Empiricism: Etymology, Meanings and Concept
“Empiricism” derives from the Greek word “empeiria,” meaning experience. It is a philosophical approach emphasizing the importance of sensory experience and observation in the formation of knowledge.
Meanings and Concept:
- Observation-based Knowledge: Empiricism asserts that knowledge comes primarily from direct sensory experience and experimentation rather than from innate ideas or reasoning alone.
- Verification and Falsifiability: Empirical claims are verifiable or falsifiable through observation or experimentation, making them subject to revision in light of new evidence.
- Scientific Method: Empiricism underpins the scientific method, wherein hypotheses are tested through systematic observation and experimentation.
- Inductive Reasoning: Empirical evidence often relies on inductive reasoning, drawing general conclusions from specific observations.
- Anti-Metaphysical Stance: Empiricism tends to reject metaphysical or speculative claims that cannot be empirically verified.
Empiricism: Definition of a Theoretical Term
Empiricism refers to the philosophical stance that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and observation. It posits that meaningful knowledge arises from direct interaction with the world, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence over intuition, speculation, or abstract reasoning. In essence, empiricism holds that our understanding of reality is grounded in our perceptual experiences and can be validated through empirical methods such as experimentation and observation.
Empiricism: Theorists, Works and Arguments
Key Theorists
- John Locke (1632-1704)
- Major Work: “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding”
- Arguments:
- Simple vs. Complex Ideas: Simple ideas are directly from experience, complex ideas are built from simple ones.
- Primary vs. Secondary Qualities: Primary qualities exist in the object itself (shape, size), secondary qualities depend on perception (color, taste).
- George Berkeley (1685-1753)
- Major Work: “A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge”
- Arguments:
- Idealism: “To be is to be perceived” (esse est percipi) – objects exist only as they are perceived.
- God as the ultimate perceiver, ensuring the continued existence of things.
- David Hume (1711-1776)
- Major Work: “A Treatise of Human Nature”
- Arguments:
- Impressions vs. Ideas: Impressions are vivid experiences, ideas are fainter copies.
- Causation is not directly observable, but a habit of the mind formed from repeated experience.
- Skepticism about the external world and the self – only impressions and ideas are certain.
Empiricism: Major Characteristics
| Characteristics | Literary References |
| Focus on Sensory Experience | Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë), Walden (Henry David Thoreau) |
| Skepticism Regarding Abstract Ideas | Hamlet (William Shakespeare), Poetry of John Donne |
| Emphasis on Observation and Experimentation | Frankenstein (Mary Shelley), Sherlock Holmes series (Arthur Conan Doyle) |
| The Mind as a “Blank Slate” | Great Expectations (Charles Dickens), Many coming-of-age novels |
Empiricism: Relevance in Literary Theories
- New Historicism: Focus on the cultural and historical context of a text: Empiricism’s emphasis on experience aligns with New Historicism’s interest in how a work reflects and is shaped by its specific time and place. The text as an artifact: Literary works become a form of empirical data, reflecting the beliefs, anxieties, and social structures of their era.
- Reader-Response Criticism: Importance of the reader’s experience: Empiricism similarly posits that knowledge is formed from individual experience. A reader’s personal background, biases, and sensory engagement with a text all shape their interpretation.
- Biographical Criticism: Author’s life as empirical evidence: Understanding an author’s life experiences can offer a lens through which to analyze their work, in line with empiricism’s emphasis on experience shaping knowledge.
- Marxist Criticism: Material conditions as influencing literature: Empiricism’s concern with the physical world aligns with Marxist thought that examines how economic structures and social realities shape literary texts.
- Formalism and New Criticism
- Challenge to Empiricist Notions: These movements focus on the text itself rather than external experience. They emphasize literary structure, linguistic devices, and the work’s autonomy, somewhat opposed to empiricism’s reliance on outside influences.
Empiricism: Application in Critiques
| Applications | Limitations |
| Analyzing Sensory Details: Examines how a work uses language to evoke senses, creating atmosphere and supporting themes. | Oversimplification of Complex Ideas: Might struggle with highly symbolic or abstract works that transcend direct experience. |
| Contextualizing Literature: Considers historical and biographical influences on a text, tying it to real-world experiences. | Neglecting Internal Psychological States: May not fully account for the complexities of characters’ motivations and inner lives. |
| Assessing Character Development: Investigates how characters are changed or shaped by the events and circumstances within the text. | Reduced Significance of Form and Structure: Overemphasis on direct content risks overlooking the importance of literary techniques and symbolism. |
| Evaluating Realism: Evaluates how convincingly a work reflects recognizable aspects of the world. | Dismissing Reader’s Subjective Experience: Could underplay the influence of a reader’s individual interpretation and background. |
Empiricism: Relevant Terms
- Sense Data: The immediate, raw information received through our senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.).
- A posteriori: Knowledge gained through experience, as opposed to knowledge gained purely through reason.
- A priori: Knowledge considered independent of experience. Mathematical truths are often cited as examples.
- Induction: Reasoning from specific observations to general principles. A process central to empiricism’s emphasis on experience.
- Tabula Rasa: The concept of the mind as a “blank slate” at birth, with knowledge formed entirely through experience.
- Idealism: The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental or mind-dependent. A stance often presented in opposition to empiricism.
- Skepticism: A philosophical doubt regarding the reliability of certain types of knowledge or truth claims. This often arises within empiricism due to questioning how sensory experience translates to larger claims about reality.
- Scientific Method: A systematic approach to investigation, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and the formulation of hypotheses. Its development aligns with empirical thinking.
- Phenomenology: A philosophical study focusing on the structures and content of experiences as they appear in consciousness.
- Positivism: A philosophy asserting that valid knowledge is rooted in observable facts and natural phenomena. Related to empiricism, yet more strictly confined to what can be measured and scientifically verified.
Empiricism: Suggested Readings
- Berkeley, George. A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 1998.
- Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Edited by Tom L. Beauchamp, Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Edited by Peter H. Nidditch, Oxford University Press, 1979.
- Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Wolff, Jonathan. An Introduction to Empirical Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2007.