Emotional Labor: Etymology and Concept
The term “emotional labor” has its roots in the work of sociologist Arlie Hochschild, who introduced it in her 1983 book “The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling.” The concept combines “emotion,” referring to the affective aspects of human experience, with “labor,” signifying the exertion of effort and work. The term specifically denotes the often unnoticed and undervalued work involved in managing and expressing emotions, particularly within professional and interpersonal contexts.
Concept:
| Aspect | Explanation |
| Origin | – Coined by Arlie Hochschild in 1983 – Introduced in “The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling” |
| Composition | – Emotion: Pertaining to affective aspects of human experience – Labor: Signifying exertion of effort and work |
| Definition | – Involves managing and expressing emotions – Particularly relevant in professional and interpersonal contexts |
| Context | – Rooted in sociology and labor studies – Feminist perspective highlighting undervalued work |
| Application | – Integral in service-oriented professions – Focus on the display of specific emotions as part of the job |
| Implications | – Intersection of personal feelings and professional roles – Impact on individual well-being – Dynamics of power within social and economic structures |
Emotional Labor: Definition as Theoretical Term
Emotional labor, as a theoretical term, encompasses the deliberate and managed expression of emotions within a professional or organizational context.
It involves individuals strategically regulating their emotions to align with prescribed norms, often for the purpose of fulfilling job requirements or organizational expectations.
This theoretical construct sheds light on the intricate interplay between personal emotions and societal demands, emphasizing the nuanced ways in which individuals navigate and negotiate their emotional experiences within the realm of work.
Emotional Labors: Theorists, Works and Arguments
Theorists:
- Arlie Hochschild:
- Work: The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (1983)
- Argument: Hochschild pioneered the concept of emotional labors, examining how individuals in service professions strategically manage their emotions to meet organizational demands. She argued that this form of labor involves the commodification of emotions and is integral to maintaining social order and economic structures.
- Erving Goffman:
- Work: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959)
- Argument: While not explicitly focusing on emotional labors, Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective laid the groundwork for understanding how individuals perform emotions in social interactions. His work contributes to the theoretical foundation of emotional labor by highlighting the role of impression management in daily life.
- Deborah M. Kolb:
- Work: Hidden Agendas: Power and Process in Negotiations (1983)
- Argument: Kolb’s work contributes to the understanding of emotional labors in negotiation contexts. She explores the influence of power dynamics and emotions in negotiations, emphasizing how individuals engage in emotional work to achieve desired outcomes in professional interactions.
Key Arguments:
- Commodification of Emotions:
- Key Theorist: Arlie Hochschild
- Argument: Emotional labor involves the commercialization of emotions, where individuals must present specific emotional displays as part of their job, turning personal feelings into commodities for organizational benefit.
- Impression Management:
- Key Theorist: Erving Goffman
- Argument: Goffman’s dramaturgical approach contributes to the understanding of emotional labor by emphasizing the performative aspect of emotions in social interactions, highlighting the role of impression management in shaping emotional displays.
- Power Dynamics and Negotiation:
- Key Theorist: Deborah M. Kolb
- Argument: Kolb’s work expands the concept of emotional labors into negotiation contexts, emphasizing the role of power dynamics and emotional expression in achieving successful outcomes in professional interactions.
These theorists and their works collectively contribute to the theoretical framework of emotional labors, offering insights into the complex interplay between emotions, work, and societal structures.
Emotional Labors: Major Characteristics
1. Surface Acting and Deep Acting:
- Surface Acting: Involves the outward display of emotions without genuinely feeling them. Individuals engage in surface acting to meet job requirements or societal expectations.
- Deep Acting: Requires individuals to authentically experience and internalize specific emotions before expressing them outwardly.
2. Emotional Dissonance:
- Refers to the internal conflict individuals may experience when there is a misalignment between their true emotions and the emotions they are required to display. This incongruence can lead to emotional stress and burnout.
3. Display Rules:
- Societal or organizational norms that dictate which emotions are appropriate to express in specific situations. Emotional labor often involves adherence to these display rules to maintain social harmony or meet job expectations.
4. Customer and Client Interaction:
- Particularly relevant in service-oriented professions, emotional labor is evident in interactions with customers or clients. It requires the display of specific emotions, such as friendliness or empathy, to enhance customer satisfaction.
5. Gendered Nature:
- Research suggests that emotional labor is often gendered, with certain professions and societal expectations placing a higher emotional burden on women. Women may be expected to display nurturing or empathetic emotions in roles such as caregiving or customer service.
6. Impact on Well-being:
- Emotional labor can have significant implications for individual well-being, contributing to emotional exhaustion, job dissatisfaction, and burnout. The continual regulation of emotions in the workplace can take a toll on mental and emotional health.
7. Organizational Expectations:
- Organizations may explicitly or implicitly require employees to engage in emotional labor as part of their job responsibilities. This can involve scripted interactions, training programs, or specific emotional guidelines to shape the emotional expressions of employees.
8. Role of Power Dynamics:
- Power differentials within organizations can influence the nature of emotional labor. Individuals in lower positions may experience greater pressure to conform to emotional display rules set by those in higher positions.
9. Emotional Intelligence:
- Emotional labor often necessitates a high level of emotional intelligence, including the ability to understand, regulate, and manage one’s own emotions, as well as perceive and respond to the emotions of others.
10. Coping Strategies:
- Individuals may develop various coping strategies to manage the emotional demands of their work. This can include seeking social support, engaging in self-care activities, or employing cognitive strategies to navigate emotionally challenging situations.
Emotional Labor: Relevance in Literary Theories
| Theory | Relevance |
| Feminist Literary Theory | Emotional labors as a concept is pertinent in feminist literary theory as it aligns with discussions about gender roles and the often undervalued emotional work performed by female characters. Analyzing emotional labor in literature can reveal how societal expectations and power dynamics influence the emotional experiences of characters, particularly women. |
| Reader-Response Literary Theory | Emotional labors as a concept is significant in reader-response theory as it explores the emotional engagement of readers with literary texts. Analyzing how characters’ emotional labor is portrayed can offer insights into readers’ emotional responses, emphasizing the interactive nature of emotion in the reading experience. |
| Marxist Literary Theory | In Marxist literary theory, emotional labors can be examined in the context of class struggle and exploitation. Characters may engage in emotional labor to conform to societal expectations dictated by economic structures. This analysis can illuminate the ways emotions are commodified or suppressed for social and economic purposes. |
| Psychoanalytic Literary Theory | Emotional labors as a concept is pertinent in psychoanalytic theory as it delves into the emotional lives of characters and the unconscious motivations behind their actions. Examining emotional labor in literature can provide insights into characters’ coping mechanisms, defense mechanisms, and the impact of societal expectations on their emotional states. |
| Postcolonial Literary Theory | Emotional labors are relevant in postcolonial literary theory as it intersects with themes of identity, displacement, and cultural assimilation. Characters may engage in emotional labor to navigate the emotional challenges of colonial experiences, revealing the psychological toll of colonization on individuals and communities. |
| Queer Literary Theory | Emotional labors are significant in queer literary theory as it contributes to discussions about the performance of gender and sexuality. Characters may engage in emotional labor to negotiate societal expectations related to gender roles and expressions of love, desire, and identity. |
| Deconstructionist Literary Theory | Emotional labors can be relevant in deconstructionist theory as it challenges fixed notions of emotions and identity. Analyzing emotional labor in literature can reveal the fluid and constructed nature of emotions, questioning normative expectations and exploring the multiplicity of emotional experiences. |
| Cultural Studies Literary Theory | In cultural studies, emotional labor is relevant for understanding the emotional dimensions of cultural representations. Characters may perform emotional labor to conform to cultural norms, and analyzing these portrayals can unveil the cultural construction of emotions and the impact on individuals within specific cultural contexts. |
Emotional Labors: Application in Critiques
- Critique of “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Application of Emotional Labor: The protagonist’s emotional labor is a central theme in this novella. As she grapples with mental illness and societal expectations, her emotional labor involves suppressing her true emotions to conform to the prescribed role of a dutiful wife and mother. Analyzing the emotional labor within the narrative unveils the impact of patriarchal norms on women’s mental health.
- Critique of “Death of a Salesman” by Arthur Miller: Application of Emotional Labor: In the context of this play, emotional labor is evident in the main character, Willy Loman. As a salesman, Willy engages in surface acting to present a facade of success and happiness to his family, concealing the emotional toll of his struggles. Examining the emotional labors in Willy’s character enriches the critique by highlighting the psychological consequences of societal expectations and the American Dream.
- Critique of Beloved by Toni Morrison: Application of Emotional Labor: Set in the aftermath of slavery, “Beloved” explores the emotional labor of characters who grapple with trauma and the legacy of slavery. Analyzing emotional labor in the novel enhances the critique by illuminating how characters like Sethe engage in deep acting to navigate their painful pasts, shedding light on the psychological complexities of post-slavery experiences.
- Critique of Norwegian Wood by Haruki Murakami: Application of Emotional Labor: Emotional labor is intricately woven into the relationships in this novel. The characters, particularly Toru Watanabe, navigate the expectations of love and loss, engaging in both surface and deep acting to manage their emotions. Critiquing the emotional labors in “Norwegian Wood” enriches the analysis of Murakami’s exploration of the human psyche and the complexities of interpersonal relationships.
In each critique, the application of the concept of emotional labors adds depth to the analysis of character motivations, societal influences, and the psychological dimensions of the narratives. Examining how characters perform emotional labors enhances the understanding of the nuanced emotional landscapes depicted in these novels.
Emotional Labor: Relevant Terms
- Surface Acting: Displaying emotions without genuine feeling to meet expectations.
- Deep Acting: Authentically experiencing and internalizing emotions before expression.
- Emotional Dissonance: Conflict between true and displayed emotions.
- Display Rules: Societal norms dictating appropriate emotional expressions.
- Burnout: Exhaustion from prolonged exposure to high-stress, emotional labor.
- Impression Management: Strategically controlling one’s image, including emotional regulation.
- Emotional Intelligence: Recognizing, understanding, and managing emotions, both personal and others’.
- Commodification of Emotions: Treating emotions as commodities, often in the context of emotional labor.
- Coping Strategies: Techniques to manage work-related emotional demands.
- Power Dynamics: Influence and control in social or organizational contexts impacting emotional labor.
Emotional Labor: Suggested Readings
- Hochschild, Arlie Russell. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. University of California Press, 1983.
- Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Doubleday, 1959.
- Grandey, Alicia A., ed. The Oxford Handbook of Work and Emotion. Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Ashforth, Blake E., and Ronald H. Humphrey. Emotion in the Workplace: A Reappraisal. Psychology Press, 1995.
- Rafaeli, Anat, and Ran B. Schilling, eds. Emotion in Organizations. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007.