Jorge Amado, who celebrated Afro-Brazilian culture in novels like Tenda dos Milagres. Through an analysis of these literary movements, Gomes de Almeida underscores how racial integration in Brazil, unlike in other post-colonial societies, became a defining literary theme, challenging European racial hierarchies and offering a distinct vision of national identity. The article is significant in literary theory as it emphasizes how literature not only reflects historical realities but actively participates in shaping the discourse on race and national identity.

Summary of “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

• Historical Context of Racial Mixing in Brazil
  • Unlike English North America, Portuguese colonizers in Brazil arrived without families, leading to widespread intermixing with Indigenous and African women (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • This process created a racially mixed society, where the children of these unions often occupied an intermediate social space, forming an early working and artisan class (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • The mixed-race presence was reflected in early Brazilian art, such as the works of Aleijadinho (1738–1814) and Manuel da Costa Ataíde, who depicted a mulatto Virgin Mary in his paintings (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Early Literary Representations of Racial Mixing
  • In the 17th century, Gregório de Matos captured the paradoxical attitudes toward mixed-race people: while mulatto women were admired, mulatto men were satirized for competing with white elites (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • His poetry reflects both admiration for and anxiety about Brazil’s racial hybridity, illustrating an early awareness of race relations in the colony (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Romanticism and Indianist Myth-making
  • During the 19th century, José de Alencar idealized the fusion of Indigenous and European cultures in novels like O Guarani (1857) and Iracema (1865), presenting racial mixing as part of Brazil’s national identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • However, Africans were largely excluded from this nationalist myth due to the ongoing practice of slavery (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • In contrast, Bernardo Guimarães’ novel A Escrava Isaura (1875) depicted a nearly white mulatta as the heroine, demonstrating the reluctance to fully embrace blackness in literature (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Realist Literature and the Rise of Mixed-Race Intellectuals
  • The late 19th-century Realist movement addressed racial prejudice more directly, as seen in Aluísio Azevedo’s O Mulato (1881), which critiques the discrimination faced by educated mulattos (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • Machado de Assis, Brazil’s greatest writer and a dark-skinned mulatto, overcame racial barriers to become the first president of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, proving the ability of mixed-race individuals to integrate into elite society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Euclides da Cunha and the Racial Debate
  • In Os Sertões (1902), Euclides da Cunha initially adopted racial theories that condemned racial mixing but later acknowledged the resilience of mixed-race people in the backlands of Brazil (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • This shift highlights the growing recognition of mestiçagem (racial mixing) as a defining characteristic of Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Modernism and the Cultural Celebration of Racial Mixing
  • The 1920s Modernist Movement embraced Brazil’s racial and cultural hybridity, as exemplified by Mário de Andrade’s Macunaíma (1928), which uses indigenous and African myths to define Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism” movement advocated for absorbing European influences while maintaining Brazil’s unique mixed heritage (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Jorge Amado and Afro-Brazilian Representation
  • Jorge Amado revolutionized Brazilian literature by centering Afro-Brazilian culture in novels like Jubiabá (1935) and Tenda dos Milagres (1969), which celebrated racial mixing as a national strength (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • His work marked a shift from seeing racial mixing as a social problem to viewing it as a source of cultural vitality (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Conclusion: Literature as a Reflection of Brazil’s Racial Identity
  • The long trajectory of Brazilian literature reflects evolving attitudes toward race, from early ambivalence to Romantic idealization, Realist critique, and Modernist celebration (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • Writers like Alencar, Machado de Assis, Mário de Andrade, and Jorge Amado played key roles in shaping the discourse on racial integration, ultimately affirming mestiçagem as central to Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Relevance in the Article
Mestiçagem (Racial Mixing)	The blending of different racial and ethnic groups into a single society.	Central to Brazilian identity and literature, shaping cultural and artistic expressions (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Indianism (Indianismo)	A literary movement that idealized Indigenous people as noble ancestors of Brazil.	Seen in José de Alencar’s O Guarani and Iracema, where Indigenous-European integration is celebrated (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Romantic Nationalism	The use of literature to construct a national identity based on myths and idealized histories.	Brazilian Romanticism elevated Indigenous figures while neglecting African contributions (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Social Hierarchy & Mulatto Identity	The positioning of mixed-race individuals within a social structure influenced by colonialism.	Figures like Gregório de Matos and Machado de Assis show the shifting roles of mulattos in Brazilian society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Scientific Racism	19th-century pseudoscientific theories claiming racial hierarchies and white superiority.	Euclides da Cunha initially embraced but later questioned these ideas in Os Sertões (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Modernism & Cultural Cannibalism	The Modernist movement’s approach to absorbing and transforming European influences into a distinct Brazilian culture.	Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism” movement advocated for the fusion of cultural elements (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Afro-Brazilian Cultural Recognition	The acknowledgment of African heritage in shaping Brazil’s culture and literature.	Jorge Amado’s works like Tenda dos Milagres celebrate the African influence on Brazilian society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Literary Realism	A movement that portrays everyday realities, often critiquing social issues like race and class.	O Mulato by Aluísio Azevedo was the first novel to directly challenge racial prejudice (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Post-Colonial Identity Formation	The process by which former colonies construct their unique cultural and racial identities.	Brazilian literature evolved from European imitation to embracing its mixed-race identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Myth of National Identity	The idea that a nation builds a self-image based on historical and literary narratives.	Literature played a role in shaping Brazil’s mestizo identity, despite its complex racial history (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).

Contribution of “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

Literary Work	Critique through “Literature and Racial Integration”	Key References from Almeida’s Work
Iracema (1865) by José de Alencar	The novel idealizes racial mixing through the romance between a Portuguese colonizer and an indigenous woman, symbolizing national integration. However, it largely omits African influence, focusing on the European-Indian fusion.	Almeida highlights that Indianist literature served nationalist purposes, but ignored the African role in Brazilian identity (Almeida, p. 75).
O Mulato (1881) by Aluísio Azevedo	This novel critiques racial prejudice, showing a well-educated mulatto protagonist unable to escape racial discrimination. It exposes the social barriers that persisted despite Brazil’s racial mixing.	Almeida recognizes the novel as the first to feature a mulatto protagonist, emphasizing how racial prejudice hindered social mobility (Almeida, p. 77).
Os Sertões (1902) by Euclides da Cunha	The book reflects positivist racial theories but contradicts them by admiring the resilience of mixed-race sertanejos. It reveals contradictions in 19th-century racial ideology.	Almeida notes that da Cunha’s portrayal of racial mixing evolved from racist theory to an acknowledgment of its strength (Almeida, p. 78-80).
Tenda dos Milagres (1969) by Jorge Amado	This novel celebrates Afro-Brazilian culture and racial integration, challenging European-centric intellectualism and racism. It portrays mixed-race identity as central to Brazilian identity.	Almeida considers this work a turning point, as it fully embraces racial mixing and Afro-Brazilian culture as integral to Brazil’s literary and social identity (Almeida, p. 82-83).

Criticism Against “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

1. Overemphasis on Racial Harmony
   • Almeida portrays racial integration as a defining and largely positive aspect of Brazilian history but overlooks the deep and persistent racial inequalities that continue to exist.
   • The text sometimes minimizes the structural racism that shaped (and still shapes) Brazilian society, particularly in terms of economic and social mobility.
2. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Theory
   • While Almeida discusses colonial racial mixing, he does not engage deeply with postcolonial critiques that address power imbalances and the lasting impact of European dominance.
   • The work does not fully explore how literature reflects colonial hegemonic ideologies, nor how Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous voices have been historically marginalized in literary traditions.
3. Romanticization of Racial Mixing
   • Almeida follows Gilberto Freyre’s notion of lusotropicalism, which idealizes Portuguese colonialism as more benevolent and open to racial mixing compared to other colonial powers.
   • Critics argue that this perspective downplays the violence, exploitation, and systemic oppression experienced by Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous peoples.
4. Neglect of Black Literary Voices
   • The text gives more weight to mixed-race and indigenous representation in literature while offering limited focus on Black-authored literary works that directly challenge racism.
   • Writers like Lima Barreto and Cruz e Souza, who explicitly dealt with racial identity and injustice, receive relatively less attention compared to Romantic and Modernist authors.
5. Essentialist Approach to Brazilian Identity
   • The work presents Brazilian identity as inherently mixed-race (mestiçagem), but this framing can obscure the ongoing racial stratification in Brazilian society.
   • The concept of a “unified Brazilian race” can be problematic, as it ignores the continued social exclusion of Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous communities.
6. Lack of Feminist and Gender Analysis
   • While discussing racial integration, the book does not critically analyze the role of gender, particularly how interracial relationships were often the result of colonial sexual violence.
   • The portrayal of Indigenous and Black women in literature is not sufficiently scrutinized in terms of how they were exoticized and objectified by white and male authors.
7. Absence of a Comparative Global Perspective
   • The book largely focuses on Brazil’s racial integration in isolation, without comparing it to similar processes in other former colonies such as the Caribbean or Latin America.
   • A broader comparative analysis could strengthen the argument by showing how Brazil’s experience fits into wider postcolonial and racial discourse.

Representative Quotations from “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Brazil tended to accept racial mixing as a de facto reality.”	This statement highlights how racial mixing was an inherent part of Brazilian colonial history due to Portuguese settlers’ interactions with Indigenous and African populations. It sets the stage for Almeida’s argument about Brazil’s unique racial integration compared to other colonial nations.
“Although this historical circumstance did not eliminate racial prejudice, it made a strict policy of discrimination… totally impractical.”	Almeida acknowledges that racial mixing did not eradicate racism but argues that Brazilian society could not sustain segregationist policies like those in the United States. This reflects the argument that Brazil’s racial structure was distinct, yet still marked by prejudice.
“The noteworthy fact is that mulatto features are not restricted to the Virgin but invade the whole composition.”	This refers to Manuel da Costa Ataíde’s painting of the Assumption, where the Virgin and angels are depicted with mixed-race features. It symbolizes the deep racial integration in Brazil’s artistic and cultural expression.
“Among the non-European peoples who contributed to the historical formation of Brazil—Amerindians and Africans—it was the Indians who first came to the fore in the Romantic imagination.”	Almeida critiques how Romanticism in Brazilian literature idealized Indigenous peoples while marginalizing Africans, reflecting nationalistic myth-making rather than an authentic portrayal of racial integration.
“The African is not linked to the genesis of the Brazilian, not even in the lyrical and idealized form that Alencar applies to the Indian.”	This highlights a gap in Brazilian literary history, where African heritage was often excluded from national identity-building efforts in literature, unlike Indigenous heritage.
“A mulatto appears for the first time as a novel’s central character in the work that opens the realist period of Brazilian literature; in fact, its title is O Mulato (1881).”	Almeida points out that racial themes gained more direct attention in Realist literature, shifting from the symbolic Romantic portrayals of racial mixing to addressing social barriers against mixed-race individuals.
“If Brazil has contributed something important to the enrichment of world culture, it is because of ethnic intermingling—this is the sign of our presence in the legacy of humanism.”	This reflects Almeida’s central thesis that Brazil’s most defining cultural contribution is racial and cultural mixing, which he sees as a positive force in shaping national identity.
“In Macunaíma the issue of racial mixing is extrapolated from the limited domain of social or sociological mimetism to embrace, on a symbolic level, the whole of Brazilian reality.”	Almeida discusses Mário de Andrade’s Macunaíma, emphasizing how Modernist literature fully integrated racial and cultural mixing into its representation of Brazilian identity.
“Pedro Archanjo, the reverse of Argolo, represents moral resistance to racism and as such is the spokesman for some of the ideas that are dearest to the author’s heart.”	Almeida highlights how Jorge Amado’s Tenda dos Milagres directly challenges racist ideologies by presenting a protagonist who embraces and defends Afro-Brazilian culture.
“Today in Brazil, considered as a whole, this experience has been considerably extended and the original elements of the mix… have been joined by others: Italians, Germans, Arabs, Japanese, and many more.”	The final argument in Almeida’s work acknowledges that Brazilian racial integration has continued beyond its colonial roots, incorporating a wide range of immigrant influences.

Suggested Readings: “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

1. Mauricio Gomes de Almeida, José. “Literature and Racial Integration.” Diogenes 48.191 (2000): 72-83.
2. Davis, Arthur P. “Integration and Race Literature.” Phylon (1940-1956), vol. 17, no. 2, 1956, pp. 141–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/272587. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.
3. Goff, Brian L., et al. “Racial Integration as an Innovation: Empirical Evidence from Sports Leagues.” The American Economic Review, vol. 92, no. 1, 2002, pp. 16–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3083319. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.
4. Jefferson, Ruth Bryant. “Some Obstacles to Racial Integration.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 26, no. 2, 1957, pp. 145–54. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2293340. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh

“Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh first appeared in The Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology in 2013. In this article, Frosh critically examines the entanglements between psychoanalysis and colonialism, emphasizing how psychoanalytic theory has historically been shaped by colonialist ideology and racist assumptions. He highlights Freud’s conception of the “primitive” or “savage” mind as a foundational problem, arguing that this terminology perpetuates a Eurocentric developmental hierarchy that aligns with colonialist thought (Frosh, 2013, p. 142). At the same time, Frosh acknowledges the potential of psychoanalysis to critique and dismantle colonialist discourse, particularly through its exploration of the “colonizing gaze” and the “racist imaginary.” He draws on Fanon’s (1952) seminal work, Black Skin, White Masks, to illustrate how psychoanalysis can be applied to postcolonial psychology, especially in understanding how racialized subjects internalize colonial oppression (p. 146). Frosh also discusses the tension between psychoanalysis as a tool of resistance and its historical complicity in reinforcing racial hierarchies, pointing out how its individualistic framework often neglects sociohistorical realities (p. 141). The article has gained popularity due to its critical engagement with both psychoanalysis and postcolonial theory, making a compelling case for their mutual relevance while also exposing the ideological blind spots within psychoanalytic thought. By incorporating perspectives from theorists such as Edward Said, Jacques Lacan, and Slavoj Žižek, Frosh’s work remains a significant contribution to contemporary debates on race, colonialism, and psychology (p. 152).

Summary of “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh

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Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference in Frosh (2013)
Colonialist Ideology in Psychoanalysis	The way psychoanalytic theory, especially Freud’s, incorporates colonial and racial assumptions about “primitive” vs. “civilized” mentalities.	p. 141-144
Primitive Mind/Savage Mind	Freud’s notion that “primitive” societies and children share irrational, undeveloped ways of thinking, reinforcing colonial hierarchies.	p. 143
Colonizing Gaze	The way in which colonial subjects are looked at as objects rather than subjects, particularly in Fanon’s experience of the “white gaze.”	p. 146
Racist Imaginary	The unconscious projections and fantasies that sustain racism, rooted in paranoia, desire, and disavowal.	p. 148
Projection	A defense mechanism where undesirable qualities in the self are attributed to the racialized other, reinforcing prejudice.	p. 148-149
Alienation	A condition where the subject is distanced from their own identity due to the external gaze and colonial oppression, as discussed in Fanon’s work.	p. 146-147
Mirror Stage (Lacanian Theory)	A psychoanalytic concept describing the formation of the ego through identification with an external image; Fanon critiques how this is racialized in colonialism.	p. 147
Epidermalization	Fanon’s idea that colonial oppression inscribes racial inferiority onto the skin, making race a lived bodily experience.	p. 149
Unconscious Desire and Racism	The psychoanalytic view that racism is fueled by unconscious desires, particularly projections of repressed sexual and aggressive impulses.	p. 150-151
Enjoyment (Jouissance) and the Other	Žižek’s idea that racism is fueled by the belief that the racialized Other enjoys life in an excessive way that threatens the dominant group.	p. 151
Melancholia and Postcolonial Identity	The grief or loss experienced in postcolonial societies due to historical trauma and the erasure of indigenous identity.	p. 150
Psychic Investment in Racism	The idea that racism is not just a political or social issue but a deep psychological investment in preserving power structures.	p. 153
Splitting	A psychological defense where the world is divided into good and bad, reinforcing racial binaries (e.g., civilized vs. primitive).	p. 148-149
Paranoia and the Racial Other	The racist subject experiences the Other as a threat to identity and projects fears onto them, as seen in Adorno’s work on authoritarian personalities.	p. 148
Psychoanalysis as a Colonial Tool	The idea that psychoanalysis has historically aligned with colonialist discourse, reinforcing racial and civilizational hierarchies.	p. 144-145
Psychoanalysis as a Subversive Tool	Despite its colonial entanglements, psychoanalysis provides critical tools to deconstruct racism and colonial power.	p. 152-153

Contribution of “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh

Literary Work	Critique through Frosh’s Framework
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness	– Examines how colonialist ideology is embedded in language and psychology. – Freud’s notion of the “primitive” and “savage” mind aligns with how Africa is portrayed as the irrational “other” (Frosh, 2013, p. 142). – The “colonial gaze” reduces the native population to objects rather than subjects (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
Charlotte Brontë – Jane Eyre	– The character of Bertha Mason can be analyzed through the “racist imaginary” (Frosh, 2013, p. 148). – Bertha is depicted as an embodiment of the “irrational” and “primitive” mind, reinforcing colonialist anxieties (Frosh, 2013, p. 149). – Rochester’s treatment of Bertha parallels the colonial drive to dominate the “other” (Frosh, 2013, p. 152).
Frantz Fanon – Black Skin, White Masks	– Fanon’s use of psychoanalysis to explain racial alienation aligns with Frosh’s argument on how colonialism psychologically constructs subjectivity (Frosh, 2013, p. 145). – The “epidermalization” of Black identity (Frosh, 2013, p. 147) explains the internalization of colonial discourse by the colonized. – The “White gaze” in Fanon’s work reflects the psychoanalytic idea of the “mirror stage” where the Black subject is forced into an alienated identity (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
Jean Rhys – Wide Sargasso Sea	– A postcolonial reimagining of Jane Eyre, it challenges the psychoanalytic assumption of the “civilized” vs. “primitive” binary (Frosh, 2013, p. 150). – The narrative gives voice to the colonized subject, disrupting the colonizing gaze (Frosh, 2013, p. 151). – Explores the psychological trauma of colonial displacement and racialization, in line with Frosh’s critique of colonialist psychology (Frosh, 2013, p. 153).

Criticism Against “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh

1. Overgeneralization of Psychoanalysis’ Role in Colonialism
   • Frosh argues that psychoanalysis is deeply implicated in colonialist ideology, but some critics suggest he overgeneralizes Freud’s theories without considering their progressive potential.
   • Freud’s universalization of the unconscious could be seen as a critique of colonial binaries rather than a reinforcement (Freud, Totem and Taboo).
2. Limited Engagement with Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theories
   • While Frosh critiques classical psychoanalysis, he does not fully engage with modern revisions of psychoanalysis that challenge its colonialist past.
   • Postcolonial psychoanalysts, such as Homi Bhabha and Achille Mbembe, have reformulated psychoanalytic theories to resist colonial narratives, which Frosh does not explore in depth.
3. Potential Overemphasis on the “Racist Imaginary”
   • The concept of the racist imaginary (Frosh, 2013, p. 148) suggests that racism is largely the result of psychological projection, but critics argue that this perspective risks downplaying the material and structural dimensions of racism.
   • Social, economic, and political factors contribute significantly to colonial racism, beyond just unconscious psychological dynamics.
4. Binary View of Psychoanalysis as Both Oppressive and Subversive
   • Frosh simultaneously critiques psychoanalysis for its colonialist underpinnings while also claiming it can be subversive and critical.
   • Some critics argue this dual stance lacks clarity: Is psychoanalysis inherently colonial, or can it be fully repurposed for postcolonial critique?
5. Neglect of Alternative Psychological Frameworks
   • The article focuses on psychoanalysis as the primary psychological framework for analyzing colonialism, but other approaches such as cognitive psychology or indigenous psychology are largely ignored.
   • Alternative psychological perspectives could provide more nuanced insights into colonial trauma and resistance.
6. Underrepresentation of Non-Western Psychoanalytic Thought
   • Frosh’s discussion centers primarily on European psychoanalysts (Freud, Lacan, Žižek), while non-Western contributions to psychoanalytic thought are largely absent.
   • Critics argue that including African, Caribbean, and Asian psychoanalytic thinkers (e.g., Fanon’s contemporaries, Dalit psychoanalysis, African spiritual psychologies) would enrich the analysis.
7. Reliance on Freudian and Lacanian Psychoanalysis
   • The article heavily relies on Freud and Lacan’s theories, despite significant critiques of their Eurocentric and patriarchal biases.
   • Feminist and decolonial scholars have argued that other psychoanalytic traditions (e.g., Klein, Winnicott, Fanonian psychoanalysis) could offer a less colonialist perspective on subjectivity.
8. Insufficient Engagement with Indigenous Epistemologies
   • While the article critiques the colonialist framing of the “primitive mind,” it does not explore indigenous epistemologies as alternatives to psychoanalytic models.
   • A broader engagement with indigenous philosophies of mind, healing, and subjectivity could counterbalance the focus on Western psychoanalysis.

Representative Quotations from “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Postcolonial theory has been ambivalent towards psychoanalysis, for good reasons.” (Frosh, 2013, p. 141)	Frosh highlights the tension between postcolonialism and psychoanalysis. He acknowledges that while psychoanalysis can offer insights into colonial subjectivity, it also carries colonialist assumptions.
“Freud’s postulation of the ‘primitive’ or ‘savage’ mind, which still infects psychoanalytic thinking, is a prime example here.” (p. 141)	Critiques Freud’s theory for reinforcing colonialist binaries, positioning non-European societies as “primitive” in comparison to the “civilized” West.
“Psychology needs postcolonialism quite patently, because without the challenge of postcolonial thinking it drifts into ahistorical and highly abstracted models of the mind.” (p. 142)	Argues that psychology often ignores sociohistorical factors and needs postcolonialism to avoid abstract, Eurocentric assumptions.
“Postcolonialism needs psychology more subtly, because without some kind of effective psychological input it essentializes the sociohistorical and is left grasping for a theory of the subject.” (p. 142)	Suggests that postcolonialism benefits from psychological insights to understand subjectivity beyond purely historical and sociopolitical frameworks.
“Psychoanalysis is thus an exemplary incidence of a disciplinary practice that both draws on colonialism and disrupts its categories at the same time.” (p. 145)	Describes the paradox of psychoanalysis: it both reflects and critiques colonialist ideology, making it both problematic and useful for postcolonial studies.
“The savage is the other, the not ‘us’.” (p. 143)	Highlights the colonialist language in Freud’s work, which positions non-European people as an externalized, lesser “other.”
“Psychoanalysis has some of its roots in colonialist assumptions that continue to resonate in contemporary theory and clinical practice.” (p. 150)	Acknowledges that colonialist language and biases in psychoanalysis persist, even in modern applications.
“Colonial power is built on this capacity of the colonizer to remove the source of subjecthood from the colonized.” (p. 146)	Draws from Fanon to argue that colonialism dehumanizes and strips agency from the colonized through psychological mechanisms.
“Racism is not a ‘simple belief’ and its irrationality is not solely in the area of its truth claims.” (p. 148)	Critiques conventional views of racism, arguing that it operates through unconscious psychological structures rather than mere misinformation.
“Psychoanalysis can be used both to trouble colonial and racist assumptions, and as a stepping stone to some subversive theory.” (p. 152)	Concludes that despite its colonial baggage, psychoanalysis remains a valuable tool for challenging racist and colonialist ideologies.

Suggested Readings: “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh

1. Frosh, Stephen. “Psychoanalysis, colonialism, racism.” Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology 33.3 (2013): 141.
2. Frosh, Stephen. “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism.” A Deeper Cut: Further Explorations of the Unconscious in Social and Political Life, edited by David Morgan, Karnac Books, 2021, pp. 25–52. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.23338182.9. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
3. FROSH, STEPHEN. “Towards a Psychosocial Psychoanalysis.” American Imago, vol. 73, no. 4, 2016, pp. 469–82. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26303653. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
4. HOOK, DEREK. “The Primal Scene of Anti-Blackness: The Masochist Jouissance of White Racism.” The Comparatist, vol. 46, 2022, pp. 7–28. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27181573. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew

“Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew first appeared in the Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race in 2009 as part of the broader scholarly discussion on race and politics. This article critically examines the notion that Barack Obama’s election as the first African American president signified a “post-racial” America. Pettigrew challenges the idea that racism had diminished significantly, arguing instead that Obama’s victory resulted from a “perfect storm” of political conditions rather than a fundamental transformation in racial attitudes. The article highlights the persistence of racial prejudice, as demonstrated by white Southern and older voters’ reluctance to support Obama, and emphasizes the role of increased voter turnout among young and minority populations. In literary theory and political discourse, this work contributes to critical race studies by interrogating the narrative of progress often imposed on racial history. By exposing logical fallacies in post-racial arguments and using empirical data to reveal the complexities of racial attitudes, Pettigrew’s analysis aligns with scholarship that critiques optimistic yet superficial claims of racial equality. As referenced in the State of the Discipline, this article serves as an essential text in the study of race relations, political behavior, and the enduring structures of systemic inequality in the United States.

Summary of “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew

1. The Myth of Post-Racism
   • Pettigrew critiques the claim that Obama’s election signifies the end of racism in the U.S.
   • He argues that such views are overly optimistic and overlook systemic racial disparities (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
   • The desire to declare racism as “solved” is an extension of historical tendencies to prematurely celebrate racial progress (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
2. The “Perfect Storm” That Led to Obama’s Victory
   • Obama’s election was made possible by a unique confluence of events, not necessarily a shift in racial attitudes.
   • Factors included:
     • A well-run campaign
     • Economic downturn
     • Declining popularity of the Republican Party under George W. Bush
     • A highly favorable political climate (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
   • Obama benefited from previous Black political progress and demographic shifts (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 281).
3. Racist Voters Still Supported Obama
   • Some white bigots voted for Obama due to the economic crisis, demonstrating that racial prejudice and voting decisions do not always align (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 282).
   • A survey found that 33% of white Democrats held negative racial stereotypes, yet 58% of them still voted for Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283).
   • Racism remained evident in other aspects, such as opposition to affirmative action and racially motivated legislative measures (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
4. Logical Fallacies in the Post-Racism Argument
   • The ecological fallacy: Inferring individual racial attitudes from aggregate voting patterns is misleading (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
   • The constant turnout composition fallacy: The assumption that the electorate remained the same as in 2004 is false; there was a significant increase in young, minority, and independent voters (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
   • Obama’s slight improvement over Kerry’s white vote share (43% vs. 41%) does not indicate a racial transformation (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
5. Racist Attitudes and Actions Persisted During the Campaign
   • Throughout Obama’s campaign, racist incidents were frequent:
     • Cross-burnings, threats, and racist graffiti (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286).
     • Students chanting “assassinate Obama” on a school bus in Idaho (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286).
     • A Republican club issuing fake $10 bills featuring Obama alongside a watermelon, ribs, and fried chicken (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
   • High-profile figures, including Hillary Clinton’s campaign surrogates, played the “race card” by spreading rumors about Obama’s background (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
6. White Southern and Elderly Voters Demonstrated Continued Racism
   • Older white voters (65+) were the only age group to vote more Republican in 2008 than in 2004 (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
   • White support for Obama decreased in certain Southern states like Alabama and Mississippi (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 288).
   • These trends contradict claims that Obama’s election erased racial divisions (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
7. The Role of Increased Minority and Youth Turnout
   • Key voter demographics:
     • Black voter turnout increased from 11% in 2004 to 13% in 2008.
     • Latino turnout increased from 6% to 8%, with 66% supporting Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
     • The under-30 vote shifted significantly toward Obama, showing a generational difference in racial attitudes (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
8. Structural Racism Persists Despite Obama’s Victory
   • Obama’s election does not eliminate systemic racism in housing, employment, education, and criminal justice (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
   • “The basic problems are structural—rampant housing segregation, poverty, job discrimination, poor education, massive imprisonment” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
   • Institutional racism remains embedded in American society and requires more than symbolic victories to overcome (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
9. Concluding Thoughts: A Step Forward, Not the End of Racism
   • Obama’s presidency represents progress but not the end of racial discrimination (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
   • “We are no longer ‘two nations,’ but neither are we a single, non-racialized nation” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
   • The fight for racial equality continues beyond the symbolic victory of a Black president (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 292).

Key Takeaways

• Obama’s election was historic but did not signal a “post-racial” America.
• Many white voters, including bigots, supported him for reasons unrelated to racial progress.
• Logical fallacies distort the perception that racism has significantly declined.
• Racist incidents and systemic inequalities persist.
• Future progress in race relations depends on structural changes, not just symbolic victories.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Application in Pettigrew’s Argument
Post-Racism	The belief that racism has significantly declined or ended, particularly after Obama’s election.	Pettigrew critiques this notion, arguing that systemic racism persists despite Obama’s victory (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
Ecological Fallacy	A logical error where conclusions about individuals are drawn from macro-level data.	Pettigrew points out that voting patterns cannot accurately determine individual racial attitudes (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
Constant Turnout Composition Fallacy	The assumption that the electorate remains unchanged between elections.	Pettigrew argues that shifts in voter demographics, rather than a reduction in racism, contributed to Obama’s win (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
Symbolic Racism	A form of racism that is more subtle and indirect, based on the belief that minorities violate traditional values.	Pettigrew suggests that many white voters who supported Obama still held negative stereotypes about Black people (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283).
Blaming the Victim	The tendency to attribute structural inequalities to the perceived shortcomings of marginalized groups.	Pettigrew highlights how many Americans believe racial equality has already been achieved and hold Black communities responsible for ongoing disparities (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
Racial Coding	The use of seemingly neutral language to convey racial messages.	Campaign attacks against Obama, such as calling him “elitist” or “not one of us,” were racially coded (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
Deracialization	A political strategy in which Black candidates avoid direct discussions of race to appeal to white voters.	Obama largely avoided racial issues except when necessary, such as in his Philadelphia speech (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
Implicit Bias	Unconscious racial prejudices that affect behavior and decision-making.	Many voters may have unconsciously applied racial biases while still voting for Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283).
Structural Racism	Systemic inequalities embedded in institutions and policies.	Pettigrew argues that racial disparities in housing, employment, and education remain significant (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
Generational Political Socialization	The idea that major political events shape the attitudes of specific age groups.	Younger voters, shaped by Obama’s election, may maintain progressive racial attitudes in the long term (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).

Contribution of “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew

Literary Work	Key Themes	Critique Through Pettigrew’s Perspective
1. To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee, 1960)	Racial injustice, moral growth, and the legal system’s failure to uphold racial equality.	Pettigrew’s critique of the post-racism narrative aligns with how the novel exposes structural racism in the legal system. Just as Obama’s election did not erase racism, Atticus Finch’s legal defense of Tom Robinson does not dismantle the deeply ingrained racial prejudices of Maycomb (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
2. The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald, 1925)	The American Dream, class struggle, and racial anxieties in 1920s America.	Pettigrew’s discussion of racial coding in political discourse (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287) applies to Fitzgerald’s portrayal of Tom Buchanan’s fear of racial “degeneration.” The novel critiques the myth of the American Dream, much like Pettigrew critiques the post-racial myth by revealing the persistent inequalities beneath the surface of success (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
3. Beloved (Toni Morrison, 1987)	The psychological trauma of slavery, memory, and historical erasure.	Pettigrew highlights the danger of premature historical closure in racial discourse (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279). Just as Obama’s victory did not signify the end of racism, Morrison’s novel argues that the traumas of slavery are not erased but continue to haunt generations (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291). The desire to forget the past mirrors the push for a post-racial America that ignores structural racism.
4. Invisible Man (Ralph Ellison, 1952)	Racial identity, invisibility, and systemic oppression.	Pettigrew’s concept of deracialization in Obama’s campaign (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284) parallels the protagonist’s realization that racial invisibility is a survival mechanism in a racist society. The novel critiques the illusion of racial progress, much like Pettigrew argues that Obama’s election did not dismantle racial hierarchies (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).

Criticism Against “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew

1. Overemphasis on Structural Racism Without Recognizing Individual Agency
   • Pettigrew focuses heavily on systemic barriers but underplays the role of individual actions in combating racism.
   • Critics may argue that while systemic racism persists, Obama’s presidency did signal progress in racial representation and leadership (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
2. Dismissal of the Symbolic Importance of Obama’s Election
   • While Pettigrew critiques the “post-racism” narrative, he may downplay the psychological and cultural significance of a Black president for African Americans and other minority groups.
   • Representation in leadership can have real-world implications for racial perceptions, even if structural inequalities remain (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
3. Neglect of Counterarguments from Optimistic Scholars
   • Pettigrew largely critiques post-racial advocates like John Tierney but does not engage deeply with scholars who acknowledge both racial progress and ongoing struggles.
   • His critique could be more balanced by discussing theories of incremental racial progress rather than suggesting that racism remains entirely unchanged (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
4. Limited Consideration of Global and Comparative Perspectives
   • The analysis is centered on American race relations without broader comparisons to racial dynamics in other countries.
   • Pettigrew references Black European reactions to Obama’s win (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289) but does not analyze how racial politics in other democracies might provide comparative insights.
5. Reliance on Quantitative Voting Data Without Nuanced Qualitative Analysis
   • While Pettigrew uses exit-poll data to show that white support for Obama was not necessarily indicative of racial progress (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283), some critics argue that surveys do not capture changing racial attitudes in personal and professional spaces.
   • A more qualitative approach—such as interviews or discourse analysis—could provide deeper insight into shifting racial dynamics beyond voting patterns.
6. Potential Political Bias
   • Pettigrew critiques conservative narratives about post-racism but does not critically analyze how liberal political discourse may also contribute to performative racial progress rather than substantive change.
   • The Democratic Party’s role in perpetuating racial inequalities (e.g., mass incarceration policies under Clinton) is not extensively discussed.
7. Underestimation of Racial Progress Among Younger Generations
   • The argument that racism remains largely intact may not fully account for the generational shift toward greater racial acceptance among younger Americans (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
   • Younger voters showed significantly higher levels of support for Obama, which could indicate meaningful racial progress rather than just a political alignment shift.
8. Rigid Binary Between Racist and Non-Racist Voters
   • Pettigrew highlights that many bigoted white voters still supported Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283), but this may oversimplify the complexities of racial attitudes.
   • Many voters may hold contradictory racial beliefs, where they acknowledge systemic racism but also support policies that perpetuate inequality.

Representative Quotations from “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It took ‘a perfect storm’ of interlocking factors to elect Obama.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280)	Pettigrew argues that Obama’s victory was not merely a result of racial progress but was influenced by a combination of factors such as a weak Republican opponent, economic crises, and his own charisma and campaign strategy.
“Many White bigots actually voted for Obama.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 282)	He challenges the assumption that voting for a Black candidate proves the absence of racism. Some voters, despite holding prejudiced beliefs, still chose Obama due to economic concerns and other priorities.
“Racist attitudes and actions repeatedly erupted during both the primary and final campaigns.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285)	Pettigrew points out that despite claims of a “post-racial” America, racial prejudice was evident in campaign rhetoric, media representations, and acts of racial violence during the election season.
“The post-racism thesis suffers from two logical and interrelated fallacies: the ecological fallacy and the constant turnout composition fallacy.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284)	He critiques the idea that Obama’s victory signifies racial progress, arguing that broad assumptions about racism’s decline are flawed because voter demographics changed significantly between 2004 and 2008.
“Whites older than sixty-four years were the only age group to vote more Republican than in 2004.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286)	This statistic is used to show how older white Americans resisted racial change, contradicting the idea that Obama’s election represented a universal racial transformation.
“Obama’s decisive victory marks a momentous milestone in the history of America’s most persistent domestic problem.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290)	Despite his criticism of the “post-racism” claim, Pettigrew acknowledges the historical significance of Obama’s presidency as a major racial milestone.
“You can’t look at that swath of hard-red states that actually grew even redder and say that we are post-racial.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286)	He refutes the idea of a post-racial society by highlighting that several Southern states actually became more conservative and less supportive of racial progress.
“To answer Tierney’s provocative question—‘where have all the bigots gone?’—we can definitively say they have not disappeared.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289)	Pettigrew directly counters John Tierney’s claim that racism had largely vanished after Obama’s election, emphasizing that prejudices remain deeply embedded in American society.
“The American presidency is powerful, but it has its definite limits.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290)	He tempers expectations about Obama’s ability to single-handedly dismantle systemic racism, citing economic, political, and judicial constraints.
“We are no longer ‘two nations,’ but neither are we a one, non-racialized nation.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290)	Pettigrew encapsulates his argument by asserting that while progress has been made, racial divisions in America still persist and require continued attention.

Suggested Readings: “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew

1. Pettigrew, Thomas F. “POST-RACISM?: Putting President Obama’s Victory in Perspective1.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 6.2 (2009): 279-292.
2. TUCH, STEVEN A., and MICHAEL HUGHES. “Whites’ Racial Policy Attitudes in the Twenty-First Century: The Continuing Significance of Racial Resentment.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 634, 2011, pp. 134–52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29779399. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
3. Love, Bettina L., and Brandelyn Tosolt. “Reality or Rhetoric? Barack Obama and Post-Racial America.” Race, Gender & Class, vol. 17, no. 3/4, 2010, pp. 19–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41674749. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
4. López, Ian F. Haney. “Post-Racial Racism: Racial Stratification and Mass Incarceration in the Age of Obama.” California Law Review, vol. 98, no. 3, 2010, pp. 1023–74. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27896699. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson  

“Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson first appeared in 2007 in the Journal of Gerontological Social Work and was later published online by Routledge on September 25, 2008. The article investigates skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority care workers among elderly care recipients in Sweden. Through interviews with caregiver organization representatives and minority care workers, Jönson reveals a disconnect between official anti-racist policies and the pragmatic and pathologizing approaches adopted by care providers. While officials often downplay racism, framing it as language barriers or fear of the unknown, ethnic minority caregivers report frequent discrimination, particularly in first-time encounters. The study contributes to literature and literary theory by exposing how ideological frameworks, including anti-racism and patient rights, shape discourse on discrimination. Jönson’s work is significant in highlighting how structural inequalities and power dynamics influence caregiving relationships, challenging simplistic narratives of racism and advocating for a nuanced understanding of care, vulnerability, and systemic bias.

Summary of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson  

Term/Concept	Definition	Application in the Article
Racism	Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against individuals based on ethnicity, race, skin color, or religion (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).	Explored through skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority caregivers by elderly care recipients.
Ethnic Discrimination	Unfair treatment of individuals based on ethnicity, race, religion, or descent, often in legal and workplace settings (Westin, 2000).	Examined in the conflict between care recipients’ preferences and anti-discrimination laws protecting minority caregivers.
Pathologizing Approach	Framing discriminatory behavior as a result of illness, dementia, dependency, or cognitive decline rather than deliberate racism (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).	Used by care providers to excuse racism among elderly care recipients, avoiding direct confrontation.
Pragmatic Approach	Emphasizing practical solutions over ideological or ethical considerations (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).	Care providers comply with racist requests to avoid conflicts rather than challenge discrimination.
Fear of the Unknown	Psychological resistance to unfamiliar individuals or cultural differences, often leading to prejudice (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).	Used as a justification for initial skepticism and rejection of minority care workers.
Social Construction of Race	The idea that racial and ethnic categories are shaped by social and cultural perceptions rather than biological differences (Berger & Luckmann, 1966).	Care recipients’ negative perceptions of minority workers are influenced by societal narratives about race and immigration.
Customer-Service Model	A perspective in which care recipients are treated as consumers who have the right to choose services (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).	Used by some managers to justify complying with racist preferences by equating care to a commercial service.
Techniques of Neutralization	Strategies used to justify or excuse morally questionable actions, such as denying responsibility or minimizing harm (Sykes & Matza, 1957).	Care providers justify replacing minority workers by framing it as a practical necessity rather than discrimination.
Power Relations in Care Work	The dynamic between caregivers and care recipients, shaped by race, gender, and social status (Szebehely, 1995).	While care workers typically hold authority, racialized power structures reverse this dynamic, making minority workers more vulnerable to discrimination.
Elderly Vulnerability vs. Caregiver Protection	The ethical dilemma of balancing elderly recipients’ emotional well-being with the rights of care workers (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).	Care providers hesitate to challenge racist behavior to avoid distressing elderly individuals, often at the cost of minority staff.
Institutional Anti-Racism vs. Everyday Practices	The gap between official anti-racist policies and real-world workplace decisions (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).	While institutions uphold anti-racist policies, pragmatic decisions often reinforce racial bias in practice.
Workplace Discrimination	Unequal treatment of employees based on ethnicity, race, or religion, often embedded in organizational culture (Jönson, 2007, p. 95).	Care workers of foreign origin experience frequent resistance, microaggressions, and exclusion.
Moral Balancing in Policy Implementation	The need to balance competing moral and ethical concerns in workplace policies (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).	Calls for localized policies that balance pragmatism, fairness, and anti-discrimination laws in elder care.

Contribution of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson  to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson  

Literary Work	Themes in the Work	Critique Through Jönson’s Framework
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness	– Colonialism and racial hierarchy – “Othering” of non-Europeans – White European superiority complex	– Jönson’s study critiques how colonial narratives continue to influence racial perceptions, particularly in elder care, where minority care workers are viewed as the “other” (Jönson, 2007, p. 80). – Similar to Heart of Darkness, Swedish elder care reproduces racialized power structures, where non-Swedish workers are treated as outsiders (Jönson, 2007, p. 83). – Language barriers in Jönson’s study parallel Conrad’s depictions of “unintelligible natives,” reinforcing how communication differences become a pretext for exclusion (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
Toni Morrison – Beloved	– Legacy of slavery and racial trauma – Dehumanization of Black bodies – Psychological impact of racism	– Jönson’s findings align with Morrison’s exploration of racial trauma, showing how care workers of foreign origin internalize racist abuse as part of their job (Jönson, 2007, p. 85). – In Beloved, characters struggle against systemic racism, much like minority care workers in Sweden who face discrimination but lack institutional support (Jönson, 2007, p. 92). – The pathologizing approach in Jönson’s study (“It’s just dementia, not racism”) mirrors the rationalizations of white violence in Beloved, where oppressors excuse or justify their actions through social norms (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
Jean Rhys – Wide Sargasso Sea	– Postcolonial displacement – Racial and cultural marginalization – Identity crisis of Creole characters	– The resistance toward ethnic minority care workers in Jönson’s study mirrors the alienation of Antoinette (Bertha) in Wide Sargasso Sea, where she is “too white for the Caribbean, too foreign for England” (Jönson, 2007, p. 81). – Fear of the unknown (Jönson, 2007, p. 80) plays a key role in both texts—elderly Swedes reject minority caregivers just as Rochester rejects Antoinette based on racial and cultural stereotypes. – The discourse of “civilized” vs. “uncivilized” in Rhys’s novel parallels Jönson’s critique of Sweden’s care system, where minority workers must “prove” their competence to skeptical Swedish recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
Ralph Ellison – Invisible Man	– Racial invisibility and identity – Power structures and systemic oppression – Survival under racism	– Like Ellison’s narrator, ethnic minority care workers in Sweden become “invisible”—their presence is tolerated but not fully accepted (Jönson, 2007, p. 83). – The customer-service model in Jönson’s study (“the patient gets to choose”) reflects how racialized workers are dehumanized and reduced to economic functions (Jönson, 2007, p. 88). – Both Invisible Man and Jönson’s study highlight how institutions adopt a rhetoric of anti-racism while maintaining discriminatory practices (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).

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Criticism Against “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Representative Quotations from “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson  with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation & Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Fear of the unknown among older people who had previously met few people of foreign origin.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 80)	Jönson explains how elderly care recipients often react with skepticism toward ethnic minority caregivers due to limited exposure to multicultural environments. Care providers justify this reaction as a natural response rather than active racism.	Social Construction of Race & Othering – Aligns with postcolonial theory and structuralism, where race and difference are socially constructed rather than inherent.
“We are trained to provide service and the customer pays for that service… It is a form of service and then we’ll have to ignore that other issue [playing along with racism].” (Jönson, 2007, p. 86)	This statement reflects a pragmatic approach used by care providers to justify compliance with discriminatory requests from care recipients. It highlights market-based reasoning in elder care.	Neoliberalism & Market Logic in Social Work – Demonstrates how commodification of care shifts ethical decisions into consumer-driven services.
“No, I haven’t really reflected on this and sometimes I wonder if it is not really the regular Swedish staff who make up this problem.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 87)	A care provider shifts the focus from care recipients’ racism to potential bias within staff interactions. This deflects accountability from institutions and elder care policies.	Structural Racism & Institutional Bias – Shows how racism is often downplayed or redirected within bureaucratic settings.
“It’s her home, and she has the right to decide who to let in.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 88)	This justification prioritizes the autonomy of care recipients over ethical concerns about racial discrimination. It frames private homes as exempt from anti-discrimination policies.	Liberal Individualism vs. Anti-Discrimination – Highlights tension between personal choice and societal responsibility in multicultural care settings.
“Some do know and think that these are not people who… I mean these are sick people, old people, helpless people—and they [staff] are pretty able to see the circumstances.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 90)	This statement pathologizes racism among elderly care recipients, dismissing it as a symptom of aging rather than a social issue. It reflects the normalization of elder racism in caregiving.	Medicalization of Prejudice – Frames racist attitudes as a side effect of illness rather than an ethical problem requiring intervention.
“We are not here to educate the pensioners.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 89)	This statement highlights a pragmatic refusal to challenge racist attitudes among older people. Care providers prioritize avoiding conflict over promoting social change.	Political Correctness vs. Moral Responsibility – Engages with debates on whether social workers should challenge discrimination or accommodate it.
“Adding to this, populist claims makers with nationalist/racist agendas have referred to the growing interest in the special needs of elderly immigrants when arguing for similar needs among ethnic Swedes.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 83)	Right-wing groups use discourses of cultural needs to justify exclusionary policies that prioritize ethnic Swedes over minority groups in elder care.	Cultural Nationalism & Identity Politics – Shows how care policies can be co-opted by xenophobic narratives.
“Organizations perceived to comply with racism will be subject to public criticism.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 91)	Institutions must balance public accountability and practical caregiving decisions, leading to compromised anti-racism policies.	Corporate Image & Ethical Responsibility – Examines how social institutions navigate public perception in ethical dilemmas.
“There is a need to develop research and policy perspectives that take the complexity of care work into account and acknowledge the occurrence of mixed and shifting power relations.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 94)	Jönson argues that power dynamics in elder care are fluid, involving both vulnerable caregivers and care recipients.	Intersectionality & Power Relations – Demonstrates how racism interacts with aging, labor conditions, and social vulnerabilities.
“A strong anti-racist policy may result in oppression of care recipients, who fear labeling and sanctions.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 93)	Jönson warns that overly rigid anti-racism policies might discourage elderly people from voicing valid concerns about care quality.	Critical Race Theory & Free Speech Debate – Explores the tension between anti-racism enforcement and individual expression.

Suggested Readings: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson  

1. Jönson, Hakan. “Is it racism? Skepticism and resistance towards ethnic minority care workers among older care recipients.” Journal of Gerontological Social Work 49.4 (2007): 79-96.
2. Suedfeld, Peter. “Racism in the Brain; Or Is It Racism on the Brain?” Psychological Inquiry, vol. 15, no. 4, 2004, pp. 298–302. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20447243. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
3. DiAngelo, Robin. “WHAT IS RACISM?” Counterpoints, vol. 497, 2016, pp. 107–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45157301. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
4. Ronald R. Sundstrom, and David Haekwon Kim. “Xenophobia and Racism.” Critical Philosophy of Race, vol. 2, no. 1, 2014, pp. 20–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5325/critphilrace.2.1.0020. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

“Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan first appeared in the 2018 collection Lacan and Race, published by Cambridge University Press. This chapter critically engages with Lacanian psychoanalysis to explore the relationship between race and segregation, arguing that racism should be understood within the broader context of social formations dictated by the master’s discourse. A central claim is that race, rather than being a purely biological or visual marker, is structured through discourse, which organizes social bonds and segregative mechanisms. Khan builds on Jacques-Alain Miller’s concept of extimacy—the idea that what is most intimate to a subject is also radically foreign—to explain how racism functions through the rejection of the jouissance of the Other. The essay also situates Lacan’s comments on colonialism, capitalism, and the decline of the Name-of-the-Father within the historical processes of segregation and racial differentiation. By engaging with Freud, Lacan, and contemporary scholars like Eric Laurent and Kalpana Sheshadri-Crooks, Khan’s work underscores the necessity of psychoanalytic inquiry in critical race studies. This perspective challenges universalist humanist discourses that seek to erase difference while simultaneously exacerbating racial exclusion. In literary and theoretical discourse, Lacan and Race contributes to the ongoing critique of the ways in which power, knowledge, and subjectivity are interwoven with racialized structures, offering an alternative framework for understanding race beyond biological essentialism.

Summary of “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

• Race as a Construct of Discourse
  • Race is not an inherent biological or physical reality but is structured through discourse.
  • Lacan states that “[a race] is constituted according to the mode in which symbolic places are transmitted by the order of a discourse” (Khan, 148).
  • Racial identities are shaped by language and ideology rather than natural differences.
• The Master’s Discourse and Colonialism
  • The master’s discourse, particularly in its colonial form, imposes a Eurocentric framework upon colonized subjects.
  • Lacan observed that “the unconscious that had been sold to them along with the laws of colonization” (Khan, 149) demonstrates how colonial rule reshapes subjectivity.
  • Colonialism replaces indigenous knowledge with Western concepts, influencing the unconscious itself.
• Science, Capitalism, and Segregation
  • The modern discourses of science and capitalism have fractured the symbolic order, intensifying segregation rather than promoting universalization.
  • Jacques-Alain Miller asserts, “Our future as common markets will be balanced by an increasingly hard-line extension of the process of segregation” (Khan, 150).
  • Globalization claims to unite, but instead reinforces racial and social barriers.
• The Role of Jouissance in Racism
  • Racism is not just about visible differences but about resentment toward the jouissance (excessive enjoyment) of the Other.
  • Miller explains that racism “aims at the real in the Other” and involves “the hatred of the jouissance of the Other” (Khan, 157).
  • This concept highlights how racial hatred is driven by the belief that the Other enjoys in an unacceptable or excessive way.
• Freud and the Psychology of Racial Group Formation
  • Freud’s Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921) suggests that social cohesion relies on shared exclusion of a particular group.
  • “Closely related races keep one another at arm’s length” (Khan, 152), illustrating how identification and exclusion reinforce racial antagonism.
  • Freud’s idea of the “narcissism of minor differences” explains how even minor distinctions can lead to intense hostility.
• The Universalizing Drive of Science and Capitalism
  • Science and capitalism attempt to create a universal human subject, yet they intensify segregation rather than dissolve it.
  • Lacan states, “The factor at stake here is the most burning issue of our times…segregation” (Khan, 155).
  • Scientific discourse aims at universality but inadvertently deepens racial divides.
• The “Melting Pot” and the Persistence of Racism
  • The “melting pot” ideology assumes that cultural and racial differences can be seamlessly integrated, but Lacan challenges this assumption.
  • He argues that true coexistence requires “not imposing our own [jouissance] on him” (Khan, 156).
  • Attempts to force assimilation often result in further alienation and rejection.
• Extimacy and the Internalized Other
  • Racism is rooted in a deeper struggle with one’s own jouissance, leading to the rejection of the Other.
  • Miller states, “The root of racism is the hatred of one’s own jouissance… it is also hatred of myself” (Khan, 159).
  • This suggests that racial hatred is not purely external but also reflects an internal conflict within the subject.
• The Psychoanalytic Response to Racism
  • Psychoanalysis provides a unique approach to racism by examining its unconscious mechanisms.
  • Miller observes, “The universal mode—which is the mode under which science elaborates the real—seems to have no limit, when in fact it does” (Khan, 160).
  • Unlike universalist approaches, psychoanalysis acknowledges the singularity of each subject’s jouissance.
• Anti-Racism as a Perpetual Invention
  • Racism evolves with shifting social structures, requiring continuous reinterpretation and resistance.
  • Laurent emphasizes, “Antiracism always has to be reinvented in keeping with each new form of the object of racism” (Khan, 161).
  • Anti-racism must be a dynamic and historically responsive process rather than a fixed ideological stance.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation from Lacan and Race
Master’s Discourse	A dominant discourse that structures social and ideological relations.	The colonial discourse functions as a master’s discourse, shaping the unconscious of colonized subjects by imposing Eurocentric ideals (Khan, 149).
Symbolic Order	The system of language and laws that structures human subjectivity.	The decline of the Name-of-the-Father in modernity has fractured the symbolic order, intensifying racial segregation (Khan, 150).
Segregation	The social process of separation based on constructed differences.	Lacan argues that modern civilization, despite its claim to universalism, enforces “a complex, reinforced and constantly overlapping form of segregation” (Khan, 148).
Jouissance	A form of excessive enjoyment that resists full integration into the symbolic order.	Racism is fueled by resentment toward the jouissance of the Other, which is perceived as excessive or unassimilable (Khan, 157).
Extimacy	The paradox of something being both external and intimate to the subject.	Racism is based on “the hatred of the jouissance of the Other,” which is actually a rejection of one’s own internalized Other (Khan, 159).
Narcissism of Minor Differences	Freud’s concept that small perceived differences between groups lead to hostility.	“Closely related races keep one another at arm’s length,” demonstrating how minor distinctions become sources of conflict (Khan, 152).
Universalization	The attempt to create an all-encompassing framework that applies to all subjects.	Science and capitalism promote universality, but this paradoxically intensifies racial divisions (Khan, 155).
The Melting Pot	The idea that different cultures can be assimilated into a homogeneous society.	Lacan critiques this as a false ideal, stating that the jouissance of the Other cannot simply be erased or integrated (Khan, 156).
The Real	A dimension of experience beyond symbolic representation, often linked to trauma or excess.	Miller suggests that modernity has led to “the real without law,” severing the connection between nature and social reality (Khan, 150).
The Name-of-the-Father	The function that structures the symbolic order and subjectivity.	The decline of this function in modernity contributes to racial segregation and disorder (Khan, 155).
Primitive Accumulation	The process of wealth extraction that underpins capitalism.	The history of capitalism cannot be understood without considering its racialized foundations in “primitive accumulation” (Khan, 149).
Scientific Racism	The use of science to justify racial hierarchies.	The human sciences have historically framed racialized bodies as objects of “segregative reason” (Khan, 149).
Psychoanalytic Anti-Racism	A response to racism that examines its unconscious mechanisms rather than just social structures.	Miller states that “anti-racism always has to be reinvented in keeping with each new form of the object of racism” (Khan, 161).

Contribution of “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Literary Work	Lacanian Concept from Lacan and Race	Critique Through Azeen Khan’s Analysis
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899)	Master’s Discourse & Colonial Unconscious	– The novel exemplifies how colonial discourse imposes a master’s ideology that shapes the unconscious of both colonizer and colonized. – Kurtz’s descent into madness reflects the destabilization of the symbolic order, as he moves beyond European rationality into the “primitive” (Khan, 149). – The racialized portrayal of Africans as “savage” aligns with scientific racism in literature, reinforcing colonial power structures (Khan, 149).
Toni Morrison’s Beloved (1987)	Jouissance & Extimacy	– The novel illustrates how Black trauma and historical violence are linked to the unassimilable jouissance of the racialized Other. – Sethe’s actions (killing her child) demonstrate how slavery produces a fractured subjectivity, tied to the rejection of her own jouissance (Khan, 159). – The ghost of Beloved embodies the return of the repressed, mirroring how the historical unconscious continues to shape Black identity in America.
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958)	Segregation & The Decline of the Name-of-the-Father	– The novel critiques colonial disruption of Igbo society, where traditional authority (symbolized by Okonkwo and the elders) collapses under Western rule. – The colonial master’s discourse erases indigenous structures, replacing them with a European symbolic order (Khan, 148). – Okonkwo’s downfall can be read as the collapse of the Name-of-the-Father, leading to segregation within his own people as they become divided by colonial influence (Khan, 155).
Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis (1915)	The Racialized Subject & The Real	– Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect reflects the dehumanization of the Other, akin to racialized bodies being marked as “vermin” or subhuman (Khan, 157). – His family’s rejection of him mirrors society’s segregation of the racialized subject, as the master’s discourse determines social worth. – Gregor’s existence outside human recognition echoes the Real without Law, where his jouissance is seen as excessive and intolerable (Khan, 150).

Criticism Against “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

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1. Overemphasis on Psychoanalysis Over Material Conditions

• The book primarily analyzes race through Lacanian psychoanalysis, but critics argue that this overlooks material and socio-political factors in racial oppression.
• Critique: Race and racism are deeply tied to economic, legal, and historical structures (e.g., capitalism, colonialism, systemic racism), yet Lacan and Race focuses more on unconscious structures.
• Example: Critics from Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Marxist literary studies argue that psychoanalysis alone cannot explain racialized economic exploitation.

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2. The Abstract Nature of Lacanian Concepts

• Lacanian psychoanalysis is highly abstract, making it difficult to apply to concrete racial realities.
• Critique: Terms like jouissance, extimacy, and the Real may provide insight into the unconscious dynamics of race, but they lack tangible explanatory power for real-world racial struggles.
• Example: Some scholars argue that postcolonial theorists like Fanon and Said offer clearer frameworks for analyzing race and power compared to Lacan’s dense theoretical language.

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3. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial and Intersectional Theories

• The book engages Lacan, Freud, and Miller, but less so with postcolonial theorists like Fanon, Spivak, or Bhabha.
• Critique: While Khan examines race through the unconscious and discourse, she does not fully integrate intersectionality, feminist critiques, or decolonial perspectives.
• Example: Hortense Spillers and Saidiya Hartman’s work on Black identity and racial trauma could have expanded the discussion beyond Lacanian categories.

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4. Neglect of Non-Western Psychoanalytic Traditions

• Critique: The book focuses on European psychoanalysis (Lacan, Freud, Miller) without acknowledging how psychoanalytic ideas have been adapted in non-Western contexts.
• Example: Scholars of African, Asian, and Indigenous psychology might challenge whether Lacanian theory is the best tool for understanding racial subjectivity outside Europe.

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5. Questionable Applicability to Literary Analysis

• Critique: Some scholars argue that literary analysis based on Lacan is often forced, as it may impose psychoanalytic structures onto texts that do not explicitly engage with psychoanalysis.
• Example: Applying Lacan and Race to texts like Achebe’s Things Fall Apart or Morrison’s Beloved may ignore these novels’ cultural, historical, and political specificities in favor of a purely theoretical framework.

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6. The Risk of Universalizing Racial Experience

• Critique: The book’s focus on psychoanalysis and discourse risks universalizing the experience of race, treating racial identity as a structural effect rather than a lived reality.
• Example: By framing race as an effect of the master’s discourse, it may downplay how race is experienced differently across history, geography, and social context.

Representative Quotations from “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“I believe that in our day and age, we could classify the mark, the scar, left by the father’s disappearance under the heading and general notion of segregation.”	Lacan suggests that the decline of paternal authority (Name-of-the-Father) has led to a more fragmented society, where segregation becomes a primary organizing force rather than universalism.
“Capitalism and science have combined to make nature disappear. And what is left by the vanishing of nature is what we call the real, that is, a remainder, by structure, disordered.”	Jacques-Alain Miller argues that modernity has fractured the symbolic order, causing a disordered “Real” where nature is no longer an organizing principle, leaving humans in an unstructured, chaotic state.
“The unconscious that had been sold to them along with the laws of colonization, this exotic regressive form of the master’s discourse, in the face of the capitalism called imperialism.”	Lacan critiques how colonialism imposed a European unconscious on colonized subjects, erasing their indigenous psychological structures and replacing them with the dominant master’s discourse.
“A race is constituted according to the mode in which symbolic places are transmitted by the order of a discourse.”	This suggests that race is not merely biological but constructed through discourse, meaning racism is tied to how societies symbolically organize differences rather than inherent traits.
“On the one hand, there is the universalizing orientation of science (for all); on the other, the accentuation of segregation (not for all).”	Lacan highlights the paradox of modernity: science and capitalism claim to be universal but simultaneously create new forms of exclusion and segregation.
“Racism effectively switches its objects as the social forms undergo modification. From Lacan’s perspective, however, there is always, in any human community, a rejection of an unassimilable jouissance.”	Racism is not static but adapts to shifting social conditions. Lacan argues that at its core, racism is about rejecting the “jouissance” (excess pleasure) of the Other, which cannot be assimilated into dominant society.
“Without our jouissance going off the track, only the Other is able to mark its position, but only insofar as we are separated from this Other.”	Lacan explains that identity is formed through separation—the Other is only recognizable when set apart from the dominant subject. This reinforces segregation and racial divisions.
“Racism is founded on what one imagines about the Other’s jouissance; it is hatred of the particular way, of the Other’s own way of experiencing jouissance.”	Racism is not just about physical differences but about perceived differences in pleasure and behavior—it is the fear that the Other enjoys differently or excessively.
“The Other is unfairly subtracting from you a part of your jouissance. That is the constant. The root of racism is the hatred of one’s own jouissance.”	Lacan suggests that racism is rooted in a projection—people externalize their own anxieties and frustrations onto racial Others, blaming them for their own lost pleasure.
“The universal of the ‘for all’ generates the segregations it pretends to destroy.”	The attempt to universalize identity and culture paradoxically creates more exclusion, as universalism erases particularities, leading to resistance and new forms of division.

Suggested Readings: “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

1. Khan, Azeen. “Lacan and race.” After Lacan: Literature, theory, and psychoanalysis in the twenty-first century (2018): 148-164.
2. Burnett, Ron, and Jacques Lacan. “A Conversation with Jacques Lacan.” Discourse, vol. 7, 1985, pp. 66–80. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41389079. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.
3. Lane, Christopher. “The Psychoanalysis of Race: An Introduction.” Discourse, vol. 19, no. 2, 1997, pp. 3–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41389442. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.
4. Voruz, Véronique. “Psychoanalysis at the Time of the Posthuman: Insisting on the Outside-Sense.” Paragraph, vol. 33, no. 3, 2010, pp. 423–43. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43151860. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.