Diaspora Theory in English Literature

Diaspora Theory: Term and Concept

Diaspora Theory

Diaspora theory is a field of study that examines the dispersal of people from their original homeland, the formation of communities in new locations, and the continued connections and influence these communities maintain with their homeland. It is often used to analyze experiences of displacement, whether forced or voluntary, and explore the ways in which communities maintain a sense of identity and cultural heritage even when separated by geography.

• Hybrid Identities: Diasporic communities often develop unique cultural identities that blend elements of their homeland, their host country, and their own evolving experiences.
• Continued Connection to Homeland: Diasporas frequently maintain strong emotional, cultural, and sometimes even political ties to their homeland, even across generations.
• Nostalgia and Idealization: A sense of nostalgia for the homeland is common, often involving an idealized view of the past.
• The Role of Technology: Modern technology plays a crucial role in maintaining connections between diasporas and their homeland, facilitating communication and cultural exchange.
• Transnationalism: Diasporas often operate across national borders, creating transnational networks and influencing politics, economies, and cultural flows.

Diaspora Theory: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists

• Stuart Hall: A foundational figure in cultural studies, Hall emphasized the complex and fluid nature of diasporic identities. He rejected essentialist notions of culture and argued that identity is continuously shaped by experiences of displacement and hybridity. His essay “Cultural Identity and Diaspora” (1990) is considered a seminal work.
• William Safran: His article “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return” (1991) outlined criteria for defining diaspora, such as dispersal, a shared homeland myth, and continued alienation within a host country.
• Paul Gilroy: Gilroy’s “The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness” (1993) explores the African diaspora through a lens of cultural exchange and hybridity. He challenges the concept of fixed national identities and highlights routes rather than roots in understanding identity formation.
• James Clifford: Clifford’s work, including “Diasporas” (1994), emphasizes the de-territorialized nature of modern diasporic experiences. He highlights the diverse forms that diasporas take and challenges traditional notions of cultural authenticity.
• Avtar Brah: Brah’s “Cartographies of Diaspora” (1996) explores the intersection of gender, class, and diaspora. She critiques earlier work for overlooking women’s experiences and emphasizes the multiple axes of identity formation within diasporic communities.

Key Arguments

• Identity as Process: Diaspora theorists emphasize that identity is not static but continually being constructed and negotiated through experiences of migration and cultural exchange.
• Challenge to National Narratives: The existence of diasporas undermines the idea of homogenous, bounded nations. Diasporic identities reveal the fluidity of borders and challenge narratives of national belonging.
• Cultural Hybridity: Diasporic cultures are characterized by hybridization – the blending of elements from the homeland and the host country, creating new and unique cultural forms.
• The Politics of Belonging: Diasporas experience tensions of belonging between their homeland, host country, and sometimes within the diaspora itself. This leads to ongoing negotiations of identity and political affiliation.
• Memory and Nostalgia: Memory of the lost homeland plays a powerful role within diasporas. This often involves an idealized version of the past, which influences cultural production and sense of identity.

Diaspora Theory: Key Principals

• Displacement and Dispersal: The defining feature of a diaspora is involuntary or voluntary scattering from an original homeland. This displacement can be due to historical factors like war, famine, slavery, or economic necessity.
  • Literary Example: The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid explores the experiences of a Pakistani man who immigrates to the US, achieving success, and then facing a crisis of identity after 9/11.
• Homeland as Myth and Memory: The concept of the homeland takes on a powerful symbolic meaning for diasporas. It becomes a site of nostalgia, often idealized, and serves as a reference point for identity.
  • Literary Example: The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz frequently references the Dominican Republic, the homeland the family fled due to political oppression.
• Hybrid Identities: Diasporic identities are complex and fluid, shaped by the homeland culture, the host country, and the unique experiences of the diaspora. This leads to a blending of cultural elements and a sense of existing across multiple worlds.
  • Literary Example: Bend It Like Beckham (film) depicts a British-Indian girl navigating expectations of her traditional family while pursuing her passion for football (soccer).
• Transnationalism: Diasporas create networks that span national borders. They maintain cultural, economic, and sometimes political ties with their homeland, influencing flows of people, ideas, and resources.
  • Literary Example: The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan explores the interconnected lives of Chinese immigrant mothers and their American-born daughters, highlighting the ongoing ties across the Pacific.
• Challenging National Narratives: Diasporas disrupt the idea of homogenous nations. Their presence complicates narratives of belonging and forces a rethinking of what it means to belong to a nation.
  • Literary Example: No-No Boy by John Okada focuses on a Japanese American man released from an internment camp after World War II, struggling to find acceptance in a country that questioned his loyalty.

Additional Considerations

• Diverse Experiences: Diasporas are not monolithic. Experiences vary based on reasons for dispersal, socioeconomic status, generational differences, and the reception in the host country.
• Intersections with Other Lenses: Diaspora theory is often used in conjunction with critical frameworks like postcolonialism, feminism, and race studies, offering a nuanced understanding of identity.

Diaspora Theory: How to Use in Literary Critiques

Diaspora theory offers a valuable lens for analyzing works that touch upon themes of displacement, identity, and the connections between homeland and host countries. Here are key ways to use it:

• Analyzing Hybrid Identities: Explore how characters from diasporic communities navigate complex and evolving identities. What influences (cultural heritage, experiences in the host country, etc.) shape their sense of self? How do they negotiate belonging?
• Examining Nostalgia and the Homeland: Consider how the homeland is represented in the work. Is it a source of longing or a site of idealized memory? How does this image of the homeland affect characters and their actions?
• Exploring Cultural Transformations: Investigate how aspects of the homeland’s culture are adapted, transformed, or preserved within the diaspora. Look for examples of hybridization (language, music, traditions) and how these adaptations create unique forms of expression.
• Connections and Tensions: Analyze the relationships between diasporic communities and their homeland, and between generations born in the diaspora. Are there tensions over authenticity or conflicting visions of the future?
• Intersections with Other Identities: Diaspora theory often works well when combined with other critical lenses. Consider how gender, race, class, and sexuality intersect with diasporic experiences in the text.

Examples: Applying Diaspora Theory

1. The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy: Roy’s novel explores the legacy of colonialism and the complexities of a postcolonial Indian diaspora. Diasporic characters navigate identities shaped by Indian heritage and experiences in England. A diaspora theory lens could analyze issues of cultural hybridity, the weight of family expectations, and ongoing connections with India.
2. Exit West by Mohsin Hamid: This contemporary novel follows a couple fleeing an unnamed war-torn country on a fantastical journey to new destinations. A diasporic reading could focus on the challenges of forging an identity when displacement is constant and the idea of “homeland” may be lost.
3. The Namesake by Jhumpa Lahiri: Lahiri’s novel is a multi-generational saga of a Bengali family in the US. A diasporic critique could examine the clash of cultures between immigrant parents and their American-born children, negotiations of identity, and the changing relationship to the image of India across generations.
4. Americanah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: This powerful novel explores race, love, and the experience of a Nigerian woman who emigrates to the US and later returns to Nigeria. A diaspora theory lens could delve into themes of cultural alienation and re-entry shock, contrasts between the idealized homeland and contemporary realities, and reflections on belonging.

Diaspora Theory: Criticism Against It

• Overemphasis on Homeland: Some critics argue that diaspora theory can overemphasize the connection to the homeland, neglecting the transformative experiences within the host country that are central to new identity formation.
• Essentialism Risk: While diaspora theory emphasizes hybridity, there’s a risk of essentializing diasporic identities. This can lead to overlooking the internal diversity within diasporas and differences based on class, gender, generation, etc.
• Exclusivity: The focus on a specific homeland can create a sense of exclusivity, overlooking the experiences of those with multiple origins or whose displacement doesn’t neatly fit into a homeland-diaspora model.
• Romanticizing Exile: Diaspora theory can sometimes be accused of romanticizing displacement or creating a hierarchy of authenticity, where those living in the homeland are seen as more “authentic” than those in the diaspora.
• Neglecting Power Structures: Early diaspora theory has been criticized for not fully considering the power dynamics between host countries and diasporic communities. Analyses primarily focused on cultural formations may underplay issues of assimilation pressure, discrimination, and economic inequality faced by diasporic communities.

Contemporary Evolution

It’s important to note that diaspora theory is a continually evolving field of study. Many contemporary theorists acknowledge these criticisms and work to address them. Some key areas of focus include:

• Expanding Definitions: Broadening definitions of diaspora to include those with multiple points of origin or whose experiences don’t align with a traditional homeland model.
• Internal Dynamics: Paying greater attention to the internal diversity and hierarchies within diasporas.
• Power and Resistance: Incorporating analyses of power structures, economic inequality, and strategies of resistance employed by diasporic communities.

Diaspora Theory: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Diaspora	A population that has been scattered or dispersed from its original homeland.
Homeland	The real or imagined place of origin for a diasporic community.
Hybridity	The blending of cultural elements from the homeland and the host country, leading to new forms of expression.
Nostalgia	A longing or yearning for the homeland, often involving an idealized image of the past.
Memory	The collective and individual memories of the homeland that shape diasporic identity and experience.
Transnationalism	The creation of networks and flows of people, ideas, and resources that span national borders.
Identity	The complex and evolving sense of self within diasporas, shaped by cultural heritage, experiences in the host country, and ongoing connections with the homeland.
Displacement	The experience of being removed from one’s homeland, whether forced or voluntary.
Belonging	The search for a sense of belonging within both the homeland and the host country, as well as within the diasporic community itself.
Authenticity	Questions about what constitutes “authentic” cultural expression within a diaspora, and tensions between tradition and adaptation.

Diaspora Theory: Suggested Readings

Primary Sources:

• Brah, Avtar. Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. Routledge, 1996.
• Clifford, James. “Diasporas.” Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, pp. 302-338. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org.
• Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Harvard University Press, 1993.
• Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, edited by Jonathan Rutherford, Lawrence & Wishart, 1990, pp. 222-237.
• Safran, William. “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return.” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 1991, pp. 83-99. Project MUSE, https://muse.jhu.edu.

Anthologies & Edited Collections

• Braziel, Jana Evans, and Anita Mannur, editors. Theorizing Diaspora. Blackwell, 2003.
• Cohen, Robin. Global Diasporas: An Introduction. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2008.
• Tölölyan, Khachig, and Bedross Der Matossian, editors. Diaspora, Identity and Religion: New Directions in Theory and Research. Routledge, 2006.