“Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether

“Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether first appeared in DEP (No. 20, 2012) and serves as a seminal text in ecofeminist theological discourse, exploring the intricate intersections between environmental and gender justice. Ruether critiques the traditional Christian theological system, tracing its roots in Greco-Roman and Hebrew thought, and illuminates how these traditions perpetuate a hierarchical worldview that subjugates women, nature, and marginalized groups. Ruether contends that ecofeminism necessitates a fundamental reevaluation of Christian cosmology, moving beyond dualistic notions that elevate the male-identified soul over the female-identified body and enshrine human dominion over nature. Her work challenges patriarchal constructs within theology, proposing an egalitarian framework that emphasizes interdependence among all life forms and advocates for ecological and social sustainability. Ruether’s arguments underscore ecofeminism’s pivotal role in contemporary literary theory and religious studies, inviting a reimagining of ethical imperatives toward both environmental stewardship and social justice. This text remains influential in academic discussions, advocating for a theology rooted in holistic interconnectedness that resists domination and cultivates mutual care among humans and the Earth.

Summary of “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether

• Roots of Patriarchal Theology: Ruether begins by tracing Christian theology to its roots in Ancient Near Eastern, Greek, and Hebrew thought, emphasizing how these origins established a patriarchal worldview that permeates theological doctrines (Ruether, p. 23). She explains that law codes and creation myths from this era justified a hierarchy where men dominated women, slaves, animals, and land as property, supporting a system of patriarchal slavocracies (Ruether, p. 23).
• Critique of Male-Dominated Theology: Ruether critiques how Christian theology, influenced by Platonic dualism, upholds a male-identified soul over the female-associated body (Ruether, p. 24). She points to Augustine’s writings, which describe women as inherently more prone to sin, thus needing male control, a view perpetuated by mainline Reformers like Luther and Calvin (Ruether, pp. 26-27).
• Emergence of Egalitarian Theologies: Despite this patriarchal foundation, Ruether highlights instances of egalitarian theologies emerging, such as those promoted by Quaker and abolitionist feminists in the 17th and 19th centuries (Ruether, p. 27). These movements challenged the doctrine of male domination and advocated for original and restored equality between genders, critiquing male-dominated interpretations of Scripture (Ruether, p. 28).
• Intersection of Feminism and Ecology: Ruether defines ecofeminism as a framework that examines the interconnections between the domination of women and nature (Ruether, p. 23). She argues that ecofeminism challenges not only gender inequalities but also broader patriarchal cosmology, which justifies human domination over the Earth (Ruether, p. 29). Ecofeminism seeks to reconstruct theology by promoting an inclusive perspective where humans are interconnected with all life forms (Ruether, p. 30).
• The Ethical Imperatives of Ecofeminism: Ruether emphasizes two competing ethical imperatives: the call to sustainability and the preferential option for the poor (Ruether, p. 32). She argues that an ecofeminist perspective must balance ecological sustainability with social justice, advocating for a worldview of mutual limitation and reciprocal life-giving rather than domination (Ruether, p. 33).
• Redefining the Divine through Ecofeminism: In challenging patriarchal conceptions of God, Ruether suggests that ecofeminism views God as an immanent source of life, rejecting an anthropomorphic and male-centric image (Ruether, p. 32). She sees this Trinitarian God as relational, symbolizing interrelational creativity and harmony across all levels of reality (Ruether, pp. 32-33).
• Ecofeminist Christology: Ruether questions traditional messianic myths in Christianity, suggesting instead that Jesus embodies Holy Wisdom, calling for an inclusive community of shared love (Ruether, p. 32). She interprets Jesus’ life and teachings as anti-messianic, challenging systems of oppression and domination rather than reinforcing them (Ruether, p. 33).
• Towards a Vision of Mutual Flourishing: Ruether concludes with a call for an ecofeminist theology that champions mutual flourishing among humans and the natural world. She argues that revelation is found in nature and history, and stresses the need for an ethic of sustainability and justice to form a vision where God’s presence is immanent in sustaining life’s interconnected processes (Ruether, p. 34).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference in Text
Ecofeminism	A framework examining the interconnected domination of women and nature, advocating for the dismantling of patriarchal systems.	“Ecofeminism or ecological feminism examines the interconnections between the domination of women and the domination of nature.” (p. 23)
Patriarchal Cosmology	A worldview structuring society in a hierarchical order with male dominance over women, nature, and marginalized groups.	“This system of domination… shaped socially, ideological tools were constructed to ratify it as a reflection of the ‘nature of things.'” (p. 23)
Dualism	The division of mind (male-associated) and body (female-associated) as separate, often positioning one as superior to the other.	“This dualism of soul and body must be rejected, as well as the assumptions of the priority… of male-identified mind over female-identified body.” (p. 30)
Theological Anthropology	A theological concept of human nature that explores the image of God in human beings, traditionally shaped by patriarchal assumptions.	“The Genesis story… a potent basis for an egalitarian view of all humans as equal in God’s image.” (p. 25)
Trinitarian Relationality	A redefined concept of the Trinity in ecofeminism, symbolizing relational creativity and interconnectedness rather than a hierarchical order.	“The Trinitarian God as sustaining, redeeming matrix of cosmic, planetary, social and personal life is Sophia: Holy Wisdom.” (p. 32)
Messianic Myth	Traditional belief in a savior figure who will deliver victims from oppression, questioned in ecofeminism for reinforcing cycles of dominance.	“Gebara questions the messianic myth of a heroic warrior… coupled with the thirst for revenge.” (p. 32)
Preferential Option for the Poor	An ethical imperative that prioritizes the needs of the marginalized and oppressed within the framework of justice and sustainability.	“Two revelatory words come… the call to sustainability and the call to preferential option for the poor.” (p. 32)
Hermeneutics of Nature	A method of interpretation that places equal importance on understanding God through natural revelation as well as historical scriptures.	“We read (and critique) our historical scriptures in the light of the book of nature.” (p. 33)
Sophia Theology	A theological framework viewing wisdom (Sophia) as an immanent, relational presence of God, promoting interconnected life rather than dominion.	“The name of the Trinitarian God… sustaining, redeeming matrix… is Sophia: Holy Wisdom.” (p. 32)
Sin and Han	“Sin” as a distortion causing domination and exploitation, and “han” (from Korean theology) as the experience of suffering and victimization.	“This system of domination and distortion which is sin, as distinct from tragedy and death… are natural and inevitable.” (p. 30)

Contribution of “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether to Literary Theory/Theories

• Ecofeminist Theory: Ruether’s work is foundational in ecofeminist theory, exploring the interconnections between patriarchal domination of women and nature. This framework encourages readers to critique traditional narratives that justify hierarchical control and propose a worldview rooted in mutual interdependence and respect (p. 23). She illustrates this through critiques of creation myths that reinforce male-dominant cosmologies (p. 23).
• Postcolonial Theory: By examining theological texts as tools of ideological domination, Ruether addresses how religious doctrines historically supported the subjugation of marginalized groups. Her analysis of patriarchal systems as “slavocracies” parallels postcolonial theory’s focus on power, oppression, and liberation (p. 23).
• Gender Studies and Feminist Theory: Ruether’s critique of patriarchal anthropology and dualistic gender constructs offers significant insights into gender studies and feminist theory. She argues that traditional theology often elevates the male as rational and virtuous while associating femininity with sin and the body (pp. 24-26). Her call for a non-gendered, relational concept of divinity challenges historical norms and supports feminist re-interpretations of canonical texts (p. 32).
• Reader-Response Theory and Hermeneutics: Ruether’s ecofeminist lens advocates for an interpretative approach to theology that considers natural and historical experiences as sources of revelation. This hermeneutics of nature enriches reader-response theory by inviting readers to re-evaluate sacred texts through ecological and gender-conscious perspectives (p. 33).
• Liberation Theology: By emphasizing the “preferential option for the poor” and critiquing the alignment of theology with ruling classes, Ruether’s work intersects with liberation theology, which seeks to uplift marginalized voices (p. 32). Her focus on justice, egalitarianism, and ecological balance aligns with the core principles of liberation theology that emphasize practical, justice-oriented spirituality (p. 27).
• Queer Theory and Non-Binary Interpretations: Ruether’s rejection of dualistic gender constructs in Christian theology contributes to queer theory by challenging binary gender assignments and traditional patriarchal structures. Her advocacy for a genderless and relational image of God (p. 30) opens theological discourse to non-binary and inclusive perspectives, aligning with queer theory’s deconstruction of rigid identity categories.
• Social Ecology: Her work advocates for reimagining humanity’s relationship with nature, which contributes to social ecology—a theory that examines social structures and environmental impacts. Ruether’s ecofeminist theology positions humans as co-participants rather than dominators of the Earth (p. 30), promoting a vision of harmony that challenges exploitative systems.

Examples of Critiques Through “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether

Literary Work	Ecofeminist Critique	Reference to Ruether’s Concepts
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein	The male scientist’s attempt to dominate nature and “play God” reflects patriarchal dominance over the natural world, symbolizing an exploitative view of creation.	Ruether critiques humanity’s exploitative stance toward nature (p. 30)
Shakespeare’s The Tempest	Prospero’s control over the island and enslavement of Caliban can be seen as colonial and patriarchal domination over both land and indigenous beings.	Parallels Ruether’s view of dominion as rooted in patriarchy (p. 23)
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	The depiction of Eve as responsible for the Fall aligns with traditional theological views that blame women for sin, supporting patriarchy through gender hierarchy.	Reflects Ruether’s critique of gendered sin narratives (p. 26)
Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights	Heathcliff’s destructive impact on the moors and his domineering relationships with women reflect exploitation of both women and nature as connected oppressions.	Reflects Ruether’s link between environmental and gender exploitation (p. 23)
Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter	Hester Prynne’s punishment reflects patriarchal moral judgments that target women’s bodies while absolving men’s involvement, paralleling gendered sin constructs.	Illustrates Ruether’s critique of gendered sin and control (p. 27)
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	The colonial exploitation of the Congo and the dehumanization of indigenous people echo imperial, patriarchal attitudes toward nature and others as “resources.”	Aligns with Ruether’s critique of colonial “slavocracies” (p. 23)
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	The legacy of slavery’s violence on Sethe and her family highlights systemic patriarchal violence over both land and women, showing the enduring effects of oppression.	Supports Ruether’s analysis of historical exploitation systems (p. 23)
Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale	The use of women as reproductive “resources” reflects patriarchal, utilitarian views of women, aligning with ecofeminist critiques of gendered exploitation.	Reflects Ruether’s gender critique within patriarchal systems (p. 27)
William Golding’s Lord of the Flies	The descent into violence on the island shows a patriarchal, domineering relationship with nature, where control devolves into chaos without mutual respect.	Echoes Ruether’s call for a non-dominating view of nature (p. 30)

Criticism Against “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether

• Overemphasis on Patriarchal Dualism: Critics argue that Ruether’s focus on dualistic structures (such as male/female and mind/body) may oversimplify the complexities within theological and literary traditions, potentially overlooking nuanced understandings of gender and spirituality in these texts.
• Limited Inclusivity of Diverse Feminist Perspectives: Some suggest that Ruether’s framework primarily reflects Western feminist theology, which may not fully encompass ecofeminist perspectives from non-Western, Indigenous, or other culturally specific feminist movements.
• Reductionist View of Theological Traditions: Ruether’s critique of Christian theology’s patriarchal roots can be seen as reductionist, with some arguing that her analysis of theological doctrines (such as original sin) does not consider historical contexts where these beliefs evolved with complex social and cultural influences.
• Potentially Idealistic Vision of Ecofeminism: Critics point out that Ruether’s vision of a harmonious, egalitarian society based on mutual respect for all life may appear overly idealistic, as it does not fully address practical challenges in achieving such systemic changes, particularly within entrenched societal and religious structures.
• Ambiguity in Reconstructing Theological Concepts: Ruether’s ecofeminist reinterpretations of the Trinity, sin, and salvation are sometimes criticized as lacking theological clarity or being too abstract, which can make her ecofeminist theology difficult to apply in practical religious contexts.
• Insufficient Address of Scientific Perspectives on Ecology: While Ruether emphasizes ecological interconnectedness, some critics feel her work lacks engagement with contemporary ecological science, which could add depth to her theological claims regarding environmental ethics and sustainability.
• Focus on Gender at the Expense of Broader Intersectional Analysis: Ruether’s framework is often critiqued for emphasizing gendered oppression without fully integrating other intersecting factors such as race, class, or economic systems that also contribute to environmental and social injustices.

Representative Quotations from “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Ecofeminism or ecological feminism examines the interconnections between the domination of women and the domination of nature.” (p. 23)	Ruether defines ecofeminism as a framework that critiques the simultaneous exploitation of women and nature by patriarchal systems, emphasizing that these forms of oppression are linked and must be addressed together for effective change.
“The system of domination of women itself was rooted in a larger patriarchal hierarchical system… to monopolize wealth, power and knowledge.” (p. 23)	Here, Ruether highlights the origins of gender oppression in ancient patriarchy, arguing that male-dominated structures aim to consolidate power over people and nature, setting the stage for ecofeminist critiques of contemporary society.
“This dualism of soul and body must be rejected, as well as the assumptions of the priority and controlling role of male-identified mind over female-identified body.” (p. 30)	Ruether critiques the male/female and mind/body dualisms that historically devalue femininity and nature, advocating for an integrated view of self and consciousness that rejects hierarchical control.
“Patriarchal cosmology… continues the presuppositions that the soul is an ontological substance separable from the body.” (p. 24)	This statement criticizes traditional theology’s tendency to separate soul and body, which Ruether argues reinforces control over women and nature by prioritizing a disembodied male spirit over embodied female nature.
“The call to sustainability and the call to preferential option for the poor.” (p. 32)	Ruether identifies two central ethical imperatives in ecofeminist theology, suggesting that social and ecological sustainability must be balanced with justice for the marginalized, illustrating her intersectional approach.
“We are finite sparks of self-conscious life who arose from earth and return to it at death.” (p. 30)	She describes human life as part of a cyclical, interdependent process, challenging ideas of separation and control, and embracing an ecological worldview that connects human fate to that of the Earth.
“Instead of modeling God after male ruling class consciousness… God in ecofeminist spirituality is the immanent source of life.” (p. 32)	Ruether redefines God in ecofeminist terms as an immanent, nurturing presence, moving away from a patriarchal image of God as an authoritarian male figure and emphasizing relationality and interconnectedness.
“Jesus instead stands as an anti-messiah calling us to rediscover the community of equals.” (p. 32)	In reinterpreting Jesus as the “anti-messiah,” Ruether challenges traditional messianic concepts that promote domination and instead presents Jesus as a figure of equality, fostering non-hierarchical community.
“Our consciousness did not fall from a heaven outside the earth and will not escape outside of it into an eternal life.” (p. 30)	Ruether counters traditional Christian beliefs in a separate afterlife, affirming that human existence and destiny are inherently tied to Earth, thus calling for a spirituality grounded in ecological stewardship.
“The Trinitarian God as sustaining, redeeming matrix of cosmic, planetary, social and personal life is Sophia: Holy Wisdom.” (p. 32)	Ruether reimagines the Trinity as Sophia, or Holy Wisdom, symbolizing divine presence in relational, life-sustaining ways, representing ecofeminism’s departure from hierarchical, patriarchal depictions of God.

Suggested Readings: “Ecofeminism – The Challenge to Theology” by Rosemary Radford Ruether

1. Eaton, Heather. “An Earth-Centric Theological Framing for Planetary Solidarity.” Planetary Solidarity: Global Women’s Voices on Christian Doctrine and Climate Justice, edited by Grace Ji-Sun Kim and Hilda P. Koster, 1517 Media, 2017, pp. 19–44. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1pwt42b.7. Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.
2. Eppinger, Priscilla E. “Christian Ecofeminism as Kenotic Ecology: Transforming Relationships Away from Environmental Stewardship.” Journal for the Study of Religion, vol. 24, no. 2, 2011, pp. 47–63. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24764284. Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.
3. Rodríguez, Rubén Rosario. “HUMAN UNIQUENESS, DIVINE INTERRELATIONALITY, AND THE HOPE OF ECOFEMINIST THEOLOGY.” World Christianity and Ecological Theologies, edited by Raimundo C. Barreto et al., vol. 6, 1517 Media, 2024, pp. 175–96. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.12949112.14. Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.
4. Grey, Mary. “Ecofeminism and Christian Theology.” The Furrow, vol. 51, no. 9, 2000, pp. 481–90. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27664137. Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.