“Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

“Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar was first published in 2016 in Postcolonial Studies (Vol. 19, Issue 4, pp. 371–377). This article delves into the intersections and tensions between feminism and postcolonialism as critical discourses that shape our understanding of global social and political dynamics. Parashar explores how these two frameworks, though seemingly allied in their critiques of oppression, diverge in fundamental ways. Feminism, traditionally focused on gender inequalities, often encounters friction with postcolonialism, which scrutinizes the legacies of colonialism in social and political structures. Together, these disciplines challenge the assumptions of universality in gendered experiences and the silencing of marginalized voices, encouraging an analysis that respects diverse cultural and historical contexts. Parashar points out that while both approaches emphasize transformative goals, their alliance is uneasy, often marked by conflicting priorities around issues such as nationalism, state authority, and gender hierarchies.

A notable contribution of Parashar’s work is the concept of “worldism,” which offers a way to reconcile the aspirations of feminism and postcolonialism. This approach allows for an analysis of global relations as multiple intersecting realities rather than a singular narrative dominated by Western perspectives. By critiquing both imperialist legacies and patriarchal state structures, Parashar’s work not only enriches our understanding of gender and state violence but also calls for a nuanced, inclusive lens on issues like political violence, social justice, and cultural identity. The article is pivotal in postcolonial literary theory, as it pushes for a deeper understanding of the gendered dimensions of state power and the ongoing impacts of colonial violence in shaping contemporary feminist discourse.

Summary of “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

• Intersection of Feminism and Postcolonialism: Parashar emphasizes that both feminism and postcolonialism challenge dominant social and political structures, sharing a critical outlook on global inequalities. However, “they stand resolutely in support of subversion and change in the political, cultural and social landscape” (Parashar, 2016, p. 371). These frameworks question centralized knowledge and advocate for voices from marginalized or suppressed spaces, creating potential for mutual enrichment.
• Tensions and Divergences: Despite their shared goals, feminism and postcolonialism often collide on issues of “nationalism and gender hierarchies” (p. 373). Postcolonialism tends to overlook internal disparities within the anti-colonial struggle, including patriarchal traditions, while feminism’s universal stance on women’s experiences can sometimes marginalize non-Western voices, as highlighted by Chandra Talpade Mohanty’s critique of the “Third World Woman” (p. 372). Parashar argues that this reveals “discursive colonialism in the production of a monolithic female subject” (p. 372).
• Role of the State and Violence: Parashar discusses how the postcolonial state often embodies patriarchal and violent structures that impact gender justice. While feminists view the state as a site of both oppression and potential protection for women, “the state continues to be reinvented, as well as sought after, as an aspirational and enabling political entity” (p. 374). She argues that while states may attempt to use women’s emancipation to promote their agendas, these interventions can paradoxically reinforce gender oppression within traditional and nationalistic frameworks.
• Worldism as an Integrative Concept: Parashar introduces “worldism” as a concept that can harmonize feminist and postcolonial insights, accommodating “multiple worlds… ways of being, knowing, and relating” (p. 375). Developed by Agathangelou and Ling (referenced in p. 375), worldism seeks to promote epistemic diversity by including pluralistic, intersecting identities and cultural perspectives. This approach fosters “syncretic engagements that enhance accountability and empathy”, allowing for a more inclusive understanding of gender and oppression.
• The Ordinary and Pervasive Nature of Violence: Drawing on Veena Das, Parashar highlights how violence, often seen as an extraordinary event, is embedded in the everyday lives of marginalized communities (p. 373). This “ordinariness of violence” blurs the lines between victim and perpetrator, reflecting deeply rooted social and political inequities. Parashar argues that “the postcolonial state’s identity and purpose” are intertwined with this persistent violence (p. 374), which is sustained by gendered and imperialistic norms.
• Gendered Political Identities and Exploitation: Through Sara Meger’s analysis of the political economy, Parashar illustrates how postcolonial violence is both gendered and integral to global economic structures (p. 373). Meger claims that armed conflict serves hegemonic Western interests by reinforcing “hegemonic relations of exploitation between the West and non-West” and portraying the postcolonial state as a “feminised” and “failed” entity in need of Western intervention.
• Feminist Perspectives on the Postcolonial State: Parashar argues that despite critiques, the state remains a necessary structure for many feminists, particularly those from the Global South. Feminists demand “accountability from the state” in terms of policies and protection for marginalized groups, while also challenging the gendered nature of state institutions (p. 374).
• Call for Dialogue and Transformation: The article concludes with a call for a deeper, ongoing dialogue between feminism and postcolonialism. Parashar stresses the importance of engaging in “difficult conversations on pressing issues of our times”, aiming to dismantle oppressive structures through joint analysis of state violence, gendered norms, and colonial legacies (p. 376).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Reference in the Article
Discursive Colonialism	The imposition of a singular, monolithic view (often Western) on diverse experiences, erasing nuances and local contexts.	Parashar references Chandra Talpade Mohanty on the Western feminist construct of the “Third World Woman” (p. 372).
Intersectionality	Analytical approach that examines how various social identities (e.g., race, gender) intersect to shape oppression and privilege.	Examined in the tension between postcolonial and feminist approaches to addressing multiple layers of oppression (p. 371).
Worldism	Concept of accommodating diverse perspectives and realities in global politics; opposes universalism.	Introduced via Agathangelou and Ling as a way to integrate feminist and postcolonial insights (p. 375).
Orientalism	Western stereotypical portrayal of the Eastern world as backward, exotic, and inferior.	Referenced in Sara Meger’s critique of how postcolonial violence is framed within an Orientalist lens (p. 373).
Epistemic Compassion	Ethical approach to knowledge that values empathy and inclusivity, promoting understanding of the “Other.”	L.H.M. Ling uses this to advocate for feminist-postcolonial collaboration (p. 376).
Hegemonic Masculinity	Dominant societal norms of masculinity that uphold male authority and marginalize other masculinities.	Discussed in Meger’s work on how militarized masculinity reinforces the gendered nature of state violence (p. 373).
Neocolonialism	Modern practices of dominance and exploitation by former colonial powers, often through economic or political means.	Seen in the critique of international relations that frame postcolonial states as “failed” or “feminized” (p. 373).
Structural Violence	Social structures or institutions that harm individuals by preventing them from meeting basic needs.	Examined in Veena Das’s concept of the “ordinariness” of violence in postcolonial states (p. 373).
Patriarchal State	The notion that the state is inherently male-dominated and enforces gender hierarchies.	Feminist critique of the postcolonial state as exclusionary and inherently violent (p. 374).
Cathartic Violence	The idea, notably discussed by Frantz Fanon, that violence has a purging or transformative quality in oppressed societies.	Referenced in Fanon’s view of violence as a liberating force in postcolonial struggles (p. 373).

Contribution of “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory: Parashar’s work contributes to postcolonial theory by advancing its engagement with gender dynamics, emphasizing that postcolonial states continue to reinforce colonial patterns of exclusion and violence. She highlights how “the postcolonial state is inherently patriarchal, militarized, and exclusionary” (p. 374), arguing that it often replicates colonial hierarchies that marginalize women and minorities. This is evident in her discussion of Veena Das’s concept of the ‘ordinariness’ of violence, which implies that violence in postcolonial states is not a deviation but a continuation of colonial oppression (p. 373). This critique aligns with postcolonial theory’s objective of exposing power structures that maintain colonial legacies.
2. Feminist Theory: Parashar critically engages with feminist theory, particularly in challenging its universalist tendencies, which sometimes overlook the specific experiences of non-Western women. By drawing on Chandra Talpade Mohanty’s critique of the “Third World Woman” as a monolithic subject (p. 372), Parashar underscores the need for feminism to incorporate diverse, intersectional perspectives. This aligns with feminist theory’s evolving focus on intersectionality and the understanding that gender oppression intersects with other forms of oppression, such as race and class.
3. Intersectionality: The article enriches the concept of intersectionality by showing that gender, colonial histories, and state violence are interconnected in complex ways. Parashar advocates for an intersectional approach that goes beyond simple binaries, illustrating how “feminist and postcolonial perspectives must account for diverse experiences within and across the margins” (p. 371). This contribution helps extend intersectionality within literary theory by situating it in global contexts where multiple identities are constantly being redefined by postcolonial and gendered power dynamics.
4. Orientalism: Parashar’s examination of the portrayal of postcolonial states as “failed” or “feminized” contributes to Edward Said’s theory of orientalism. By discussing Sara Meger’s analysis of how violence in postcolonial contexts is framed within an Orientalist lens to reinforce Western superiority (p. 373), Parashar critiques how the West continues to view non-Western countries as inherently unstable and inferior. This reinforcement of Orientalist stereotypes legitimizes Western intervention and aligns with the ongoing critique in literary theory of how literature and media perpetuate colonial views of the East.
5. Worldism: Parashar introduces Agathangelou and Ling’s concept of worldism to literary theory, proposing it as a framework that accommodates diverse perspectives and realities (p. 375). Unlike universalist or Western-centric perspectives, worldism envisions “multiple ways of being, knowing, and relating” that respect local contexts and challenge dominant narratives. This concept enhances postcolonial and feminist theories by providing a method for understanding global relations through a plurality of experiences rather than a single, homogenizing narrative.
6. Structural Violence and Biopolitics: The article draws on the concept of structural violence—where social structures harm individuals by perpetuating inequality—and extends it to postcolonial and feminist frameworks. Parashar discusses how the state uses violence as a mechanism to control marginalized communities and how this violence is gendered, thereby deepening our understanding of biopolitics within postcolonial contexts (p. 373). This contribution to biopolitical theory highlights how gendered bodies are targeted as sites of control and oppression, aligning with critiques of how state power regulates and subjugates bodies.
7. Epistemic Compassion: L.H.M. Ling’s notion of epistemic compassion calls for an empathetic approach to understanding global inequalities (p. 376). Parashar advocates for this concept within feminist and postcolonial theories to foster mutual understanding and address the “othering” inherent in global power structures. This aligns with postcolonial literary theory’s commitment to recognizing and valuing the knowledge systems of marginalized cultures.

Examples of Critiques Through “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Title and Author	Critique Through Parashar’s Lens
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Using Parashar’s insights on discursive colonialism, this novel can be critiqued for its depiction of the colonial encounter and its impact on identity. The character of Antoinette represents the “othered” Creole woman, marginalized by both Western colonialism and patriarchy. Parashar’s perspective would highlight the intersectional oppression she faces due to race, gender, and colonial history.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Parashar’s analysis of patriarchal state structures and postcolonial masculinity can be applied to examine how masculinity and colonial violence shape the Igbo community’s response to British colonization. Okonkwo’s character reflects the internalized colonial values of masculinity and power, mirroring Parashar’s critique of how postcolonial identity is deeply gendered and violent.
The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy	Through Parashar’s critique on structural violence and gendered oppression in postcolonial societies, this novel’s exploration of caste, gender, and societal norms in India can be analyzed. Ammu’s character, who faces societal restrictions due to her gender and social status, exemplifies Parashar’s arguments on gendered exclusion and state violence.
Season of Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih	Parashar’s discussion on orientalism and feminist-postcolonial tension is relevant in critiquing Salih’s novel, where the protagonist Mustafa Sa’eed confronts Western stereotypes about the East. This novel mirrors Parashar’s analysis of postcolonial masculinity and the “exoticization” of Eastern identities, challenging the reader to question orientalist constructions of race and gender.

Criticism Against “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

• Overemphasis on Conflict between Feminism and Postcolonialism: Some critics argue that Parashar might overstate the tensions between feminism and postcolonialism, potentially undermining the fruitful collaborations and shared goals between the two frameworks in resisting oppression.
• Lack of Practical Solutions: While Parashar effectively identifies issues within both feminist and postcolonial discourses, critics might argue that her work lacks concrete solutions or actionable steps to resolve these theoretical conflicts, leaving readers with more questions than answers.
• Generalization of Postcolonial States: Parashar’s critique of postcolonial states as inherently patriarchal and violent may overlook the nuances and differences across various postcolonial societies, creating a generalized image that might not account for specific historical and social contexts.
• Minimal Engagement with Non-Western Feminist Voices: Although Parashar critiques Western feminism’s universalist tendencies, some critics argue that her article itself could benefit from deeper engagement with non-Western feminist voices, particularly grassroots movements in postcolonial societies.
• Abstract Nature of Worldism: Parashar’s proposed concept of “worldism” as a solution may be seen as overly abstract and difficult to operationalize in practical terms, potentially limiting its applicability in real-world feminist and postcolonial work.
• Focus on State-Centric Violence: By focusing predominantly on the role of the postcolonial state in perpetuating violence, Parashar may underplay other forms of violence, such as economic or environmental violence, that significantly impact gender and postcolonial dynamics.

Representative Quotations from “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“They stand resolutely in support of subversion and change in the political, cultural and social landscape” (p. 371).	This statement highlights the shared commitment of both feminism and postcolonialism to challenge dominant structures and promote transformative change, suggesting a foundational alignment despite their differences.
“The postcolonial state is inherently patriarchal, militarised, violent, embodying a masculine identity and exclusionary” (p. 374).	Parashar critiques postcolonial states, arguing that they often replicate the oppressive, patriarchal structures of colonialism, thus contributing to the marginalization of women and minorities within these societies.
“Discursive colonialism in the production of the ‘Third World Woman’ as a monolithic subject” (p. 372).	This phrase refers to Chandra Talpade Mohanty’s critique of Western feminism’s tendency to oversimplify and universalize the experiences of non-Western women, erasing cultural and contextual differences.
“Feminist and postcolonial perspectives must account for diverse experiences within and across the margins” (p. 371).	Parashar argues that both feminist and postcolonial frameworks should embrace diversity within marginalized groups, avoiding one-size-fits-all approaches to understanding oppression.
“The state continues to be reinvented, as well as sought after, as an aspirational and enabling political entity” (p. 374).	Despite its flaws, Parashar acknowledges that many marginalized communities still view the state as a potential source of rights and protection, indicating a complex relationship between feminist critiques and state structures.
“Worldism… accommodates the aspirations of both these approaches, an exercise in multiple ways of being, knowing, and relating” (p. 375).	Parashar introduces worldism as a solution for reconciling feminist and postcolonial differences, suggesting it enables a more inclusive, pluralistic approach that values diverse perspectives and experiences.
“Violence is marked by the blurring of boundaries between perpetrator, victim and witness” (p. 373).	This statement reflects Veena Das’s view that violence is embedded in the ordinary and disrupts traditional roles, aligning with Parashar’s critique of how structural violence in postcolonial states affects gender and social roles.
“Armed conflict as labour in the political economy is ‘feminised’” (p. 373).	Sara Meger highlights how conflict-related labor, while seen as “masculine,” is actually feminized through informal and precarious conditions, reflecting Parashar’s insights on gendered labor and exploitation in postcolonial contexts.
“The postcolonial, in its temporal and spatial understandings, celebrates anti-colonial nationalisms…overlooking internal orthodoxies” (p. 372).	Parashar critiques postcolonialism for often celebrating nationalist movements without addressing their patriarchal structures, thus failing to account for internal inequalities within these newly independent states.
“The ordinariness of violence… as something that is implicated in the ordinary” (p. 373).	Reflecting on Veena Das’s concept, Parashar emphasizes how violence in postcolonial states is woven into daily life, challenging the notion of violence as an isolated or exceptional event.

Suggested Readings: “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

1. Sylvester, Christine, et al. “Emotion and the Feminist IR Researcher.” International Studies Review, vol. 13, no. 4, 2011, pp. 687–708. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41428876. Accessed 2 Nov. 2024.
2. Parashar, Swati. “Feminism and postcolonialism:(En) gendering encounters.” Postcolonial Studies 19.4 (2016): 371-377.
3. True, Jacqui. “Securitizing Feminism or Feminist Security Studies?” International Studies Review, vol. 14, no. 1, 2012, pp. 193–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41428902. Accessed 2 Nov. 2024.