Fallacy-1

Etymology of Fallacy

The term “fallacy” has entered the English language from the Latin term fallacia. It means “deception, deceit, or trickery.” The term originated in the 16th century. It was first used in English in the mid-17th century.

Meanings of Fallacy

1. The literal meaning of the term “fallacy” refers to a mistaken belief, faulty reasoning, or a deceptive or misleading argument.
2. In logic and critical thinking, a fallacy is an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid or unsound.

Fallacy in Grammar

Grammatically, a fallacy is a singular noun. Its plural is fallacies.

Definition of Fallacy

1. In literature, a fallacy is a rhetorical device that involves an error in reasoning or logic that undermines an argument’s validity. A fallacy takes several forms. It could be circular reasoning, ad hominem attack, or oversimplification. It could be intentional or unintentional.
2. In literary analysis, fallacies is used to reveal the flaws in a character’s thinking or to critique the assumptions underlying a work’s themes or ideas.

Types of Fallacy

There are many different types of fallacies, but some of the most common ones include:

Type of Fallacy	Definition	Example
Ad Hominem	Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself.	“You can’t trust John’s opinion on climate change because he’s not a scientist.”
Appeal to Authority	Using an authority figure to support an argument, even if they are not experts in the relevant field.	“Dr. Smith, a famous actor, claims that this product is effective, so it must be true.”
Straw Man	Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.	“Opponents of the tax reform want to destroy the economy. Clearly, their ideas are misguided and dangerous.”
Slippery Slope	Suggesting that a small action will lead to a chain of increasingly dire consequences.	“If we allow same-sex marriage, next thing you know, people will want to marry their pets or inanimate objects.”
False Dilemma	Presenting only two options when more exist, ignoring the possibility of alternative choices.	“Either you’re with us, or you’re against us.”
Circular Reasoning	Restating the argument as evidence to support the argument.	“The Bible is true because it says so, and we know it’s trustworthy because it’s the word of God.”
Hasty Generalization	Drawing a broad conclusion based on insufficient evidence.	“I met two rude people from that country, so everyone from that country must be rude.”
Appeal to Emotion	Manipulating emotions to sway an argument without logical justification.	“If we don’t pass this law, innocent children will suffer and their blood will be on our hands.”

These fallacies are used in various ways in literary works such as in character dialogue or in the underlying themes and motifs of the work.

Literary Examples of Fallacy

1. Example from Othello by William Shakespeare:

In Act 3, Scene 3, Iago uses the fallacy of false cause when he is speaking with Othello, trying to convince him that his wife Desdemona is unfaithful.

Iago says;

“Look to your wife; observe her well with Cassio;

Wear your eye thus, not jealous nor secure:

I would not have your free and noble nature,

Out of self-bounty, be abused; look to’t:

I know our country disposition well;

In Venice they do let heaven see the pranks

They dare not show their husbands; their best conscience

Is not to leave’t undone, but keep’t unknown.”

Iago suggests that since Othello’s wife is spending time with Cassio, she must be unfaithful. However, this is a fallacious argument, as there is no evidence to support the claim that Desdemona is cheating on Othello with Cassio.

2. Example from The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:

Holden Caulfield uses the fallacy of ad hominem when he criticizes his English teacher, Mr. Antolini, after discovering him petting his head while he was sleeping. Holden says;

“Anyway, I keep picturing all these little kids playing some game in this big field of rye and all. Thousands of little kids, and nobody’s around – nobody big, I mean – except me. And I’m standing on the edge of some crazy cliff. What I have to do, I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff – I mean if they’re running and they don’t look where they’re going I have to come out from somewhere and catch them. That’s all I do all day. I’d just be the catcher in the rye and all.”

Holden uses this fallacious argument to avoid confronting the fact that Mr. Antolini may have been making a pass at him and instead imagines himself as a hero saving children from falling off a cliff.

3. Example from “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson:

In this short story, the villagers use the fallacy of tradition to justify the yearly lottery. The narrator states;

“The lottery was conducted—as were the square dances, the teen club, the Halloween program—by Mr. Summers, who had time and energy to devote to civic activities.”

The villagers believe that the lottery is a necessary tradition that has always been done, and therefore it must continue. However, this is a fallacious argument, as the tradition of the lottery is barbaric and causes harm to the members of the village.

• From The Crucible by Arthur Miller

Reverend Hale warns, “We are what we always were in Salem, but now the little crazy children are jangling the keys of the kingdom, and common vengeance writes the law!” (Act2). Hale is suggesting that if the girls who are accusing others of witchcraft are allowed to continue unchecked, chaos will reign and the entire community will suffer. This is an example of slippery slope fallacy, as Hale assumes that a small problem (the girls’ behavior) will inevitably lead to a much larger problem (the breakdown of society).

Suggested Readings

1. Copi, Irving M., and Carl Cohen. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.
2. Govier, Trudy. A Practical Study of Argument. Cengage Learning, 2010.
3. Haack, Susan. Defending Science—Within Reason: Between Scientism and Cynicism. Prometheus Books, 2007.
4. Hansen, Hans V., and Robert C. Pinto. Fallacies: Classical and Contemporary Readings. Penn State University Press, 1995.
5. Tindale, Christopher W. Fallacies and Argument Appraisal. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
6. Walton, Douglas N. Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
7. Walton, Douglas N. Media Argumentation: Dialectic, Persuasion, and Rhetoric. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
8. Woods, John, and Andrew Irvine. Argument: Critical Thinking, Logic, and the Fallacies. Prentice Hall, 2006.