Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory

Displacement in literature and theory refers to transfer of meaning, identity/cultural significance from on context or setting to another.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory
Displacement in Literature: Etymology and Concept
Etymology

The word “displacement in Literature is derived from the Latin prefix “dis-” meaning “away” or “apart” and the verb “placere” meaning “to place.” Thus, “displacement” essentially means “to place away” or “to put out of place.” This etymological root suggests a fundamental notion of removal or relocation, a concept that has been central to various fields, including literature, literary theory, and general discourse.

Concept in of Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory
  • Spatial Displacement: This refers to the physical movement of characters or objects from one location to another, often leading to transformative experiences or revelations.
  • Temporal Displacement: This involves the shifting of narrative time, such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, or temporal paradoxes, which can disrupt linear chronology and create complex narratives.
  • Psychological Displacement: This occurs when characters or individuals mentally or emotionally remove themselves from a traumatic or difficult situation, often projecting their feelings onto others or objects.
  • Social Displacement: This involves the forced or voluntary relocation of individuals or communities due to social, economic, or political factors, often leading to cultural dislocation and identity crises.
  • Symbolic Displacement: This occurs when objects or symbols represent deeper meanings or emotions, allowing authors to convey complex ideas indirectly.
Concept in General
  • Physical Displacement: The movement of an object from its original position.
  • Fluid Displacement: The amount of fluid displaced by an object submerged in it.
  • Social Displacement: The forced or voluntary relocation of individuals or communities.
  • Economic Displacement: The loss of jobs or livelihoods due to economic changes.
  • Psychological Displacement: The projection of feelings or emotions onto others or objects.
Displacement: Meanings
  • Physical displacement: The movement of an object from its original position.
  • Fluid displacement: The amount of fluid displaced by an object submerged in it.
  • Social displacement: The forced or voluntary relocation of individuals or communities.
  • Economic displacement: The loss of jobs or livelihoods due to economic changes.
  • Psychological displacement: The projection of feelings or emotions onto others or objects.
  • Literary displacement: The movement of characters or objects from one location to another, or the shifting of narrative time, or the projection of feelings onto others or objects.
Displacement in Literature and Theory: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Displacement, in literary and cultural theory, refers to the process by which meaning, identity, or cultural significance is transferred or shifted from its original context to a new one. It often occurs in relation to themes of migration, exile, or postcolonial identity, where the sense of belonging and representation is destabilized. The concept is rooted in psychoanalytic theory but has been adapted to explore how literature reflects the movement of ideas, peoples, and cultural symbols across different spaces and times.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Theorists, Works and Argument


1. Michel Foucault (Power, Space, and Displacement)

  • Key Works:
    • Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975)
    • The Birth of the Clinic (1973)
  • Argument:
    • Foucault examines the role of space and spatial displacement in exerting power and social control. He links institutional practices (prisons, hospitals) to the displacement and organization of individuals in physical and social spaces.
  • Reference:
    • Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage.
    • Foucault, M. (1973). The Birth of the Clinic. New York: Pantheon.

2. Edward Said (Postcolonial Displacement)

  • Key Works:
    • Orientalism (1978)
    • Reflections on Exile (2001)
  • Argument:
    • Said explores how colonialism displaces both cultures and individuals, creating a sense of exile and alienation. His concept of “exile” is both a physical and emotional displacement that shapes identity in postcolonial contexts.
  • Reference:
    • Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.
    • Said, E. W. (2001). Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

3. Henri Lefebvre (The Production of Space)

  • Key Works:
    • The Production of Space (1974)
  • Argument:
    • Lefebvre theorizes that space is a social product and that displacement is a consequence of capitalist production. He investigates how the urbanization process displaces communities to make way for economic projects.
  • Reference:
    • Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

4. Judith Butler (Precarity and Displacement)

  • Key Works:
    • Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? (2009)
  • Argument:
    • Butler connects displacement to the concept of precarity, emphasizing that political and social exclusion leads to a precarious existence. She explores how certain groups are socially displaced, often becoming invisible in political life.
  • Reference:
    • Butler, J. (2009). Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? London: Verso.

5. Giorgio Agamben (Displacement and ‘Bare Life’)

  • Key Works:
    • H*mo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (1995)
  • Argument:
    • Agamben focuses on displacement through the concept of “bare life,” which refers to individuals stripped of their political significance and reduced to their biological existence. He links displacement to states of exception where individuals are excluded from political and social order.
  • Reference:
    • Agamben, G. (1998). Ho*o Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

6. David Harvey (Displacement and Neoliberalism)

  • Key Works:
    • A Brief History of Neoliberalism (2005)
    • The Urban Experience (1989)
  • Argument:
    • Harvey investigates how neoliberal policies lead to displacement, particularly through gentrification and urban restructuring. He argues that displacement is a necessary feature of capitalist accumulation.
  • Reference:
    • Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    • Harvey, D. (1989). The Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

7. Saskia Sassen (Globalization and Displacement)

  • Key Works:
    • Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy (2014)
    • The Global City (1991)
  • Argument:
    • Sassen analyzes how globalization displaces both people and economies. She emphasizes how the expansion of global capital leads to expulsions from land, labor markets, and social systems, intensifying displacement.
  • Reference:
    • Sassen, S. (2014). Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
    • Sassen, S. (1991). The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

8. Frantz Fanon (Colonialism and Psychological Displacement)

  • Key Works:
    • The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
    • Black Skin, White Masks (1952)
  • Argument:
    • Fanon addresses displacement not only in terms of geography but also in the psychological sphere. He argues that colonized individuals experience a deep sense of alienation and displacement from their identity due to the imposition of colonial power and culture.
  • Reference:
    • Fanon, F. (2004). The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press.
    • Fanon, F. (2008). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press.

9. Hannah Arendt (Displacement and Statelessness)

  • Key Works:
    • The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
    • We Refugees (1943)
  • Argument:
    • Arendt explores displacement through the lens of statelessness and refugee crises. She emphasizes that the loss of national belonging leaves individuals vulnerable and without legal protection, which she argues is one of the central crises of modernity.
  • Reference:
    • Arendt, H. (1973). The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
    • Arendt, H. (1994). We Refugees. In Marc Robinson (Ed.), Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. Boston: Faber and Faber.
Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Major Characteristics
Major CharacteristicDescriptionReferences
1. Physical DislocationThe forced removal or movement of individuals or groups from their geographic location, often due to political, social, or economic pressures.Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.
Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Social ExclusionDisplacement often leads to the exclusion of individuals from societal and political structures, leaving them without access to basic rights.Butler, J. (2009). Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? London: Verso.
Agamben, G. (1998). H*mo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford: Stanford UP.
3. Psychological AlienationDisplacement can create a sense of alienation and identity crisis, often due to disconnection from one’s homeland or culture.Fanon, F. (2008). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press.
Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage.
4. Economic MarginalizationDisplacement often results in economic instability, where displaced individuals are marginalized from labor markets and economic opportunities.Sassen, S. (2014). Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
5. Legal VulnerabilityDisplaced populations often lack legal recognition or citizenship, making them vulnerable to exploitation and rights violations.Arendt, H. (1973). The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
6. Gentrification and Urban RestructuringIn many urban environments, displacement is caused by gentrification, where low-income populations are forced out to make way for economic elites.Harvey, D. (1989). The Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
7. Political DisempowermentDisplacement is frequently accompanied by political disempowerment, as displaced people lose their capacity to influence political decisions.Agamben, G. (1998). Ho*o Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
8. StatelessnessMany displaced individuals become stateless, without the protection of any nation, leaving them in legal and existential limbo.Arendt, H. (1943). We Refugees. In M. Robinson (Ed.), Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. Boston: Faber and Faber.
9. Cultural DisplacementCultural identities and traditions may be eroded or transformed through displacement, leading to a loss of heritage.Said, E. W. (2001). Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Relevance in Literary Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Central to postcolonial theory, displacement addresses the consequences of colonialism, including exile, migration, and cultural dislocation.
    • It examines how colonial subjects are geographically, culturally, and psychologically displaced.
    • Emphasizes how displacement contributes to hybrid identities and the deconstruction of colonial power.
  • References:
    • Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.
    • Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. New York: Routledge.

2. Feminist Theory

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Feminist theory considers how displacement affects women and marginalized genders, focusing on the intersectionality of gender, race, and displacement.
    • It addresses the displacement of women in patriarchal societies, both spatially and socially, and critiques the marginalization of female voices.
  • References:
    • Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
    • Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

3. Marxist Literary Theory

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • In Marxist theory, displacement is closely linked to class struggle and economic exploitation. It is seen as a consequence of capitalist expansion, with proletarian populations displaced through processes like gentrification and industrialization.
    • The theory critiques how capitalist economies displace workers from their labor and homes.
  • References:
    • Harvey, D. (1989). The Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
    • Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

4. Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Psychoanalytic theory explores displacement as a psychological mechanism, where repressed desires or traumas are relocated onto alternative objects or spaces.
    • It also examines the psychological alienation caused by geographic and cultural displacement, focusing on identity and subject formation.
  • References:
    • Freud, S. (1915). Repression. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud.
    • Fanon, F. (2008). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press.

5. Structuralism and Semiotics

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Structuralist theory addresses displacement through the lens of language and sign systems. It focuses on how meanings are displaced within linguistic structures and how symbols represent multiple meanings.
    • It emphasizes the displacement of meaning across cultural texts and interpretations.
  • References:
    • Saussure, F. de (1959). Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
    • Barthes, R. (1977). Image-Music-Text. London: Fontana Press.

6. Deconstruction

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • In deconstruction, displacement is central to the process of destabilizing binary oppositions. It reveals how meanings are always deferred and displaced in texts, challenging fixed interpretations.
    • Displacement of meaning and context in literary texts is key to Derrida’s concept of “différance.”
  • References:
    • Derrida, J. (1976). Of Grammatology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
    • Culler, J. (1982). On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism After Structuralism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

7. Ecocriticism

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Ecocriticism examines displacement in relation to environmental degradation, focusing on the displacement of populations due to ecological disasters and environmental exploitation.
    • It also looks at the displacement of non-human species and ecosystems due to human intervention.
  • References:
    • Nixon, R. (2011). Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    • Buell, L. (1995). The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

8. Queer Theory

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Queer theory explores displacement in terms of sexuality and identity, addressing how LGBTQ+ individuals experience social and physical displacement in heteronormative societies.
    • It challenges the displacement of non-normative sexualities from public and private spaces.
  • References:
    • Butler, J. (1993). Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge.
    • Sedgwick, E. K. (1990). Epistemology of the Closet. Berkeley: University of California Press.

9. Diaspora Studies

  • Relevance of Displacement:
    • Diaspora studies place displacement at the core of their analysis, focusing on the experiences of dispersed populations and the formation of diasporic identities.
    • It examines how displacement influences cultural retention, hybridity, and transnational identities.
  • References:
  • Brah, A. (1996). Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. London: Routledge.
  • Gilroy, P. (1993). The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Application in Critiques
Literary Work and AuthorApplication of Displacement in CritiqueReferences (MLA)
1. Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys– Explores cultural and geographic displacement, focusing on Antoinette’s alienation from both her Caribbean heritage and her life in England.
– Postcolonial displacement is a central theme.
Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea. Andre Deutsch, 1966.
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 1, 1985, pp. 243-261.
2. The Namesake by Jhumpa Lahiri– Focuses on the displacement of immigrants and their children, emphasizing the struggles of cultural identity and belonging.
– Examines the emotional impact of displacement on identity formation.
Lahiri, Jhumpa. The Namesake. Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
Srikanth, Rajini. “Migration and Identity in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake.” College Literature, vol. 31, no. 2, 2004, pp. 179-191.
3. Beloved by Toni Morrison– Displacement is explored through the legacy of slavery, where African Americans are forcibly displaced from their homeland and culture.
– Focuses on psychological and historical displacement.
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Alfred A. Knopf, 1987.
Mbalia, Doreatha Drummond. “Toni Morrison’s Beloved: A Phenomenology of Displacement.” African American Review, vol. 25, no. 1, 1991, pp. 61-70.
4. The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy– Explores social and emotional displacement within the caste system and colonial history of India.
– Characters are displaced physically and emotionally, struggling with societal and personal exile.
Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. Random House, 1997.
Tickell, Alex. “Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things and the Politics of Displacement.” The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, vol. 38, no. 2, 2003, pp. 73-89.
Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Relevant Terms
TermDefinition
ExileThe state of being barred from one’s native country, often enforced as a consequence of political or social factors, leading to emotional and cultural displacement.
DiasporaThe dispersion of people from their original homeland, often leading to the creation of transnational identities and hybrid cultures.
HybridityA postcolonial term describing the blending of cultures and identities resulting from displacement, migration, or colonization.
AlienationThe sense of estrangement or isolation from one’s environment, culture, or identity, commonly resulting from physical or emotional displacement.
LiminalityThe state of being in-between two spaces, cultures, or identities, often a key concept in discussing the experience of displacement and transition.
SubalternA term popularized by postcolonial theory to describe groups marginalized by social, political, and economic hierarchies, often displaced from mainstream narratives.
GentrificationThe process by which urban areas are transformed to cater to wealthier populations, often resulting in the displacement of poorer communities.
MigrationThe movement of people from one place to another, often resulting in the experience of displacement and the negotiation of new identities in foreign environments.
PrecarityA condition of existence without predictability or security, affecting social, political, or economic spheres, often related to displacement and vulnerability.
Displacement in Literature (Freudian)A psychoanalytic concept where emotional conflicts or desires are shifted from their original object to another, echoing broader ideas of spatial and social displacement.
Displacement in Literature: Suggested Readings

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