Film Studies in Literature - Literary Theory

Film Studies: Etymology, Term and Concept

Etymology of Film Studies

The term “Film Studies” is a compound noun composed of two words: “film” and “studies” derived from the Old English word “filmen” meaning “membrane” or “skin,” originally referred to the thin layer of light-sensitive emulsion used in photography and cinematography. “Studies,” from the Latin word “studium” meaning “eagerness” or “application,” denotes a systematic examination and analysis of a particular subject. Thus, “Film Studies” signifies the academic discipline dedicated to the rigorous investigation and interpretation of film as an art form, cultural product, and technological phenomenon.

Film Studies – Term and Concept

Term	Concept
Film	A motion picture, created by recording a series of images and projecting them rapidly to create the illusion of movement.
Study	The systematic examination and analysis of a particular subject, often involving research, interpretation, and critical evaluation.
Film Studies	The academic discipline focused on the historical, aesthetic, technological, economic, and cultural dimensions of film.
Film Theory	The body of ideas and concepts used to analyze and interpret films, including approaches such as formalism, structuralism, semiotics, psychoanalysis, feminism, and postcolonialism.
Film Criticism	The practice of evaluating and analyzing films, often published in reviews, essays, or books.
Film History	The study of the development and evolution of film as an art form and industry, tracing its origins, major movements, and influential figures.
Film Genre	A category of films sharing common narrative conventions, thematic concerns, and stylistic elements, such as westerns, musicals, science fiction, or horror.
Film Production	The process of creating a film, including pre-production (planning and development), production (shooting and recording), and post-production (editing and sound mixing).
Film Exhibition	The presentation of films to audiences, traditionally in theaters but also through other platforms like television, streaming services, or home video.

Film Studies: Theorist, Works and Arguments

Early Film Theorists (1890s-1920s)

Étienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904)

Works: Time and Motion Studies
Arguments: Marey’s pioneering work in chronophotography aimed to capture and analyze motion, laying the groundwork for understanding movement scientifically. His studies influenced early filmmakers by showing how sequential images could depict motion over time.

Georges Méliès (1861-1938)

Works: A Trip to the Moon (1902)
Arguments: Méliès used film as a medium for fantasy and illusion, emphasizing the potential of cinema to create magical and otherworldly experiences. He innovated with special effects, editing techniques, and elaborate set designs, demonstrating film’s capability to tell imaginative stories beyond mere recordings of reality.

Silent Film Era (1920s)

Sergei Eisenstein (1898-1948)

Works: Battleship Potemkin (1925), The Film Sense (1942)
Arguments: Eisenstein’s theory of montage posited that the collision of images through editing could create new meanings and evoke emotional and intellectual responses. He believed that film could be used to convey complex ideas and social messages, using techniques like rhythmic editing and juxtaposition.

Lev Kuleshov (1899-1970)

Works: Kuleshov Effect experiments
Arguments: Kuleshov demonstrated the power of editing in shaping audience perception. His experiments showed that the same actor’s expression could convey different emotions depending on the context provided by preceding and following images, highlighting the importance of montage in narrative construction.

Rudolf Arnheim (1904-2007)

Works: Film as Art (1933)
Arguments: Arnheim argued that film’s artistic potential lay in its ability to manipulate reality through framing, editing, and other techniques. He emphasized the psychological impact of visual elements, asserting that film could transcend mere reproduction of reality to become a unique art form.

Classical Hollywood and Realism (1930s-1940s)

André Bazin (1918-1958)

Works: What is Cinema? (1967)
Arguments: Bazin championed realism in cinema, advocating for techniques like long takes and deep focus that preserve the continuity of space and time. He believed that film should represent reality as closely as possible, allowing audiences to interpret scenes without overt manipulation by the filmmaker.

Post-War and Auteur Theory (1950s-1960s)

Alexandre Astruc (1923-2016)

Works: “The Birth of a New Avant-Garde: La Caméra-Stylo” (1948)
Arguments: Astruc introduced the concept of “camera-stylo” (camera-pen), suggesting that directors should use their cameras as writers use their pens, expressing personal visions and ideas. This notion laid the foundation for auteur theory, which posits that the director is the primary author of a film.

François Truffaut (1932-1984)

Works: “A Certain Tendency of the French Cinema” (1954)
Arguments: Truffaut criticized the “Tradition of Quality” in French cinema, which he saw as formulaic and literary. He advocated for a more personal, expressive form of filmmaking, where directors exerted control over all aspects of production, shaping films to reflect their unique artistic vision.

Structuralism and Semiotics (1960s-1970s)

Christian Metz (1931-1993)

Works: Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema (1968)
Arguments: Metz applied semiotic theory to film, analyzing how cinema functions as a language through signs and codes. He explored how films communicate meaning, arguing that understanding the structure of film language is crucial for interpreting cinematic texts.

Roland Barthes (1915-1980)

Works: “The Third Meaning: Research Notes on Some Eisenstein Stills” (1970)
Arguments: Barthes explored the concept of the ‘third meaning,’ an additional layer of meaning in images that goes beyond the literal and symbolic. He argued that this third level creates a surplus of signification, which can evoke deeper, more complex interpretations from the audience.

Feminist and Psychoanalytic Film Theory (1970s-1980s)

Laura Mulvey (1941- )

Works: “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975)
Arguments: Mulvey introduced the concept of the male gaze, analyzing how mainstream cinema objectifies women and positions viewers to adopt a male perspective. She used psychoanalytic theory to critique the way films reinforce patriarchal structures and suggested alternative forms of cinema that challenge these norms.

Christian Metz (1931-1993)

Works: The Imaginary Signifier (1977)
Arguments: Metz combined psychoanalysis with film theory to explore how spectators identify with characters and narrative structures. He examined the role of the mirror stage in cinema, where viewers project themselves into the filmic experience, blurring the lines between reality and illusion.

Postmodernism and Cultural Studies (1980s-Present)

Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007)

Works: Simulacra and Simulation (1981)
Arguments: Baudrillard argued that in the postmodern era, media and film create hyperreality, where the distinction between reality and its representation becomes blurred. He posited that simulacra—copies without an original—dominate contemporary culture, leading to a world where simulations are perceived as more real than reality itself.

David Bordwell (1947- )

Works: Narration in the Fiction Film (1985), The Classical Hollywood Cinema (1985)
Arguments: Bordwell analyzed the narrative structures and stylistic conventions of classical Hollywood cinema, emphasizing its formal properties and historical development. He focused on how films construct stories and engage audiences through systematic techniques of narration and style.

Henry Jenkins (1958- )

Works: Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture (1992)
Arguments: Jenkins examined how fans actively engage with media texts, creating their own interpretations and communities. He introduced the concept of convergence culture, where media consumers become producers, and explored the impact of this participatory culture on traditional media boundaries.

Film Studies: Principles

Principle	Description	Film Example	Perspective & Critique
Cinematography	The art of photography and camera work in filmmaking.	Blade Runner 2049	Visual Perspective: The film uses lighting and shadow to create a moody, futuristic atmosphere. The critique often highlights the innovative use of color and framing to convey the story’s themes.
Editing	The process of selecting and combining shots into sequences to shape the narrative.	Whiplash	Rhythmic Perspective: Critics note how the editing mirrors the intense rhythms of the drumming protagonist, enhancing the viewer’s emotional engagement and tension.
Sound Design	The creation and integration of the audio elements in a film.	Dunkirk	Immersive Perspective: The film’s sound design is often praised for its immersive quality, using a ticking clock and escalating soundscapes to heighten the sense of urgency and realism.
Narrative Structure	The structural framework that outlines the sequence of events in a film.	Pulp Fiction	Non-linear Perspective: The fragmented narrative structure challenges traditional storytelling, which is critiqued for both its innovation and its potential to confuse viewers.
Themes & Symbolism	The underlying messages and symbols used throughout the film to convey deeper meanings.	Pan’s Labyrinth	Symbolic Perspective: The film uses fantasy elements as symbols of historical and personal trauma. Critics explore how these symbols contrast with the brutal reality of war.
Character Development	The arc of transformation or growth that characters undergo over the course of a film.	The Godfather	Evolutionary Perspective: Michael Corleone’s transformation from reluctant outsider to ruthless leader is critically examined as a commentary on power and corruption.
Genre	The category of film that influences the style and elements used based on established conventions.	Get Out	Genre-blending Perspective: Critiques focus on how the film blends horror with social satire, subverting traditional genre expectations to address complex themes of race and identity.
Mise-en-scène	The arrangement of everything that appears in the framing – actors, lighting, décor, props, etc.	Amélie	Stylized Perspective: Critics appreciate how the film’s whimsical mise-en-scène complements the protagonist’s inner world, using vibrant colors and intricate details to reflect her imaginative and quirky nature.

Film Studies and Literary Theories: Interdisciplinary Connections

Film Studies, while a distinct discipline, shares significant connections with literary theories due to the shared interest in narrative, representation, and cultural meaning. Many literary theories have been adapted and applied to film analysis, enriching the understanding of cinematic texts. The table below illustrates the relevance of literary theories to Film Studies with specific examples:

Literary Theory	Relevance to Film Studies	Example
Formalism/Structuralism	Focus on the formal elements of film, such as editing, cinematography, mise-en-scène, and narrative structure, to understand how they create meaning.	Analyzing the use of montage in Sergei Eisenstein’s “Battleship Potemkin” to create emotional impact and political commentary.
Semiotics	Examines how signs and symbols in film, such as visual imagery, dialogue, and sound, convey meaning and contribute to the film’s overall message.	Analyzing the symbolism of color in “The Wizard of Oz,” where the transition from black and white to color represents Dorothy’s journey into a fantastical world.
Psychoanalysis	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters in film, as well as the potential psychological effects of film on viewers.	Analyzing the dream sequences in Alfred Hitchcock’s “Spellbound” to understand the protagonist’s repressed memories and anxieties.
Feminism	Examines the representation of gender in film, challenging traditional stereotypes and exploring the experiences of women both on and off screen.	Analyzing the portrayal of female characters in “Thelma and Louise” as a subversion of traditional gender roles and a celebration of female empowerment.
Postcolonialism	Analyzes the representation of colonized peoples and cultures in film, challenging Eurocentric perspectives and exploring the complexities of cultural identity.	Analyzing the depiction of cultural conflict and identity in Satyajit Ray’s “Apu Trilogy,” set in post-colonial India.
Marxism	Examines the social and economic structures that shape the production and reception of film, as well as the ideological messages embedded in films.	Analyzing the representation of class struggle and social inequality in Fritz Lang’s “Metropolis,” a dystopian vision of a capitalist society.
Queer Theory	Examines the representation of sexuality and gender identity in film, challenging heteronormative assumptions and exploring the diversity of queer experiences.	Analyzing the depiction of queer desire and identity in Todd Haynes’ “Carol,” a love story between two women in the 1950s.

Film Studies: Major Elements of Film Critiques with Examples

Plot and Narrative Structure: Evaluates how the story is structured and unfolds.
Example: In Memento, the reverse chronological order serves to immerse the audience into the protagonist’s experience of memory loss, often highlighted in critiques for its innovative storytelling technique.
Character Development: Discusses the evolution of characters throughout the film and how well these arcs are portrayed.
Example: Silver Linings Playbook features detailed critiques on the authentic development of its characters dealing with mental health issues, emphasizing the performances that bring depth to their personal growth.
Themes and Underlying Messages: Analyzes the themes the film explores and what messages it conveys to the audience.
Example: Critiques of The Matrix often explore its philosophical themes, including the nature of reality and freedom vs. control, highlighting its depth beyond the action-packed surface.

Direction: Focuses on the director’s vision and execution.
Example: In Birdman, the direction by Alejandro González Iñárritu is often lauded for its seamless appearance of being filmed in a single shot, creating a continuous narrative flow.
Cinematography: Examines the visual presentation of the film, including camera work and lighting.
Example: La La Land is frequently praised in critiques for its vibrant cinematography and dynamic use of color, which enhance its nostalgic yet contemporary take on classic Hollywood musicals.
Editing: Looks at how the film is put together, including the rhythm and pace set by the editing style.
Example: Mad Max: Fury Road is often highlighted for its fast-paced editing that contributes to the intense, chaotic atmosphere of the film, keeping viewers engaged and on edge.

Soundtrack and Sound Design: Reviews the effectiveness and integration of music and sound in the film.
Example: Inception uses its soundtrack, especially the iconic use of deep, reverberating horn sounds, to enhance the dramatic tension and underline the layers of the dream within a dream setup.
Set Design and Mise-en-scène: Considers how the visual styling, set design, and overall scene composition contribute to the storytelling.
Example: The Grand Budapest Hotel receives extensive praise for its meticulously crafted set designs and a detailed mise-en-scène that perfectly complements the whimsical and colorful narrative style of Wes Anderson.
Impact and Cultural Relevance: Assesses the film’s influence on culture and its relevance to contemporary issues.
Example: Black Panther is critically acclaimed not just for its storytelling and production quality but also for its cultural significance and positive impact in representing African cultures and addressing themes of identity and heritage.

Film Studies: Criticism Against It

Subjectivity in Analysis:
Criticism: One common critique is that film studies can be overly subjective. Since film analysis often involves interpreting themes, symbols, and messages, different critics may have vastly different takes on the same film, leading to criticisms that the field lacks objective standards.
Counterpoint: Advocates argue that the subjective nature of film studies allows for a rich diversity of interpretations and deeper engagement with the material, reflecting the complex, multifaceted nature of human experiences and artistic expression.
Commercial vs. Artistic Focus:
Criticism: There is a perceived divide in film studies between focusing on commercially successful blockbusters versus art films. Critics argue that academic attention may skew toward more obscure, “artistic” films at the expense of mainstream cinema, which most audiences consume.
Counterpoint: Supporters of film studies contend that the field provides critical tools to appreciate all types of cinema, and that studying diverse film types enriches understanding of both popular and niche cinematic expressions.
Accessibility and Elitism:
Criticism: Film studies can sometimes be seen as elitist, focusing on esoteric theories and jargon that can be inaccessible to the general public. This can alienate potential audiences who might otherwise be interested in learning about film in a more approachable way.
Counterpoint: Many in the field are pushing for more inclusive and accessible approaches that bridge academic film study and popular film appreciation, making the insights of film studies more available to a broader audience.

Practical Relevance:
Criticism: Critics often question the practical relevance of film studies, particularly in terms of career outcomes. They argue that the field does not provide clear pathways to employment outside academia or the film industry, which can be highly competitive.
Counterpoint: Proponents argue that film studies develop critical thinking, analytical skills, and cultural awareness, which are valuable in a variety of career paths, including media, education, advertising, and beyond.
Overemphasis on Theory:
Criticism: There’s a criticism that film studies may overemphasize theoretical over practical aspects of filmmaking. This leads to a situation where students might understand film theory well but lack the hands-on skills needed in the actual production of films.
Counterpoint: Many academic programs are now incorporating practical components such as filmmaking workshops, digital media training, and industry internships to provide a balanced education that includes both theory and practice.

Film Studies: How to Do a Film Critique

A film critique is a detailed analysis and evaluation of a film, considering its various elements and their contribution to the overall cinematic experience. Here’s a step-by-step approach to crafting a comprehensive film critique:

1. Pre-Viewing Preparation:

Research the film’s director, cast, genre, and historical context to understand its background and potential influences.
Familiarize yourself with relevant film theories and critical approaches that may aid your analysis.

2. Active Viewing:

Watch the film attentively, taking notes on key aspects like plot, characters, themes, visual style, and sound design.
Consider your emotional response and initial impressions of the film.

3. Second Viewing and Analysis:

Rewatch the film with a more critical eye, focusing on specific elements that stood out or raised questions.
Analyze the film’s narrative structure, character development, cinematography, editing, sound, and mise-en-scène.

Identify recurring motifs, symbols, or thematic patterns.
Consider how the film engages with social, cultural, or political issues.

4. Research and Contextualization:

Consult scholarly articles, reviews, and interviews related to the film to gain additional insights and perspectives.
Consider the film’s historical context and its relationship to other films in its genre or by the same director.

5. Formulating Your Critique:

Develop a clear thesis statement that encapsulates your overall evaluation of the film.
Organize your analysis into coherent paragraphs, each focusing on a specific aspect of the film.
Support your claims with evidence from the film, using specific examples and citing relevant scenes or dialogue.

Consider both the strengths and weaknesses of the film, offering a balanced and nuanced assessment.

6. Writing Your Critique:

Begin with an introduction that provides essential background information and introduces your thesis statement.

Develop your analysis in the body paragraphs, using clear topic sentences and transitions.
Conclude by summarizing your main points and restating your overall evaluation of the film.

Example: Film Critique of “Parasite” (2019)

Aspect	Analysis
Narrative Structure	The film’s narrative unfolds in a series of unexpected twists and turns, subverting genre expectations and keeping the audience engaged.
Character Development	The characters are complex and multifaceted, their motivations driven by social and economic disparities.
Cinematography	The film’s visual style is striking, using framing, composition, and lighting to create a sense of unease and tension.
Editing	The editing is precise and dynamic, contributing to the film’s fast pace and suspenseful atmosphere.
Sound	The sound design is meticulously crafted, using music and sound effects to heighten the emotional impact of key scenes.
Themes	The film explores themes of class struggle, social inequality, and the dark side of the pursuit of wealth.
Overall Evaluation	“Parasite” is a masterful work of cinema, a thought-provoking and entertaining film that challenges viewers to confront uncomfortable truths about society.

This table provides a brief example of how a film critique might be structured, focusing on key aspects of Bong Joon-ho’s “Parasite.” By following this step-by-step approach and tailoring it to your chosen film, you can write a thoughtful and insightful film critique that demonstrates your understanding of the medium and its artistic potential.

Film Studies: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Cinematography	The art of making motion pictures, focusing on visual elements like framing, lighting, and camera angles.
Mise-en-scène	Everything that appears before the camera and its arrangement—includes sets, props, actors, costumes, and lighting.
Montage	A series of short shots edited into a sequence to condense space, time, and information.
Diegesis	The narrative “world” of the film—includes events, characters, objects, settings, and sounds that are part of the story.
Non-diegetic Elements	Elements that do not exist in the film’s “world” but are used to enhance the narrative, such as score music and titles.
Editing	The process by which different shots are pieced together to form a coherent film.
Foley	The reproduction of everyday sound effects added to film, video, and other media in post-production to enhance audio quality.
Genre	A category of film that shares familiar narrative structures, styles, or themes, like horror, comedy, or drama.
Auteur	A filmmaker whose personal influence and artistic control over a movie are so significant that they are regarded as the author of the movie.
Narratology	The study of narrative structure and how it influences our perception and interpretation of a story.

Film Studies: Suggested Readings

Books:

Bordwell, David, and Kristin Thompson. Film Art: An Introduction. 12th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.

Corrigan, Timothy. A Short Guide to Writing About Film. 10th ed., Pearson, 2018.
Stam, Robert, and Toby Miller. A New Vocabulary of Cultural Studies. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Weblinks:

The Criterion Collection: A curated collection of classic and contemporary films, with essays, interviews, and special features. https://www.criterionchannel.com/
Film Comment: A leading film magazine featuring reviews, essays, and interviews with filmmakers and critics. https://www.filmlinc.org/about-us/film-comment/
Senses of Cinema: An online journal of film studies and criticism, featuring articles, reviews, and interviews. https://www.sensesofcinema.com/

“The Film Theorists.” YouTube, uploaded by The Film Theorists, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/user/FilmTheorists. Accessed 24 July 2024.