Introduction: “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell
“Ecofeminism: What One Needs to Know” by Nancy R. Howell first appeared in 1997 in the Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science. The article explores the intersections between feminist theory and ecological concerns, emphasizing the link between the domination of women and the domination of nature. Howell argues that social and intellectual transformations are essential for ecological survival and that ecofeminism challenges traditional dualistic and hierarchical modes of thought. By integrating ecology with feminist religious and ethical perspectives, Howell highlights the importance of recognizing diversity and non-hierarchical relationships in both social and ecological systems. The paper is significant in literature and literary theory as it extends feminist critiques of patriarchy to include environmental exploitation, thus enriching discussions on intersectionality, cultural narratives, and the role of ideology in the oppression of both women and nature. Howell’s work contributes to ecofeminist thought by providing a comprehensive theoretical framework that bridges science, religion, and activism.
Summary of “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell
- Definition of Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism links feminist theory with ecological concerns, focusing on the parallel between the domination of women and nature.
“Ecofeminism refers to feminist theory and activism informed by ecology. Ecofeminism is concerned with connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature.” - Historical Context and Origins
Ecofeminism emerged in the 1970s feminist movement, with the term coined by Françoise d’Eaubonne in 1974.
“Ecofeminism emerged as part of the 1970s feminist movement and took its name from Françoise d’Eaubonne’s term ecofeminisme, which appeared in 1974.” - Key Ecofeminist Theorists
Howell references notable ecofeminists such as Rosemary Radford Ruether, Janis Birkeland, and Carol J. Adams, who explore the interconnectedness of gender oppression and environmental degradation.
“Ecofeminism brings together these two explorations of ecology and feminism, in their full, or deep forms, and explores how male domination of women and domination of nature are interconnected.” - Social and Intellectual Transformation
Howell argues that ecofeminism calls for both social and intellectual transformation to dismantle hierarchical systems and promote non-violence, equality, and cultural diversity.
“A first presupposition and expectation of ecofeminism is that social transformation is necessary for the sake of survival and justice.” - Critique of Dualism and Hierarchies
The ecofeminist perspective challenges traditional dualisms (e.g., culture/nature, male/female) and hierarchies, which justify the subjugation of women and nature.
“Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, human/animal, subjectivity/object.” - Integration of Science and Religion
Howell highlights the ecofeminist effort to integrate scientific and religious perspectives, advocating for a holistic understanding of nature and human relationships.
“Ecofeminism is engaged in the critical and constructive tasks of integrating science and religion toward ecofeminist praxis.” - Diverse Ecofeminist Traditions
The article examines different strands of ecofeminism, including North American Christian ecofeminism, womanist theology, Native American ecofeminism, and Third World ecofeminism.
“Examples of religious or spiritual ecofeminisms are North American Christian ecofeminism, neopagan Wiccan ecofeminism, Native American ecofeminism, and Third World ecofeminism.” - Constructive Ecofeminist Perspectives
Howell discusses constructive ecofeminist models, like those of Rosemary Radford Ruether and Sallie McFague, who propose new theological frameworks that view the cosmos holistically.
“Ruether’s theocosmology sketches an ecofeminist theology of nature indebted to the creation spirituality of Matthew Fox.”
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell
| Literary Term/Concept | Explanation | Example/Quotation |
| Ecofeminism | A movement that combines ecological concerns with feminist theory, emphasizing the connection between the exploitation of nature and the oppression of women. | “Ecofeminism refers to feminist theory and activism informed by ecology. Ecofeminism is concerned with connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature.” |
| Dualism | The division of something conceptually into two opposed or contrasted aspects, often criticized by ecofeminists for perpetuating hierarchies (e.g., male/female, culture/nature). | “Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, human/animal, subjectivity/object.” |
| Patriarchy | A system of society or government in which men hold power and women are largely excluded; often blamed by ecofeminists for ecological and gender exploitation. | “D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment’…” |
| Hierarchy | A system in which members of society or elements in nature are ranked one above the other, criticized in ecofeminism for justifying domination and exploitation. | “Ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature from the perspective of human social models.” |
| Interconnectedness | The idea that all living things are interconnected and that human survival and ecological justice depend on recognizing this relationship. | “An ecological perspective makes it difficult to maintain with certainty that nature is organized hierarchically; ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature.” |
| Intrinsic Value | The belief that nature holds inherent worth beyond its utility to humans, a core principle in ecofeminist thought. | “Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.” |
| Biocentrism | A worldview that centers the importance of all living organisms, not just humans, and opposes human-centered (anthropocentric) views of nature. | “A biocentric view rejects hierarchy and the human illusion that it is possible to manage or control nature.” |
| Social Transformation | The process of fundamental societal change, advocated by ecofeminists to achieve ecological sustainability and gender equality. | “Social transformation must reassess and reconstruct values and relations toward equality, cultural diversity, and nonviolence.” |
| Religious Pluralism | The acceptance of multiple religious perspectives, which is significant in ecofeminism as it integrates diverse spiritual and cultural beliefs in environmental activism. | “Ecofeminism is a cross-cultural and plural movement inclusive of Third World, feminist, and plural religious perspectives.” |
| Theocosmology | A theological concept developed by ecofeminists like Rosemary Radford Ruether, which emphasizes the interrelationship between God and the cosmos. | “Ruether’s theocosmology sketches an ecofeminist theology of nature indebted to the creation spirituality of Matthew Fox.” |
Contribution of “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell to Literary Theory/Theories
- Challenging Patriarchal Literary Structures
The article critiques patriarchal systems in literature and society, linking them to environmental degradation and domination of women.
“D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment and for the accelerated pollution.'” - Expanding Feminist Literary Criticism
Howell expands feminist criticism by incorporating environmental concerns, showing how ecological degradation and the oppression of women are interconnected.
“Ecofeminism argues that the connections between the oppression of women and nature must be recognized to understand adequately both oppressions.” - Critique of Dualisms in Literary and Philosophical Thought
Howell challenges dualistic thinking, such as the nature/culture and mind/body dichotomies, which have dominated Western literature and philosophy.
“Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, human/animal, subjectivity/object.” - Integration of Religious and Spiritual Perspectives in Literary Theory
The article highlights how ecofeminism integrates religious and spiritual views, providing a holistic understanding of humanity’s relationship with nature, which is often overlooked in traditional literary theory.
“Ecofeminism is engaged in the critical and constructive tasks of integrating science and religion toward ecofeminist praxis.” - Introducing Environmental Ethics into Literary Discourse
Howell’s work introduces environmental ethics into literary theory by promoting the idea that nature should be valued intrinsically, not merely as a resource for human use.
“Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.” - Promoting Interconnectedness and Diversity in Literary Analysis
Howell emphasizes the interconnectedness of all life forms, urging literary theorists to value biological and cultural diversity, and resist hierarchical structures in both literature and society.
“Ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature from the perspective of human social models.” - Contribution to Postcolonial and Third World Literary Theories
By acknowledging the contributions of Third World ecofeminism, Howell enriches postcolonial literary discourse with an emphasis on local knowledge systems and ecological sustainability.
“Shiva contrasts Indian cosmology with a Cartesian concept of nature and argues that Western science, technology, politics, and economic development have exploited nature and marginalized women.”
Examples of Critiques Through “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell
| Literary Work | Ecofeminist Critique Based on Howell’s Ideas | Supporting Quotations from Howell |
| Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein | The domination of nature and the subjugation of women are central themes. Victor Frankenstein’s attempt to control and manipulate life mirrors the patriarchal impulse to dominate both nature and women. | “Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.” |
| William Shakespeare’s The Tempest | Prospero’s control over the island and its inhabitants can be critiqued as patriarchal and colonial. The subjugation of Caliban and the island reflects the male tendency to dominate both women and nature. | “Ecofeminism critiques systems of domination, highlighting the interconnections between the oppression of women and nature.” |
| Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale | The novel’s dystopian world is based on the patriarchal exploitation of women’s bodies and nature. The regime’s control of reproduction reflects the ecofeminist critique of the objectification of women and nature. | “The interconnection between the domination of women and nature is leveraged to critique systems hostile to both.” |
| Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness | The depiction of Africa as an exotic, chaotic wilderness and the objectification of women, such as Kurtz’s African mistress, can be critiqued through ecofeminism as reinforcing colonialism and patriarchy. | “Ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature from human social models.” |
Criticism Against “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell
- Overgeneralization of Patriarchal Systems
Critics may argue that Howell overgeneralizes by attributing ecological destruction solely to patriarchal systems, without considering other factors such as industrialization, capitalism, or individual responsibility.
“D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment and for the accelerated pollution that accompanies this madness.’” - Lack of Intersectionality in Addressing Other Forms of Oppression
Some might argue that Howell’s focus on ecofeminism could be expanded to include more detailed discussions of race, class, and other intersecting forms of oppression, especially in contexts beyond North America and Western thought.
“Ecofeminism adds naturism—the oppression of the rest of nature—to the issues of sexism, racism, classism, and heterosexism that concern feminism.” - Idealization of Nature and Indigenous Traditions
Howell’s work could be critiqued for idealizing nature and indigenous traditions, potentially ignoring the complexities and challenges within these worldviews and how they interact with modern ecological issues.
“Shiva contrasts Indian cosmology with a Cartesian concept of nature and argues that Western science, technology, politics, and economic development have exploited nature and marginalized women.” - Limited Practical Solutions for Ecological Crisis
While Howell advocates for intellectual and social transformation, critics might argue that her article lacks concrete, practical solutions or strategies for addressing the ecological crises beyond the realm of theory.
“Social transformation must reassess and reconstruct values and relations toward equality, cultural diversity, and nonviolence in associations that are nonhierarchical.”
Representative Quotations from “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Ecofeminism refers to feminist theory and activism informed by ecology.” | This defines ecofeminism as a movement that integrates ecological concerns with feminist activism, emphasizing the interconnected struggles of women and nature. |
| “D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment.'” | Howell references Françoise d’Eaubonne’s argument that patriarchal systems are the root cause of environmental degradation, linking male domination with ecological destruction. |
| “Ecofeminism argues that the connections between the oppression of women and nature must be recognized.” | This highlights a core principle of ecofeminism—the acknowledgment that the exploitation of nature and the subjugation of women are intertwined and must be understood together. |
| “Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.” | Howell advocates for a change in how nature is valued, urging people to respect nature for its inherent worth, rather than treating it as a resource for human exploitation. |
| “Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion.” | This critiques traditional dualistic thinking in Western philosophy, which ecofeminists believe has led to the subjugation of women and nature by privileging one side of the dichotomy over the other. |
| “Social transformation must reassess and reconstruct values and relations toward equality, cultural diversity.” | Howell stresses that social change, including the restructuring of values and relations, is crucial for achieving both ecological survival and gender justice. |
| “An ecological perspective makes it difficult to maintain with certainty that nature is organized hierarchically.” | Ecofeminism challenges the hierarchical view of nature, arguing that ecological systems are based on interconnection and interdependence rather than hierarchical domination, a model humans should adopt. |
| “Without compromising commitment to cultural diversity, social transformation must be part of a decentered global movement.” | This quotation emphasizes the importance of global movements for social change that respect cultural diversity and oppose all forms of domination and oppression. |
| “Ecofeminism is engaged in the critical and constructive tasks of integrating science and religion toward ecofeminist praxis.” | Howell highlights the ecofeminist goal of bridging science and religion, showing that ecofeminism isn’t just theoretical but is also an activist movement focused on real-world transformation. |
| “Ecofeminism draws from feminist critical perspectives on science and on religion.” | This stresses that ecofeminism critiques both science and religion from a feminist perspective, questioning their traditional methods and biases that have excluded women and supported hierarchical structures. |
Suggested Readings: “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell
- JUMAWAN-DADANG, RAQUELYN. “Saving Marine Life: An Empirical Assessment of Ecofeminist Thought in Coastal Communities.” Philippine Sociological Review, vol. 63, 2015, pp. 61–83. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24717160. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
- Carol Downer, et al. “New Directions for Women.” New Directions for Women, vol. 22, no. 1, Feb. 1993. Charles Deering McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University. Independent Voices. Reveal Digital, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.28041198. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
- Howe, Leslie A. Hypatia, vol. 20, no. 2, 2005, pp. 197–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3811174. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.