Introduction: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
“Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft first appeared in The Cambridge History of Postcolonial Literature, published by Cambridge University Press. This chapter explores the complex relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, highlighting their shared yet distinct approaches to literary and cultural theory. Ashcroft argues that while postmodernism deconstructs centralized master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperialist discourse, prioritizing the material realities of colonial oppression. A key distinction he makes is that the “post” in postmodernism signifies a stylistic shift, whereas in postcolonialism, it represents a critical reading practice that interrogates power structures and histories of domination. Through references to thinkers such as Homi Bhabha, Gayatri Spivak, and Edward Said, Ashcroft outlines how postcolonial theory appropriates postmodern strategies—like deconstruction, mimicry, and irony—without relinquishing its political commitment to justice and emancipation. The chapter also examines the racialized underpinnings of imperialism, emphasizing how colonial ideologies constructed race as a tool of domination. Drawing from figures like W. E. B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon, and the Négritude movement, Ashcroft illustrates how racial identity has been shaped by historical oppression and resistance. His work is significant in literary theory as it bridges the gap between postmodern skepticism and postcolonial activism, demonstrating how literature serves as a battleground for cultural representation and political struggle.
Summary of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
- Postcolonialism and Postmodernism: A Complex Relationship
- Ashcroft explores the intricate relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, emphasizing their simultaneous contestation and overlap. He argues that while postmodernism focuses on deconstructing master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperial discourse (Ashcroft, p. 13).
- “Whereas the ‘post’ in literary postmodernism may refer to a way of writing, the ‘post’ in postcolonialism refers to a way of reading” (p. 13).
- Distinction in Goals and Methods
- Postmodernism seeks to dismantle centralized, logocentric European narratives, whereas postcolonialism aims to “dismantle the Centre/Margin binarism of imperial discourse” (p. 14).
- Postcolonial theory does not propose a universalist ontology but instead critiques the material and discursive realities of colonial oppression (p. 15).
- Political Commitment of Postcolonialism
- Unlike postmodernism, which often rejects grand narratives and universalist theories, postcolonialism remains committed to justice and liberation (p. 15).
- Ashcroft highlights Edward Said’s concept of “worldliness,” which emphasizes the necessity of acknowledging colonial and neocolonial oppression (p. 15).
- Postmodernism’s Influence on Postcolonial Theory
- Despite differences, postcolonialism adopts postmodern techniques such as decentering discourse, language analysis, mimicry, and irony to subvert colonialist narratives (p. 14).
- However, postcolonialism does not abandon the ethical imperative for justice, unlike some strands of postmodernist thought (p. 16).
- Race as a Colonial Construct
- Ashcroft critiques the historical construction of race as a justification for European imperialism, stating that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16).
- Race is neither biologically nor socially fixed; it emerged as a colonial tool to categorize and subordinate peoples (p. 17).
- Critique of Postmodernism’s Handling of Race
- Postmodernism, especially in literary and cultural studies, often neglects larger political and economic structures, reducing race to a discursive or linguistic concept (p. 18).
- “The predominance of otherness postmodernism has led us to neglect the larger structures (political, economic, educational, etc.)” (p. 18).
- Racial Thinking and Colonialism
- Ashcroft traces the origins of racial ideology to European philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume, who established a hierarchical framework of human difference based on skin color (p. 17).
- Kant’s view that “so fundamental is the difference between the races of man […] it appears to be as great in mental capacities as in colour” exemplifies the racist foundations of Enlightenment thought (p. 17).
- Postcolonial Responses to Race: Du Bois, Négritude, and Fanon
- W. E. B. Du Bois: His The Conservation of Races (1897) attempted to reconcile the contradiction between biological and socio-historical definitions of race while affirming Black identity (p. 21).
- Négritude Movement: Led by Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire, it reclaimed Black identity and culture as a form of resistance to colonialism. However, it was also criticized for its essentialist view of race (p. 23).
- Frantz Fanon: His Black Skins, White Masks (1952) examined the psychological effects of racial subjugation, particularly the internalization of the colonial gaze (p. 27).
- Fanon describes the alienation of Black identity, writing, “My body was given back to me sprawled out, distorted, recolored, clad in mourning in that white winter day” (p. 27).
- Race as a Relational Concept
- Ashcroft argues that while race itself is a socially constructed fiction, the experience of racism is real and must be acknowledged (p. 28).
- “Without racism, race would not have been invented” (p. 28).
- Postcolonialism’s Ethical Imperative
- Unlike postmodernism, postcolonialism retains a vision of hope and agency, emphasizing the need for decolonization and racial justice (p. 28).
- “Fanon’s final word is an affirmation of the necessity of a vision of hope for any project of postcolonial liberation” (p. 28).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
| Term/Concept | Definition/Explanation | Reference (Page Number) |
| Postcolonialism | A critical approach that examines the cultural and political impact of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on resistance and subversion of colonial narratives. | p. 13 |
| Postmodernism | A literary and philosophical movement that critiques grand narratives, centralization, and fixed meanings, often employing irony and deconstruction. | p. 14 |
| Centre/Margin Binarism | A concept in postcolonial theory that highlights the division between colonial powers (the Centre) and colonized subjects (the Margin), which postcolonialism seeks to dismantle. | p. 14 |
| Deconstruction | A postmodern technique that questions and breaks down established meanings, often used in postcolonial discourse to challenge imperialist narratives. | p. 14 |
| Mimicry | A colonial subject’s imitation of the colonizer’s culture, which can serve as both subversion and complicity, famously explored by Homi Bhabha. | p. 14 |
| Incredulity towards Metanarratives | A term from Jean-François Lyotard’s postmodernism that describes skepticism toward universal theories; in postcolonialism, this takes the form of resisting imperialist master narratives. | p. 14 |
| Worldliness | Edward Said’s term for recognizing the real, material impact of colonialism rather than treating it as a purely theoretical concept. | p. 15 |
| Ethical Universals | Despite rejecting grand narratives, postcolonialism retains a belief in justice and ethical imperatives, differentiating it from postmodernism. | p. 16 |
| Otherness Postmodernism | A shift in postmodernism toward recognizing difference, as influenced by Laclau and Mouffe’s Hegemony and Socialist Strategy. | p. 18 |
| Imperial Discourse | The ideological system that justified colonial rule, portraying the colonizer as superior and the colonized as inferior. | p. 16 |
| Racialism | Tzvetan Todorov’s term for the belief that physical racial characteristics correlate with intellectual and moral qualities. | p. 17 |
| Strategic Essentialism | Gayatri Spivak’s idea that essentialist categories (such as race or gender) can be temporarily employed as political strategies for resistance. | p. 25 |
| Floating Signifier | A term in semiotics and postcolonial theory indicating that race lacks inherent meaning but gains significance through social and historical contexts. | p. 22 |
| Double Consciousness | W. E. B. Du Bois’ concept describing how marginalized groups internalize two perspectives: their own and the dominant racial view of them. | p. 22 |
| Négritude | A literary and political movement celebrating Black identity and culture as a response to colonial racism, associated with Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire. | p. 23 |
| Fact of Blackness | Frantz Fanon’s idea that racial identity is externally imposed and shaped by the colonial gaze, leading to alienation. | p. 27 |
| Performativity | A concept (borrowed from Judith Butler) that suggests racial identity, like gender, is performed through repeated social interactions. | p. 27 |
| The Racial Gaze | The objectifying and dehumanizing perspective imposed on racialized subjects by colonial and racist ideologies. | p. 27 |
| Hegemony | Antonio Gramsci’s idea that power is maintained through cultural and ideological dominance rather than force, applicable to colonial rule. | p. 18 |
Contribution of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Postcolonial Literary Theory
- Ashcroft asserts that postcolonialism is not merely a temporal condition (i.e., post-independence) but an ongoing process of engaging with colonial legacies. He defines postcolonialism as “post-invasion and not post-independence” (p. 13).
- The text emphasizes that postcolonialism critically interrogates the Centre/Margin binarism of imperial discourse (p. 14), aligning with Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978).
- It examines how postcolonialism appropriates but also diverges from postmodernism, stating that “postcolonialism remains unashamedly emancipatory” in contrast to postmodern skepticism (p. 16).
- The book highlights key postcolonial concerns, including mimicry (Homi Bhabha), race and subjectivity (Frantz Fanon), and strategic essentialism (Gayatri Spivak), reinforcing postcolonial studies as a politically engaged discipline.
2. Postmodern Literary Theory
- Ashcroft highlights the intersection of postmodernism and postcolonialism but asserts their key differences, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists the master discourse of imperialism (p. 14).
- The book critiques Jean-François Lyotard’s incredulity toward metanarratives by arguing that for postcolonialism, resistance to imperial ideology is more than skepticism—it is an act of political engagement (p. 14).
- He acknowledges the use of postmodern strategies such as irony, parody, and decentering, but emphasizes that postcolonialism retains a commitment to justice and material struggles (p. 16).
- The text contributes to the debate on whether postcolonialism should be absorbed into postmodernism or remain distinct, reinforcing the idea that postcolonialism carries a more activist imperative than postmodern literary theory.
3. Critical Race Theory (CRT)
- Ashcroft interrogates the construction of race as a colonial invention, arguing that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16).
- The text aligns with CRT by exposing how racial categories were historically produced to justify imperial domination, particularly through figures like Kant and Hume (p. 17).
- His discussion on race as a floating signifier (p. 22) echoes Stuart Hall’s argument that race lacks inherent meaning but gains significance through discourse and power relations.
- The book critiques postmodern approaches to race, arguing that reducing race to a discursive construct ignores the real, material effects of racism (p. 18), reinforcing CRT’s emphasis on systemic racism and structural inequality.
4. Poststructuralism and Deconstruction
- Ashcroft employs poststructuralist methods by challenging essentialist definitions of race, national identity, and colonial discourse.
- His critique of postmodernism’s failure to address real-world oppression aligns with deconstruction’s emphasis on interrogating how meaning is constructed (p. 15).
- He engages with Derrida’s idea of differance by demonstrating how race is relational and historically contingent rather than biologically fixed (p. 22).
- The text highlights how postcolonial writers employ mimicry and hybridity to subvert colonial authority, aligning with Homi Bhabha’s deconstructive approach to identity (p. 14).
5. Marxist Literary Theory
- Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s rejection of grand narratives, arguing that postcolonialism retains its concern for liberation and justice (p. 16).
- He acknowledges the intersection of capitalism and imperialism, recognizing that colonial racial categories were used to enforce economic hierarchies (p. 17).
- His discussion of Frantz Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks (1952) supports a Marxist analysis of race as a function of economic and social oppression (p. 27).
- He aligns with Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony, explaining how racial ideologies are embedded within colonial discourse to maintain social control (p. 18).
6. Cultural Studies and Identity Politics
- Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s focus on difference without material context, arguing that race must be analyzed within its historical and political framework (p. 18).
- His discussion of W. E. B. Du Bois’ “double consciousness” (p. 22) contributes to identity politics by showing how marginalized subjects navigate multiple racial identities.
- The book examines Négritude as both an essentialist movement and a necessary political strategy, aligning with debates in cultural studies about the role of racial identity in resistance (p. 23).
- He affirms the role of literature in shaping and contesting racialized identities, reinforcing the importance of representation in cultural and literary studies.
Conclusion:
Bill Ashcroft’s Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race makes significant contributions to literary theory by:
- Differentiating postcolonialism from postmodernism while acknowledging their intersections.
- Reinforcing critical race theory’s argument that race is a colonial construct with real material consequences.
- Employing poststructuralist and deconstructive methods to challenge racial and colonial essentialisms.
- Aligning postcolonialism with Marxist critiques of imperialism and economic exploitation.
- Expanding cultural studies by emphasizing literature’s role in shaping and contesting racial identities.
Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
| Literary Work & Author | Critique Through Ashcroft’s Framework |
| Things Fall Apart – Chinua Achebe | Ashcroft critiques Achebe’s novel as a foundational postcolonial text that dismantles imperial narratives. Unlike postmodern works that merely deconstruct meaning, Things Fall Apart offers a counter-narrative to colonial history, aligning with Ashcroft’s assertion that “postcolonialism remains unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16). Achebe’s novel challenges the Centre/Margin binarism and reclaims indigenous storytelling. |
| Cambridge – Caryl Phillips | Phillips’ novel is analyzed through the lens of the colonial gaze and the internalization of racist discourse. Ashcroft highlights how Emily, the plantation owner’s daughter, becomes complicit in colonial racism, demonstrating how “the objectifying gaze of colonial power” shapes perceptions of race and humanity (p. 19). |
| Black Skin, White Masks – Frantz Fanon | Ashcroft engages with Fanon’s psychological analysis of colonial subjectivity, particularly his argument that race is imposed externally through colonial discourse. He references Fanon’s “Look, a Negro!” passage to illustrate how race is “relational rather than essential” (p. 27). Fanon’s work is foundational in postcolonial studies for its articulation of alienation and racial trauma. |
| The Conservation of Races – W. E. B. Du Bois | Ashcroft critiques Du Bois’ balancing act between recognizing race as a social construct while also using it as a political tool for Black solidarity. He notes that “Du Bois walks a tightrope between definitions of race and the need to propose that the Negro had a contribution to make” (p. 22), highlighting the tension between race as a lived experience and an ideological construct. |
Criticism Against “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
- Oversimplification of Postmodernism vs. Postcolonialism
- Ashcroft argues that postcolonialism is “unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16) in contrast to postmodernism’s skepticism. However, critics argue that postmodernism itself has politically engaged strands, such as Lyotard’s critique of power structures, which Ashcroft does not fully acknowledge.
- Ambiguity in Defining Postcolonialism
- While Ashcroft asserts that “postcolonialism refers to post-invasion and not post-independence” (p. 13), this broad definition is problematic. It risks conflating vastly different historical experiences under a single theoretical umbrella, ignoring specific sociopolitical contexts.
- Insufficient Engagement with Non-Anglophone Postcolonial Theory
- Ashcroft predominantly engages with theorists writing in English (Said, Spivak, Bhabha) but does not sufficiently address contributions from non-Western intellectual traditions, such as Latin American decolonial thought (e.g., Aníbal Quijano, Walter Mignolo).
- Tendency to Conflate Race and Colonialism
- The text treats race as a colonial invention, arguing that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16). While this aligns with Stuart Hall’s work, it risks downplaying pre-colonial conceptions of identity and racial hierarchies that existed outside European imperialism.
- Limited Discussion of Economic Factors
- While Ashcroft acknowledges capitalism’s role in colonialism (p. 17), he does not deeply explore economic dimensions such as dependency theory or world-systems analysis, which provide a more materialist critique of postcolonial conditions.
- Problematic Engagement with Essentialism in Négritude
- Ashcroft discusses Négritude as a form of “strategic essentialism” (p. 25), yet he does not fully address the internal critiques of Négritude from within African intellectual circles, such as critiques by Frantz Fanon and Wole Soyinka.
- Underdeveloped Feminist and Gender Analysis
- While postcolonialism has strong feminist strands (e.g., Spivak, Mohanty), Ashcroft’s discussion largely neglects gendered perspectives on colonialism, racialization, and postcolonial identity.
- Lack of Engagement with Contemporary Postcolonial Realities
- The text focuses on theoretical constructs but lacks detailed discussions of 21st-century neocolonialism, migration, and digital globalization, making its framework seem somewhat dated.
- Potential Reduction of Race to Discourse
- While Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s tendency to treat race as a floating signifier (p. 22), some critics argue that his own approach does not sufficiently engage with how race functions in legal, institutional, and structural frameworks beyond literary discourse.
- Limited Exploration of Indigenous Theorization
- The book discusses colonialism largely through the lens of former British and French colonies but does not significantly incorporate Indigenous perspectives from settler-colonial contexts, such as North America or Australia.
Representative Quotations from “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism is a vexed mixture of contestation and imbrication.” (p. 13) | Ashcroft highlights the complex and intertwined nature of these two theories, which both critique dominant narratives but differ in their purpose—postmodernism deconstructs, while postcolonialism resists. |
| “Postcolonialism’ refers to post-invasion and not post-independence; it identifies neither a chronology nor a specific ontology.” (p. 13) | This statement rejects a rigid chronological understanding of postcolonialism, arguing that it is an ongoing process of resistance rather than a mere historical period after colonial rule. |
| “Lyotard’s ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ becomes something more than incredulity in postcolonialism: it is the active resistance to the master discourse of imperialism and the radical transformation of its tools.” (p. 14) | Ashcroft contrasts postmodern skepticism with postcolonial resistance, suggesting that postcolonialism takes a more politically engaged stance in dismantling imperial structures. |
| “Postcolonial theorists have little trouble in appropriating postmodern approaches to subjectivity, discourse, and representation, without abandoning the political imperative of the field.” (p. 15) | While postmodernism denies stable subjectivities, postcolonialism selectively adopts its techniques while maintaining a commitment to political activism and liberation. |
| “Postcolonialism is unashamedly emancipatory, its driving energy a concern with justice and liberation.” (p. 16) | Unlike postmodernism’s rejection of universal truths, postcolonialism asserts a clear ethical and political purpose—to challenge oppression and advocate for justice. |
| “Before European racism, black people were not black.” (p. 16) | This provocative claim underscores that race as a category was historically constructed by colonial powers as a justification for subjugation, rather than being an inherent, pre-existing reality. |
| “Race, like any signifier, is a function of difference, yet this is hardly adequate to explain the human cost of racism.” (p. 18) | Ashcroft critiques purely linguistic or theoretical approaches to race, emphasizing that racism has real, material consequences beyond discourse. |
| “Negritude was less a celebration of an essential blackness than it was an act of rebellion.” (p. 24) | This challenges the common perception of Negritude as merely essentialist, arguing instead that it was a strategic form of resistance against colonial oppression. |
| “The experience of blackness arises unbidden out of the fact that ‘consciousness of the body is solely a negating activity’.” (p. 26) | Quoting Fanon, Ashcroft illustrates how racialized individuals experience their identity as externally imposed through the colonial gaze, reinforcing their exclusion. |
| “Without racism, race would not have been invented, and the continued power and ubiquity of this non-existent category of race lies in the persistence of racism and its consequences.” (p. 28) | This final assertion ties together Ashcroft’s argument that race is a colonial construct sustained by structures of oppression, rather than an innate biological or cultural truth. |
Suggested Readings: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
- Platt, Len, and Sara Upstone, eds. Postmodern literature and race. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
- GBOGI, TOSIN. “Is There Life Besides “Coloniality?”: Metapoetics and the Second Level of Decoloniality in Niyi Osundare’s Poetry.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 52, no. 3, 2021, pp. 139–66. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48679341. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
- Wade, Peter. “Blacks and Indigenous People in the Postmodern and Postcolonial Nation – and Beyond.” Race and Ethnicity in Latin America, Pluto Press, 2010, pp. 85–111. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183p73f.10. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
- Aronowitz, Stanley. “Postmodernism and Politics.” Social Text, no. 18, 1987, pp. 99–115. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/488695. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.