Introduction: “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
“Diasporas Old and New: Women in the Transnational World” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak first appeared in the journal Textual Practice in 1996 and represents a seminal intervention in feminist literary theory and postcolonial studies. In this essay, originally delivered as a lecture at Rutgers University in 1994, Spivak explores the dynamics of women’s experiences within diasporic and transnational contexts. She critically examines the intersections of labor migrancy, population control, and indigenous women’s positions outside traditional diasporic frameworks. Spivak critiques the neoliberal restructuring of the global economy and its impact on decolonization, emphasizing how transnational capitalism exploits women disproportionately while eroding civil society in both developed and developing nations. She also interrogates the Eurocentric biases embedded in feminist and cultural studies, particularly the reductive treatment of diasporic women’s narratives. This work is pivotal for its nuanced critique of global feminism, its advocacy for a decolonized perspective on transnationality, and its challenge to homogenizing cultural and feminist frameworks, making it a cornerstone in debates about globalization, identity, and gendered labor.
Summary of “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
- Transnationality and Economic Realities:
- Spivak critiques the shift from multinational to transnational frameworks of labor migration as a symptom of neoliberal globalization (Spivak, 1996, p. 245).
- This shift exacerbates inequalities in developing nations, damaging the potential for civil society and social redistribution (p. 248).
- Old vs. New Diasporas:
- Old Diasporas: Rooted in religious oppression, war, slavery, indenture, and conquest, primarily within intra-European contexts or U.S. immigration (p. 245).
- New Diasporas: Emerging from economic migration, political asylum-seeking, and gendered labor export, predominantly impacting women (p. 246).
- Women and Labor:
- Women’s labor, such as homeworking, often lacks institutional protection, reinforcing unpaid domestic labor’s undervaluation (p. 246).
- Transnational agencies impose population control policies targeting impoverished women, equating reproductive capacity with identity, which Spivak terms “gynocide” (p. 247).
- Excluded Groups:
- Indigenous women and groups unable to migrate are excluded from both old and new diasporic narratives, reflecting a broader marginalization within transnational discourses (p. 247).
- Civil Society and Feminist Interventions:
- Transnational processes undermine the formation of civil societies in developing nations, which Spivak links to a failure of decolonization (p. 248).
- Feminist critiques often neglect the complexities of transnationality, focusing instead on identity politics or Eurocentric frameworks (p. 250).
- Culturalism and Multiculturalism:
- Spivak critiques the romanticization of cultural relativism and its limitations in addressing systemic transnational inequalities (p. 254).
- She emphasizes the need for nuanced feminist approaches that resist reductive cultural explanations (p. 256).
- Challenges for Feminist Academics:
- Academics must navigate the ideological constraints of neoliberal frameworks while promoting transnational feminist literacy (p. 257).
- Spivak warns against the uncritical adoption of Western feminist paradigms, advocating for localized and intersectional analyses (p. 258).
- The Role of Women in Transnational Narratives:
- Women are often positioned as victims or passive agents, ignoring their potential as active participants in resisting globalization’s exploitative structures (p. 259).
- Feminist translators and academics have a critical role in amplifying subaltern voices while resisting dominant culturalist narratives (p. 262).
- Implications for the Future:
- Spivak calls for a rethinking of diasporic and global feminist frameworks to address economic inequalities, cultural marginalization, and the intersectionality of women’s experiences (p. 264).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
| Term/Concept | Explanation | Context/Significance |
| Transnationality | Refers to the globalized movement of labor and capital, eroding the autonomy of developing nations. | Highlights the exploitation of labor, especially women’s, under neoliberal globalization (Spivak, 1996, p. 245). |
| Diaspora (Old and New) | Old diasporas stemmed from war, slavery, and religious oppression; new ones are driven by economic migration and asylum-seeking. | Explains shifts in global labor migration and their gendered impact on women in First and Third World contexts (p. 246). |
| Civil Society | The arena in which individuals can demand service or redress from the state, ideally a space of equity. | Civil society’s weakening under transnationality limits avenues for social redistribution and justice (p. 248). |
| Population Control | Policies targeting women in developing nations to limit reproduction, often imposed by global agencies. | Criticized as “gynocide” that dehumanizes women and reduces them to reproductive agents (p. 247). |
| Homeworking | Women performing piecework labor at home without legal or wage protections. | Exemplifies how transnational capitalism exploits women while marginalizing their labor contributions (p. 246). |
| Subaltern | Borrowed from Gramsci, it refers to marginalized groups excluded from elite discourse. | Indigenous women and non-migrant groups exemplify subalternity in transnational frameworks (p. 247). |
| Multiculturalism | A superficial celebration of cultural diversity, often excluding the structural inequalities of labor and migration. | Criticized as insufficient for addressing systemic oppression in diasporic and transnational contexts (p. 254). |
| Global Feminism | Feminist frameworks attempting to address global issues. | Spivak critiques their tendency to universalize Western feminist ideologies, ignoring localized struggles (p. 256). |
| Gynocide | A term used to describe systemic violence against women, particularly through reproductive policies. | Shows how global institutions perpetuate violence under the guise of development (p. 247). |
| Economic Citizenship | Rights and access defined through economic participation, privileging elites. | Transnational capital fosters this form of citizenship, sidelining marginalized groups (p. 249). |
| Post-State Class System | Emerging global class systems detached from traditional nation-state frameworks. | Highlights the role of women in sustaining global capitalism through undervalued and exploited labor (p. 249). |
| Culturalism | Using cultural explanations to mask structural inequalities. | Critiqued as an inadequate lens for analyzing transnational gendered labor (p. 254). |
| Responsibility-Based Ethics | Ethical systems emphasizing accountability to all, especially marginalized groups. | Advocated as a feminist framework for navigating global inequalities (p. 259). |
| Decolonization of the Mind | The process of resisting cultural and ideological dominance from global and colonial powers. | Proposed as necessary for addressing the failures of civil society in decolonized nations (p. 258). |
| Hybridity and Migration | The blending of identities through migration and diaspora. | Spivak critiques the romanticization of hybridity in cultural studies for masking systemic exploitation (p. 262). |
| Economic Development | Often framed as progress, it is critiqued as a tool for furthering transnational exploitation. | Spivak critiques “Women in Development” policies for exacerbating global inequalities (p. 264). |
Contribution of “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak to Literary Theory/Theories
- Contribution: Spivak critiques the legacy of colonialism in shaping global inequalities, particularly through the lens of diasporic labor, migration, and gendered exploitation. She expands postcolonial theory by addressing the intersections of economic globalization and gender.
- Key Ideas:
- The “failure of decolonization” to establish civil societies capable of ensuring social redistribution (Spivak, p. 248).
- Transnationality as a continuation of imperialist exploitation under the guise of globalization (p. 249).
- The subaltern’s inability to engage fully in civil society or articulate their resistance (p. 259).
- Significance: Spivak’s analysis adds depth to postcolonial studies by linking economic systems, global feminism, and cultural narratives, showing how postcolonial identities are commodified in transnational spaces.
- Contribution: Spivak critiques Eurocentric feminist universalism and advocates for a transnational feminist perspective sensitive to local and global contexts.
- Key Ideas:
- The imposition of population control policies on women in developing nations as a form of “gynocide” (p. 247).
- The romanticization of cultural relativism by feminist cultural studies (p. 253).
- The dangers of transnational feminism reducing women’s experiences to reproductive and domestic labor (p. 254).
- Significance: By exposing the limitations of global feminism, Spivak urges feminists to engage with localized struggles and the complexities of women’s roles in diasporic and transnational contexts.
- Contribution: Spivak builds on her seminal idea of the subaltern’s inability to speak by exploring how globalization has altered subaltern identities.
- Key Ideas:
- Many indigenous and marginalized women cannot become “diasporic” and remain trapped in global systems of labor exploitation (p. 247).
- Spivak critiques the cultural and economic narratives that exclude subaltern groups from meaningful participation in civil society (p. 249).
- Significance: Spivak’s emphasis on the “new subaltern” in transnational spaces extends Subaltern Studies to address contemporary forms of global economic and cultural domination.
- Contribution: Spivak incorporates Marxist critiques of capitalism into her analysis of transnationality, focusing on how labor and capital exploitation disproportionately affect women in diasporic contexts.
- Key Ideas:
- The commodification of women’s labor in the global economy (homeworking and export-processing zones) reflects new forms of capitalist exploitation (p. 246).
- The distinction between labor and labor-power in reproductive contexts (p. 264).
- The undermining of civil society in developing nations to prioritize global financialization (p. 249).
- Significance: Spivak enriches Marxist theory by linking economic exploitation to gendered labor practices and transnational power dynamics.
5. Cultural Studies
- Contribution: Spivak critiques Cultural Studies for romanticizing hybridity and diaspora while ignoring systemic economic exploitation and labor conditions.
- Key Ideas:
- The fetishization of cultural hybridity and multiculturalism as solutions to systemic inequalities (p. 262).
- The “re-coding” of global capitalism as cultural phenomena, masking its exploitative nature (p. 245).
- Significance: Spivak challenges Cultural Studies to address material conditions of labor and power, rather than focusing solely on cultural representations.
6. Critical Theory and Ethics
- Contribution: Spivak interrogates notions of responsibility and ethical engagement in transnational and feminist contexts.
- Key Ideas:
- Feminist universalism propagated by transnational agencies often fails to account for the ethical complexities of cultural and economic conditions (p. 256).
- Responsibility-based ethics should account for both the material and symbolic dimensions of women’s experiences in globalization (p. 259).
- Significance: Spivak’s ethical framework offers a nuanced approach to analyzing global feminist practices and transnational activism.
- Contribution: Spivak applies deconstructive methods to challenge fixed binaries like local/global, private/public, and labor/capital, emphasizing their instability in transnational contexts.
- Key Ideas:
- The inherent contradictions in feminist universalism and cultural relativism (p. 256).
- The destabilization of national and state boundaries in the era of globalization (p. 262).
- Significance: Spivak’s application of deconstruction highlights the aporias and tensions within feminist and postcolonial theories, urging a rethinking of theoretical categories.
8. Development Studies
- Contribution: Spivak critiques the ideology of “development” as a tool for perpetuating global inequalities, especially through its impact on women.
- Key Ideas:
- “Women in Development” policies often exploit women’s labor under the guise of empowerment (p. 264).
- Development projects prioritize capital maximization over social redistribution (p. 249).
- Significance: Spivak’s analysis provides a feminist critique of development paradigms, linking them to transnational systems of economic exploitation.
Examples of Critiques Through “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
| Literary Work | Critique through Spivak’s Lens | Key Concepts from Spivak’s Article | Relevant Citation from Spivak |
| Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys | – Highlights the exploitation and silencing of subaltern women in colonial and postcolonial contexts. – Antoinette’s marginalization mirrors the diasporic woman’s struggle for agency within transnational systems. | Subalternity, cultural hybridity, gendered exploitation. | “The disenfranchised new or old diasporic woman cannot engage in the critical agency of civil society” (p. 259). |
| Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe | – Examines the impact of colonialism on indigenous structures of gender and power. – Women’s erasure parallels Spivak’s critique of transnationality silencing subaltern voices. | Subaltern women’s exclusion from diasporic narratives, intersection of colonial and gender oppression. | “Large groups within this space of difference subsist in transnationality without escaping into diaspora” (p. 247). |
| The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy | – Analyzes caste and gender oppression alongside diasporic identity and labor. – Ammu’s struggles reflect the “in-place uprooting” of women in transnational spaces. | Intersection of caste, gender, and globalization in labor and identity. | “The haunting in-place uprooting of ‘comfort women’ in Asia and Africa” (p. 245). |
| Brick Lane by Monica Ali | – Critiques the romanticized hybridity of diasporic life in the West. – Focuses on the material struggles of migrant women excluded from civil society. | Romanticization of cultural hybridity, transnational exploitation of women’s labor, gendered subalternity. | “Feminists with a transnational consciousness will also be aware that the very civil structure… can provide alibis for global financialization” (p. 249). |
Criticism Against “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
- Dense and Esoteric Language:
- Spivak’s theoretical style often employs highly complex, jargon-heavy language that can alienate readers unfamiliar with poststructuralist discourse.
- Critics argue that the accessibility of her arguments is compromised, limiting engagement beyond academia.
- Overemphasis on Theory Over Praxis:
- Spivak’s work is critiqued for prioritizing theoretical frameworks over actionable insights or practical solutions for the issues of diasporic women.
- The critique highlights a gap between her philosophical speculations and real-world applications for marginalized women.
- Generalization of Diasporic Experiences:
- Critics suggest that Spivak’s framing of diasporas and transnationality does not adequately account for the nuanced differences in diasporic identities, especially across varied cultural and historical contexts.
- Ambiguity in Subaltern Representation:
- Some scholars argue that Spivak’s portrayal of subaltern women is paradoxical, as she critiques their silencing while simultaneously speaking on their behalf, raising concerns of academic elitism.
- Limited Focus on Specific Geographies:
- Spivak’s emphasis on the transnational often sidelines detailed discussions of specific regional or cultural contexts, such as the unique experiences of African, Caribbean, or Latin American diasporas.
- Critique of Feminist Universalism:
- While Spivak critiques feminist universalism propagated through transnational agencies like the UN, some critics feel her stance underestimates the potential of global feminist solidarity.
- Neglect of Male Perspectives in Diasporic Studies:
- Spivak’s work focuses heavily on women, often ignoring the intersecting roles of men in shaping diasporic and transnational experiences, which some view as an incomplete analysis.
- Contradiction in Anti-Eurocentrism:
- Although Spivak critiques Eurocentric feminism, her reliance on European philosophers (e.g., Derrida, Marx) is seen as contradictory by some critics, questioning her theoretical consistency.
- Abstract Approach to Civil Society:
- Critics argue that Spivak’s discussion on the erosion of civil society under transnationality lacks empirical grounding, making it difficult to apply to specific policy or grassroots activism.
Representative Quotations from “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Transnationality is becoming the name of the increased migrancy of labour.” | Spivak critiques the commodification of labor under global capitalism, where transnationality shifts from being a cultural phenomenon to a symptom of economic exploitation. This reframes migration not as voluntary movement but as a structural necessity driven by neoliberal agendas. |
| “The concept of a diasporic multiculturalism is irrelevant here.” | Addressing women engaged in homeworking, Spivak dismisses the romanticized notions of multiculturalism in diasporas, highlighting the harsh realities of unregulated labor markets that disproportionately exploit women. |
| “Population Control… is no less than gynocide and war on women.” | Spivak critiques global population control policies imposed on women in developing countries, arguing they perpetuate Western ideologies that reduce women to their reproductive capacities and enforce systemic violence masked as aid. |
| “Groups that cannot become diasporic… include most indigenous groups outside Euramerica.” | Spivak emphasizes that not all groups can access the diasporic experience. For indigenous populations, transnationality manifests as a form of systemic marginalization rather than mobility or hybridity, challenging common assumptions about the benefits of globalization. |
| “Women, with other disenfranchised groups, have never been full subjects of and agents in civil society.” | Spivak critiques the historical exclusion of women and marginalized groups from the frameworks of civil society, arguing that even within global feminist movements, women’s citizenship and agency remain precarious and conditional. |
| “Transnationality is shrinking the possibility of an operative civil society in developing nations.” | She identifies a destructive feedback loop where global financialization undermines local civil societies in the Global South, dismantling systems that could facilitate gender justice or equitable redistribution of resources. |
| “The new diaspora is determined by the increasing failure of a civil society in developing nations.” | Spivak connects the rise of new diasporas to systemic failures in nation-building and decolonization in developing nations, critiquing the role of global capital in exacerbating inequalities. |
| “The feminist universalism propagated through the United Nations… effaces the role of the state.” | She critiques the UN’s version of feminism as perpetuating neoliberal agendas that bypass state structures, rendering them irrelevant and redirecting power to international institutions and NGOs, which may not always serve grassroots needs. |
| “Women in transnationality are the super-dominated, the super-exploited, but not in the same way.” | Spivak highlights how women, while universally oppressed, face varying modes of domination depending on geographic, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, thereby challenging homogenous narratives of feminist struggle. |
| “The painstaking cultivation of such a contradictory, indeed aporetic, practical acknowledgment is the basis of a decolonization of the mind.” | Spivak argues for a nuanced and reflective approach to understanding transnational feminism, one that confronts contradictions without seeking easy solutions, thereby fostering intellectual resistance against hegemonic global structures. |
Suggested Readings: “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
- Danius, Sara, et al. “An Interview with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.” Boundary 2, vol. 20, no. 2, 1993, pp. 24–50. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/303357. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.
- Sipiora, Phillip, et al. “Rhetoric and Cultural Explanation: A Discussion with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.” Journal of Advanced Composition, vol. 10, no. 2, 1990, pp. 293–304. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20865732. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.
- Clifford, James. “Diasporas.” Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, pp. 302–38. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/656365. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.
- Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Diasporas old and new: Women in the transnational world.” Textual practice 10.2 (1996): 245-269.