“Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

“Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard appeared in 1997 in the journal The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. This work is significant in the realm of literary theory for highlighting the intersection of literature and environmental advocacy. Gaard, a key figure in ecofeminism, introduces an environmentalist perspective in literary critique, urging scholars to reassess human-nature relationships as depicted in texts. Ecocriticism examines how literature influences and reflects environmental attitudes, prompting a deeper awareness of ecological crises. The movement has reshaped literary studies, emphasizing nature’s agency, challenging anthropocentric narratives, and incorporating ethical responsibilities towards the environment.

Summary of “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Introduction

• The article reviews developments in ecocriticism from 2007-2008, identifying key shifts in the field through five major themes:
  1. Normal Science (mainstream ecocriticism)
  2. Re-enchantment (the critique of scientism)
  3. Against Nature (rethinking nature itself)
  4. Ecological Materialism (Marxist/scientific approaches)
  5. Globality/Postcoloniality (global and postcolonial perspectives)

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1. Normal Science: The Usual Practice of Ecocriticism

• Early ecocritics considered themselves politically engaged environmentalists. Their identity involved balancing environmental consciousness with “largely helpless participation in consumerism and professional academic life.”
• A focus of ecocriticism has been non-fictional nature writing, previously dismissed in literary studies. It was used to challenge “a biophobic, ecocidal Western culture.”
• Like feminist criticism, ecocriticism critiques representations of nature and creates “its own canon of ecopoets.”
• Example: David Whitley’s analysis of Disney films demonstrates how popular media, such as Bambi and Finding Nemo, combine environmentalist themes with sanitized or anthropomorphic portrayals of nature. Whitley acknowledges Disney’s “massively anthropomorphic feature animations,” calling attention to the “disnification” of animals while still defending the sentiment in children’s films.

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2. Re-enchantment: The Argument Against ‘Scientism’

• This section explores the rejection of rationalist, reductionist science, advocating for a materialist spirituality. Val Plumwood’s work stands out as she promotes a “re-enchantment or re-enspiriting of the realm designated material.”
• Plumwood challenges the view of matter as inert, arguing instead for reclaiming “agency and intentionality for matter” through engaging with non-scientific ways of knowing.
• She critiques “bullying concepts and jargon, such as anthropomorphism,” which she sees as reducing the richness of human-environment interactions.
• Patrick Curry adds to this discussion, asserting that modernist rationalization has contributed to the ongoing ecological crisis by commodifying the natural world. He proposes a return to “neo-animist re-enchantment” to counter the disenchantment of nature.

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3. Against Nature: The Ecocritical Challenge to Extant Ideas of Nature

• Timothy Morton’sEcology without Nature leads the critique of traditional ecocriticism, arguing for the removal of the concept of nature altogether. Morton sees mainstream environmental literature as “romantic consumerism.”
  • He critiques nature writing (or “ecomimesis”) as inherently flawed, as it perpetuates consumerist ideals even when attempting to evoke nature. His thesis is that “environmentalisms in general are consumerist.”
  • Morton deconstructs the use of nature in literature, suggesting that efforts to represent the presence of nature only create more writing, deepening our distance from the natural world: “ecomimesis cannot achieve escape velocity from writing itself.”
• Morton’s radical claim that nature and consumerism are intertwined unsettles the field of ecocriticism, as he argues for an “ecocritique” that moves beyond nature as a literary or cultural concept.

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4. Ecological Materialism: Marxist and Scientific Approaches

• Raymond Williams’ work on ecocriticism through a Marxist lens focuses on integrating empirical knowledge with flexible theoretical constructs. John Parham highlights how Williams’ ideas contribute to “a humanist, ecological socialism.”
• This tradition contrasts with American environmentalism, which often lacks class consciousness, offering a different ecological outlook: “environmental politics questions the anthropocentric bias of conventional delineations of ‘the polis’.”
• Kate Soper promotes “alternative hedonism,” arguing for a cultural shift towards sustainable pleasures that challenge consumerism. She calls for a “reordering whereby commodities once perceived as enticingly glamorous” are seen as ugly due to their environmental impacts.
• Adrian Ivakhiv argues for a more comprehensive materialist analysis of film in his essay on eco-cinecriticism, linking film production with its ecological impacts. He calls for an eco-cinecriticism based on the “cultural circulation model” that examines both the content and production processes of films.

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5. Globality/Postcoloniality: The Intersection of Ecocriticism and Postcolonialism

• Ursula Heise’s Sense of Place and Sense of Planet advocates for a shift from local environmentalism to “eco-cosmopolitanism.” She challenges the bioregional focus of earlier ecocriticism by calling for attention to global ecological networks: “what is crucial for ecological awareness . . . is not so much a sense of place as a sense of planet.”
• Heise critiques the overemphasis on localism in ecocriticism, suggesting that it often stems from privilege, as “it is affluence and education that foster bioregional resistance.”
• Graham Huggan explores how postcolonial ecocriticism examines the legacies of imperialism in ecological mismanagement. He highlights the inseparability of “current crises of ecological mismanagement from historical legacies of imperialistic exploitation.”
• Rob Nixon’s work identifies tensions between postcolonialism and ecocriticism, such as the contrast between postcolonial hybridity and ecocritical purism. He calls for a nuanced understanding of environmental politics in the Global South, stressing the complex interactions between postcolonial critiques and environmental advocacy.

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6. Additional Key Contributions

• Scott Slovic emphasizes the personal and political nature of ecocriticism, advocating for “narrative scholarship” that blends autobiographical reflection with political critique. He stresses the need to link ecological awareness with sensory experience: “ecopoetry and nature writing guide us to pay deeper attention to our physical senses.”
• Annette Kolodny offers a historical perspective on indigenous environmental knowledge, arguing that Native American authors have long used environmentalist discourse for political advocacy, predating modern ecocritical theory.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Application in Ecocriticism
Ecocriticism	The study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of nature and culture, often advocating for ecological responsibility.	Ecocriticism critiques literary representations of nature, challenges anthropocentric views, and proposes eco-conscious readings of texts.
Anthropocentrism	A human-centered viewpoint that places humanity at the center of concerns, often at the expense of the environment.	Ecocriticism challenges anthropocentrism by emphasizing non-human agency and advocating for more biocentric or ecocentric approaches to literary studies.
Ecopoetics	A term preferred by some scholars (e.g., Jonathan Bate) over ecocriticism, referring to the study of literature’s engagement with environmental issues through form, structure, and language.	Ecopoetics focuses on how poetry and literature formally express ecological awareness, offering alternative representations of nature and environmental concerns.
Environmental Justice	A movement that seeks to address the inequitable distribution of environmental benefits and harms, particularly as they relate to marginalized communities.	In literature, environmental justice critiques often intersect with ecocriticism by addressing issues of race, class, gender, and their relationship to environmental exploitation or degradation.
Nature Writing	A genre of non-fiction literature that focuses on the natural world, typically celebrating its beauty and advocating for its protection.	Nature writing is often central to ecocritical analysis, though some scholars critique its idealized, pastoral representations of nature that overlook human impacts and complex ecological realities.
Bioregionalism	A movement that emphasizes living sustainably within a specific ecological region, advocating for deep knowledge and care of the local environment.	Bioregionalism in ecocriticism explores how literature represents place and promotes local environmental activism. Writers are seen as advocating for a deep sense of place and ecological responsibility within their specific regions.
Deep Ecology	A philosophical perspective that calls for a fundamental restructuring of human relationships with nature, advocating for intrinsic value in all living beings beyond their utility to humans.	Ecocriticism often draws on deep ecology to challenge exploitative attitudes towards the environment, promoting texts that reflect respect for nature’s inherent worth.
Posthumanism	A theoretical framework that challenges the primacy of the human subject in favor of recognizing the agency of non-human entities, including animals, plants, and ecosystems.	In ecocriticism, posthumanism informs readings of texts that decentralize human characters and explore the agency and voices of the natural world or non-human species.
Ecomimesis	A term used to describe literary efforts to mimic or represent the natural world as closely as possible.	Ecocritics analyze how ecomimesis is used in literature to evoke a sense of being “in” nature, often critiquing its romanticized representations.
Ecofeminism	An interdisciplinary approach that links feminism and ecology, highlighting the interconnected exploitation of women and nature.	Ecofeminist literary criticism explores how patriarchy and capitalism exploit both women and the environment, advocating for the liberation of both.
Green Romanticism	A literary and philosophical movement that romanticizes nature as a source of purity, beauty, and spiritual renewal.	Ecocritics critique Green Romanticism for sometimes overlooking ecological complexities and promoting simplistic, pastoral views of nature. However, it also contributes to environmental consciousness in literature.
Re-enchantment	A concept promoting the re-spiritualization or re-mystification of nature, countering the disenchantment brought about by modern science and rationalism.	Ecocritics like Val Plumwood advocate for re-enchantment as a way to counter scientific reductionism and promote a deeper emotional and spiritual connection with nature in literature.

Contribution of “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Feminist Theory

• Ecofeminism: Garrard integrates feminist approaches with ecological criticism, emphasizing the interconnectedness between the oppression of women and nature. He draws from influential figures like Val Plumwood to critique the “mastery of nature” (Garrard, 2010).
  • Reference: “The trajectory that links her [Val Plumwood’s] early work on environmental values… culminated in a work of narrative scholarship presented at an ASLE-UK conference, ‘Journey to the Heart of Stone’” (Garrard, 2010, p. 7).

2. Postcolonial Theory

• Global Ecocriticism: Garrard connects postcolonialism with environmental justice, revealing how ecocriticism intersects with global environmental issues. He highlights the ecological implications of colonial exploitation.
  • Reference: “The globalization of ecocriticism… sees the interaction of ecocriticism and postcolonialism… the inseparability of current crises of ecological mismanagement from historical legacies of imperialistic exploitation and abuse” (Garrard, 2010, p. 29).

3. Marxist Theory

• Ecological Materialism: Drawing from Marxist theory, Garrard introduces ecological materialism to critique capitalism’s role in environmental destruction. He addresses the environmental consequences of economic exploitation and class struggles.
  • Reference: “Back in the 1980s… Raymond Williams would apparently become irritated with fellow Marxists who could only cite ‘nature’ in prophylactic scare quotes, so certain were they of its wholly socially constructed, reactionary character” (Garrard, 2010, p. 16).

4. Queer Theory

• Queer Ecocriticism: Garrard explores the intersection of queer theory and ecocriticism, challenging heteronormative assumptions within environmental discourse. He critiques the exclusion of queer perspectives from ecological discussions.
  • Reference: “There is a great deal more that might be reviewed under the rubric ‘Against Nature’: the advent of queer ecology, animal studies, and the continuing development of posthumanist thought” (Garrard, 2010, p. 15).

5. Phenomenology

• Embodiment and Environment: Garrard discusses how phenomenology can enhance ecocriticism by focusing on embodied experiences of the environment, drawing on the work of theorists like Merleau-Ponty and Heidegger to discuss human interaction with nature.
  • Reference: “Louise Westling… argues for the ‘chiasmic’ intertwining of ‘embodiment’ and the ‘flesh of the world’” (Garrard, 2010, p. 4).

6. Deconstruction

• Deconstruction of Nature: Garrard engages with deconstructionist methods to critique traditional notions of “nature,” exposing how cultural constructions of nature uphold anthropocentric hierarchies. He analyzes Timothy Morton’s Ecology without Nature in this context.
  • Reference: “Morton exemplifies the claim in nifty and memorable style by deconstructing a cliché, prevalent in ecomimetic writing… ecomimesis ‘cannot achieve escape velocity from writing itself’” (Garrard, 2010, p. 11).

7. Cultural Studies

• Representation of Nature in Media: Garrard explores how nature is represented in media, critiquing works like Disney films for anthropomorphizing nature. This contributes to cultural studies by revealing the ideological work of environmental representations.
  • Reference: “Whitley presents his analysis unapologetically… a delightful example of the former is David Whitley’s The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation” (Garrard, 2010, p. 2).

8. Environmental Ethics

• Re-enchantment and Ethics: Garrard critiques the disenchantment brought by scientism and argues for a re-enchantment of the material world through ethical ecological relationships. He draws on Patrick Curry’s work on nature’s moral value.
  • Reference: “Patrick Curry… has picked up the torch from Plumwood, claiming in ‘Nature Post-Nature’… for neo-animist re-enchantment” (Garrard, 2010, p. 8).

9. Posthumanism

• Critique of Anthropocentrism: Garrard’s engagement with posthumanist theory deconstructs anthropocentrism, exploring the agency of non-human entities and how ecological criticism can move beyond human-centered narratives.
  • Reference: “Morton’s ethic of estrangement coincides powerfully… with the anti-identitarian ecocriticisms developed by Catriona Mortimer-Sandilands, Ursula Heise, and others” (Garrard, 2010, p. 13).

Examples of Critiques Through “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Work	Ecocritical Critique	Reference from the Article
Disney’s Pocahontas	Critiques the romanticized representation of Native Americans and their relationship with nature, highlighting Disney’s commodification of animals and idealizing of indigenous animism. The transformation of wild animals into pets is seen as a harmful reinforcement of consumer culture.	“The transformation of wild animals into the equivalent of pets and accessories is sanctioned in Pocahontas by the supposedly Indian notion…” (Gaard, 2010, p. 87)
Finding Nemo	Highlights the combination of environmental advocacy and anthropomorphism in the representation of marine life, yet notes how compromises (e.g., avoiding clownfish biology) show selective ecological representation and prioritize sentimental appeal over accuracy.	“The animators for Finding Nemo expended tremendous effort getting the reef just right, but balked at the zoologically realistic option…” (Gaard, 2010, p. 2)
Bambi	Acknowledges the film’s contribution to a generation of conservationists while criticizing the sanitization of forest life. The film simplifies the complexities of forest ecosystems and contributes to a sentimental view of nature detached from ecological realities.	“Bambi (which inspired a generation of conservationists even as it thoroughly sanitized the forest)…” (Gaard, 2010, p. 2)
The Hungry Tide by Amitav Ghosh	Examines how Ghosh’s novel intertwines ecological and postcolonial critiques, highlighting the environmental degradation and social displacement in the Sundarbans, focusing on how ecological conservation efforts often conflict with the needs of marginalized human populations.	“The distinctive topography of the Sundarbans… embodies the duality of nature in its transhistoricity and mutability” (Gaard, 2010, pp. 126-127)

Criticism Against “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Representative Quotations from “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Ecocriticism has at once critiqued ‘representations of nature’ and proposed its own canon of ecopoets.”	Ecocriticism challenges traditional literary depictions of nature while simultaneously advocating for a new literary tradition that emphasizes ecological awareness. This dual role positions ecocriticism as both analytical and creative.
“Disney’s animated features make a play for our feelings; inventing animals with exaggerated features that enhance their cuteness.”	This critique highlights how Disney anthropomorphizes animals to appeal emotionally to audiences, often distorting real nature. It illustrates how popular media can create sentimentalized, unrealistic portrayals of nature.
“Ecopoetry and nature writing guide us to pay deeper attention to our physical senses and enables us to appreciate our own embeddedness in the world.”	This reflects the central goal of ecopoetry and nature writing in fostering a more profound sensory and ecological connection between humans and the natural world, emphasizing personal and ecological integration.
“The environmentalist ambitions of ecocriticism have always and will always be vulnerable.”	This recognizes the challenges ecocriticism faces in making tangible ecological changes, despite its theoretical and literary contributions to environmental advocacy. It points out the limits of scholarship in effecting real-world ecological impact.
“Narrative scholarship blends autobiographical reflection, political critique and cultural analysis.”	This describes a style of scholarship within ecocriticism that combines personal narrative with critical analysis, promoting a more experiential and engaged approach to literary and environmental criticism.
“Bringing people (especially students) to their senses” through literature is critical to developing a responsible relationship with the environment.”	This underscores the importance of education in ecocriticism, advocating for literature’s role in awakening ecological awareness in readers, particularly students, to foster environmental responsibility.
“Green consumerism is only one kind of environmental consumerism. Environmentalisms in general are consumerist.”	This challenges the perception that environmentalism is outside the consumer culture, arguing instead that many forms of environmentalism, including green consumerism, are part of the broader consumerist framework.
“A walk through sage and rabbitbrush… may be well worth the cost” in re-engaging with nature.”	This highlights the personal value ecocriticism places on direct experiences in nature, suggesting that even in a world dominated by consumerism, reconnecting with the natural environment can offer significant personal and ecological benefits.
“Poetry… can be seen as ‘narcissistic, eroticized, endowed with natural magic…’”	This quotation explores the aesthetic and emotional power of poetry in ecocriticism, where poetry’s rhythms and visceral elements evoke a deep connection between human emotion and the natural world.
“It is unclear what contribution phenomenology made in the first place.”	This points out a critique within ecocriticism regarding the limitations of phenomenology in offering concrete solutions to ecological problems, questioning the practical value of certain theoretical approaches.

Suggested Readings: “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

1. Gaard, Greta. “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 17, no. 4, 2010, pp. 643–65. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44087661. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
2. Arnold, Jean, et al. “Forum on Literatures of the Environment.” PMLA, vol. 114, no. 5, 1999, pp. 1089–104. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/463468. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
3. Garrard, Greg. “Ecocriticism.” Keywords for Environmental Studies, edited by Joni Adamson et al., vol. 3, NYU Press, 2016, pp. 61–64. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt15zc5kw.24. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
4. Gaard, Greta. “Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism.” Feminist Formations, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, pp. 26–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41301655
5. . Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
6. Gaard, Greta. “Green, Pink, and Lavender: Banishing Ecophobia through Queer Ecologies, Review of Queer Ecologies: Sex, Nature, Politics, Desire, Catriona Mortimer-Sandilands and Bruce Erickson, Eds.” Ethics and the Environment, vol. 16, no. 2, 2011, pp. 115–26. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2979/ethicsenviro.16.2.115. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.