“Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan: A Critical Analysis

Introduction: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

“Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan first appeared in 1948 in his collection titled Der Sand aus den Urnen (The Sand from the Urns), originally written in German. The poem was later included in Celan’s 1952 collection Mohn und Gedächtnis (Poppy and Memory), where it gained wider acclaim. It was subsequently translated into English by Michael Hamburger, among others, which helped bring Celan’s haunting imagery and powerful language to a broader audience. The poem is one of the most striking literary responses to the Holocaust, capturing the brutal horror of Nazi concentration camps with a surreal and repetitive musicality, reminiscent of a fugue’s layered structure. The imagery of “black milk” and contrasting visions of life and death evoke the inescapable, cyclical nature of suffering. Its stark and ambiguous language, combined with powerful metaphors, has contributed to its lasting popularity, resonating with readers as both a memorial and a harrowing testament to the atrocities of genocide.

Text: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown
we drink it at noon in the morning we drink it at night
we drink it and drink it
we dig a grave in the breezes there one lies unconfined
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents
    he writes
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden
    hair Margarete
he writes it ans steps out of doors and the stars are
    flashing he whistles his pack out
he whistles his Jews out in earth has them dig for a
    grave
he commands us strike up for the dance

Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night
we drink you in the morning at noon we drink you at
    sundown
we drink and we drink you
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents
    he writes
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair
    Margarete
your ashen hair Sulamith we dig a grave in the breezes
    there one lies unconfined

He calls out jab deeper into the earth you lot you
    others sing now and play
he grabs at the iron in his belt he waves it his
    eyes are blue
jab deeper you lot with your spades you others play
    on for the dance

Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night
we drink you at at noon in the morning we drink you
    at sundown
we drink and we drink you
a man lives in the house your golden hair Margarete
your ashen hair Sulamith he plays with the serpents
He calls out more sweetly play death death is a master
    from Germany
he calls out more darkly now stroke your strings then
    as smoke you will rise into air
then a grave you will have in the clouds there one
    lies unconfined

Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night
we drink you at noon death is a master from Germany
we drink you at sundown and in the morning we drink
    and we drink you
death is a master from Germany his eyes are blue
he strikes you with leaden bullets his aim is true
a man lives in the house your golden hair Margarete
he sets his pack on to us he grants us a grave in
    the air
He plays with the serpents and daydreams death is
    a master from Germany

your golden hair Margarete
your ashen hair Shulamith

Translated by Michael Hamburger

Annotations: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

Line	Annotation
Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown	“Black milk” is an oxymoronic metaphor combining nourishment (milk) with death or despair (black), suggesting the unnatural cycle of suffering endured by Holocaust victims. The repeated drinking highlights both ritual and compulsion.
we drink it at noon in the morning we drink it at night	The cyclical structure, echoing a fugue, reflects the endless torment and hopeless routine experienced by those in concentration camps. The repetition underscores the inescapability of suffering.
we drink it and drink it	This repetition emphasizes the forced, ongoing consumption of suffering and hopelessness. The continuous nature reinforces a sense of despair.
we dig a grave in the breezes there one lies unconfined	The image of an open, unconfined grave in the wind is haunting; it signifies the absence of a proper burial, the disposability of lives, and the lack of peace even in death.
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents	The “man” symbolizes a Nazi officer or SS guard, who exhibits cruelty and detachment, treating deadly “serpents” (possibly representing poisonous or evil acts) as playthings. This depiction of him as a serpent-handler reflects a person accustomed to wielding harm without empathy.
he writes	This moment signifies the guard documenting, perhaps administering records of executions or selections in a dispassionate, bureaucratic way, showing a chilling regularity.
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair Margarete	“Golden hair Margarete” refers to a symbol of the idealized German Aryan woman from Goethe’s Faust, juxtaposed against the brutality of the camp, embodying German culture twisted into barbarity.
he writes it and steps out of doors and the stars are flashing he whistles his pack out	The action of stepping outside into the “flashing stars” implies a connection to the broader world beyond the camp, indifferent to the horrors. “Pack” refers to dogs or guards summoned to oversee the prisoners, a show of dominance.
he whistles his Jews out in earth has them dig for a grave	The phrase “his Jews” reflects the possessive, dehumanizing attitude of the oppressors, forcing them to dig their own graves, adding cruelty to their final acts.
he commands us strike up for the dance	This ironic command to “dance” highlights the sadistic mockery involved in forcing prisoners to perform futile acts, reducing life to a grotesque performance overseen by death.
Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night	The phrase returns, signaling the unrelenting cycle of anguish, as they drink again, suggesting both literal and metaphorical consumption of pain and submission to their fate.
we drink you in the morning at noon we drink you at sundown	Repetition of “we drink” intensifies the inescapable suffering experienced at all times, underscoring the endless trauma faced by the victims.
we drink and we drink you	Continuous, compulsive drinking reflects a forced and perpetual state of misery, exhaustion, and despair, embodying the repetitive horror.
A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents	Again, the man “playing with serpents” denotes his cruelty, reinforcing his dehumanized, almost mythical evil that toys with others’ suffering.
he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair Margarete	The invocation of Margarete, a literary figure, in contrast to “ashen hair Sulamith” below, evokes the symbolic difference between Aryan ideals and Jewish suffering, casting them as opposing symbols within German society and culture.
your ashen hair Sulamith we dig a grave in the breezes there one lies unconfined	Sulamith (or Shulamith) is a reference to a Jewish woman, creating an image of her with ashen hair, a symbol of death and loss. “Unconfined grave” in “breezes” again implies the ephemeral, unmarked fate of victims.
He calls out jab deeper into the earth you lot you others sing now and play	The guard’s order to “jab deeper” as he commands “others” to sing adds a sense of mockery and sadistic detachment, making the grave-digging a grotesque ritual. The “dance” and “play” commands reveal the chilling disconnect from human empathy.
he grabs at the iron in his belt he waves it his eyes are blue	The “iron” and “blue eyes” invoke the stereotypical Nazi appearance, symbolizing power, violence, and a twisted Aryan ideal in action. The iron represents a weapon, signifying control over life and death.
jab deeper you lot with your spades you others play on for the dance	The repetition of “jab deeper” and “play for the dance” heightens the sense of forced ritual. The prisoners are dehumanized, reduced to instruments of their own death.
Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night	The stanza’s recurring “black milk” refrain continues to emphasize the forced consumption of suffering and despair, signaling an unbreakable pattern of violence.
we drink you at noon in the morning we drink you at sundown	The daily ritualized suffering endures through the days, each part of the day marked by renewed horror and relentless cycles of despair.
we drink and we drink you	This line reinforces the unending anguish and the forced submission to their tormentors, as if life itself has become a poison they must continually ingest.
a man lives in the house your golden hair Margarete	The stanza revisits the man and Margarete, evoking once more the twisted appropriation of cultural beauty and heroism against the backdrop of horror, contrasting the German ideal with suffering.
your ashen hair Sulamith he plays with the serpents	The juxtaposition of “golden” and “ashen” hair, symbolizing Margarete (German culture) and Sulamith (Jewish culture), brings out the violent rift imposed by Nazi ideology.
He calls out more sweetly play death death is a master from Germany	The “sweet” command “play death” is profoundly ironic, as it humanizes death as a “master,” suggesting that death, even cruelty, is crafted to perfection under Nazi ideology.
he calls out more darkly now stroke your strings then as smoke you will rise into air	The “darkly” toned “stroke your strings” speaks to the prisoners’ own death march, as “smoke” implies their imminent transformation into ash in the crematorium, an image of profound horror.
then a grave you will have in the clouds there one lies unconfined	Their “grave in the clouds” poignantly reflects the crematorium’s ash, as well as the denied rest and respect for their remains, floating free but unremembered, untethered.
Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night	Reiteration of the “black milk” line underscores the ongoing, ritualistic suffering, turning each day into a haunting cycle of consumption and torment.
we drink you at noon death is a master from Germany	This line further personifies “death as a master,” linking Germany’s ideals to the Holocaust’s orchestrated violence and revealing the organized cruelty inflicted.
we drink you at sundown and in the morning we drink and we drink you	The refrain emphasizes the endless repetition, with suffering embedded in every part of the day, trapping the victims in a continuous loop of torment.
death is a master from Germany his eyes are blue	The repetition of “blue eyes” casts death as Aryan, embodying the Nazi ideal and reflecting a cold, detached execution of the Holocaust. The “master” title is both a mockery and a tragic testament.
he strikes you with leaden bullets his aim is true	The precision of “true aim” shows the efficiency and calculated nature of Nazi brutality, where each act of killing is deliberate and systematic.
a man lives in the house your golden hair Margarete	The reference to Margarete as part of German culture stands in stark contrast to the dehumanization and suffering symbolized by Sulamith, highlighting cultural irony.
he sets his pack on to us he grants us a grave in the air	“Grave in the air” suggests the crematoria and dispersal of ashes, stripping the victims of physical burial, instead reduced to smoke, reinforcing the grim irony of their unmarked fate.
He plays with the serpents and daydreams death is a master from Germany	This line underscores the detachment and almost whimsical cruelty of the perpetrator, treating death as an art form, revealing the horror of Nazi ideology.
your golden hair Margarete	The haunting final image of “golden hair Margarete” signifies the Nazi ideal still standing, unscathed by the horrors inflicted.
your ashen hair Shulamith	Sulamith’s ashen hair symbolizes the burnt remains of Jewish victims, contrasting German ideals with the enduring loss of Jewish culture and life. The imagery leaves the reader with the irreversible outcome of genocide.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

Literary/Poetic Device	Example(s)	Explanation
Anaphora	“we drink it at…”	The repetition of “we drink it” at various points emphasizes the relentless and ritualistic nature of suffering, evoking the despairing routine of camp life.
Antithesis	“Golden hair Margarete / your ashen hair Sulamith”	The contrast between “golden” (purity, beauty) and “ashen” (death, destruction) symbolizes the difference between German idealized culture and Jewish suffering, reflecting the racial ideology behind the Holocaust.
Apostrophe	“Death is a master from Germany”	Death is personified and directly addressed as a master from Germany, transforming it into a sentient being with authority over life, heightening the sense of horror by humanizing death in the Nazi role.
Assonance	“We drink you at noon”	The repetition of vowel sounds, like the “o” in “noon” and “you,” contributes to the poem’s rhythmic flow and adds a haunting, chant-like quality.
Connotation	“serpents,” “golden hair,” “ashen hair”	Words like “serpents” (evil or sin) and “golden hair” (purity, Aryan ideal) carry cultural and symbolic meaning, adding depth by reflecting the Nazi’s moral corruption and racial ideals.
Diction	“Master,” “milk,” “serpents,” “grave in the air”	Celan’s choice of words blends everyday and mythic imagery, using simple language to convey the enormity of suffering, while terms like “serpents” and “master” evoke religious and mythological references.
Enjambment	Lines continue without pause, e.g., “we drink it at noon / in the morning”	Enjambment creates a sense of urgency, mirroring the frantic, inescapable progression of time for Holocaust victims and the relentless continuation of violence.
Epistrophe	“we drink you,” “your golden hair Margarete,” “your ashen hair Sulamith”	The repetition at the ends of lines or clauses reinforces key images, embedding the contrasting figures of Margarete and Sulamith in the reader’s mind and emphasizing the repetition of suffering.
Euphony	“Golden hair Margarete”	The smooth, harmonious sound of “golden hair Margarete” contrasts with the brutal content, highlighting the irony of beauty intertwined with horror.
Irony	“death is a master from Germany”	The description of death as a “master” ironically praises death as a leader, reflecting the Nazi ideology that considered their genocidal acts disciplined and righteous.
Juxtaposition	“Golden hair Margarete / your ashen hair Sulamith”	Placing Margarete and Sulamith side by side intensifies their symbolic contrast, emphasizing the victims’ suffering against the backdrop of Nazi ideals.
Metaphor	“Black milk of daybreak”	The oxymoronic metaphor “black milk” combines nourishment with darkness, suggesting that even life-giving substances are poisoned under Nazi rule.
Oxymoron	“Black milk”	The juxtaposition of “black” and “milk” creates an oxymoron, representing a perversion of sustenance and reflecting the Holocaust’s twisted reality.
Paradox	“We dig a grave in the breezes”	A grave in “breezes” implies burial in the intangible or in air, symbolizing the disposability of human life and the lack of proper resting places for victims, a paradox of burial without rest.
Personification	“Death is a master from Germany”	Death is personified as a commanding figure, giving it agency and suggesting that death was systematically orchestrated and revered under Nazi control.
Refrain	“Black milk of daybreak we drink you at night”	This recurring line serves as a haunting refrain, mirroring the endless repetition of suffering and the prisoners’ helpless cycle in the camps.
Symbolism	“Golden hair Margarete” and “ashen hair Sulamith”	Margarete represents Aryan ideals, and Sulamith the Jewish victims, embodying the ideological split and Nazi-imposed racial division that led to the Holocaust.
Synecdoche	“his pack”	Referring to guards or attack dogs as “pack” reduces them to animalistic components, symbolizing dehumanized cruelty and group compliance within the Nazi regime.
Tone	Somber, haunting, accusatory	The poem’s tone is dark and mournful, with an accusatory edge that directs the reader to confront the horrors inflicted by Nazi ideology. The tone’s bitterness and sadness also amplify the tragedy and moral gravity of the Holocaust’s impact.

Themes: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

1. The Horror and Mechanization of Death
   Celan’s “Fugue of Death” conveys the systematic, industrial nature of death during the Holocaust, portraying it as both a ritual and a bureaucratic process. The line, “death is a master from Germany,” personifies death as a disciplined leader, a masterful figure who orchestrates death with precision and pride, reflecting the Nazi regime’s horrifying efficiency. The repeated references to “jab deeper into the earth” and the routine consumption of “black milk” illustrate the dehumanizing repetition and normalization of brutality, where life and death have become mechanized within an inescapable cycle. The poem’s rhythm-like structure mirrors this machine-like precision, reinforcing the theme of industrialized horror.
2. Loss of Identity and Humanity
   Throughout “Fugue of Death”, Celan depicts the loss of identity and humanity that victims of the Holocaust endured, reduced to mere objects within the oppressors’ cruelty. This is conveyed through phrases like “we dig a grave in the breezes,” suggesting a faceless, nameless mass destined to vanish without remembrance or proper burial. Contrasting the “golden hair Margarete” with “your ashen hair Sulamith,” Celan presents Jewish victims as dehumanized symbols rather than individuals, opposing them to idealized Aryan attributes. This juxtaposition strips the victims of personal identity, reducing them to markers of suffering, while German ideals remain untouched, highlighting a systematic erasure of Jewish humanity.
3. Cultural Irony and Contradiction
   The poem juxtaposes German cultural ideals with the Nazi brutality of the Holocaust, creating a profound irony in the pairing of “Margarete” and “Sulamith.” Margarete, a symbol of Aryan purity and German culture, is invoked alongside Sulamith, a traditional figure in Jewish culture, representing an unbearable contradiction. While Germany held a proud intellectual and artistic heritage, these ideals coexisted with—or even justified—the atrocities inflicted on Jewish people. The line “he writes when dusk falls to Germany your golden hair Margarete” underscores this bitter irony, suggesting that while one heritage is idealized and preserved, the other is systematically destroyed, exposing the hollow morality within this cultural contradiction.
4. The Inescapability of Trauma and Memory
   “Fugue of Death” reflects the lasting impact of trauma, which cannot be confined or erased. The poem’s refrain of “we drink and we drink you” alludes to a haunting, continuous consumption of pain and loss that endures across time, as if these experiences cannot be forgotten. The circular, fugue-like structure of the poem mirrors the endless nature of this trauma, with the prisoners’ suffering seeming to continue indefinitely. This idea of cyclical, unending sorrow is embodied in phrases like “a grave in the air,” where death is not a release but a lingering state, suspended in memory and haunting those who survive. Celan’s poem, thus, is a testament to the inescapable weight of memory for Holocaust survivors and humanity alike.

Literary Theories and “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

Literary Theory	Application to “Fugue of Death”	References from the Poem
Post-Structuralism	This theory, which explores the instability of language and meaning, aligns with Celan’s complex imagery and paradoxes, suggesting that language struggles to fully capture the horrors of the Holocaust. The fragmented structure and the repeated phrases challenge fixed interpretations, inviting multiple readings.	The recurring paradox in “black milk of daybreak” destabilizes traditional associations, as “milk” (typically pure) becomes dark and poisonous. The refrain “we drink and we drink you” further destabilizes meaning, transforming an act of nourishment into one of despair.
Trauma Theory	Trauma theory examines how extreme suffering affects individuals and their ability to articulate experiences. In Celan’s poem, fragmented images and repetitive language reflect the haunting, inescapable memory of the Holocaust. This disjointed style represents a struggle to make sense of trauma and is itself a form of testimony.	The refrain “death is a master from Germany” illustrates how the trauma of genocide disrupts normalcy, turning death into an authority figure. Phrases like “your golden hair Margarete / your ashen hair Sulamith” suggest fractured identities, symbolizing the trauma of cultural loss.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory posits that meaning arises through the reader’s interaction with the text. Fugue of Death relies heavily on the reader’s personal and cultural context, especially in recognizing references to Holocaust imagery. The poem’s unsettling tone and allusions evoke an emotional response that varies by reader background.	The lines “he calls out jab deeper into the earth” and “a grave in the air” provoke visceral reactions, as readers confront the horrors of genocide. Similarly, “death is a master from Germany” invites readers to interpret the poem as both a historical witness and a moral indictment.

Critical Questions about “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

• How does Celan use paradoxical imagery to convey the unnatural horror of the Holocaust?
• Celan’s “Fugue of Death” is marked by paradoxical imagery, with phrases such as “black milk of daybreak” suggesting an unnatural reversal where sustenance is tainted and life-giving elements are instead poisonous. “Milk” typically symbolizes purity and nurturing, yet the color “black” corrupts this association, turning nourishment into despair. This paradox reflects the perversion of life and humanity under Nazi oppression, where ordinary acts (like drinking milk) become contaminated. Such contradictions also highlight the limitations of language to fully capture the Holocaust’s horror, as everyday images are forced to bear impossible meanings in the wake of extreme trauma.
• What role does repetition play in conveying the psychological impact of the Holocaust on its victims?
• The poem’s relentless repetition, particularly with the line “we drink and we drink you,” mirrors the cyclical, inescapable experience of suffering endured by Holocaust victims. This repetition embodies both the physical and psychological toll of relentless trauma, forcing readers to experience a fragment of the victims’ trapped existence. The structure itself reflects a musical fugue, where themes repeat and interweave, reinforcing a sense of oppressive inevitability. By immersing the reader in this cycle of repetition, Celan effectively conveys the psychological impact of trauma as an endless loop of anguish, memory, and loss.
• How does Celan portray the dehumanizing effects of Nazi ideology through references to “Margarete” and “Sulamith”?
• In “Fugue of Death,” Celan contrasts “your golden hair Margarete” with “your ashen hair Sulamith,” juxtaposing the German ideal of beauty (Margarete) with the suffering of Jewish identity (Sulamith). This contrast starkly reveals the dehumanizing effects of Nazi ideology, which revered Aryan qualities while systematically destroying Jewish culture and lives. Margarete represents Germany’s cultural heritage, while Sulamith’s “ashen hair” signifies death and mourning. This pairing intensifies the tragedy of the Holocaust, as one culture is idealized and preserved, while the other is condemned to ashes, illustrating the devastating consequences of racial ideology on human lives.
• How does the personification of death as a “master from Germany” deepen the poem’s critique of systematic violence?
• Celan’s choice in “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan to describe death as “a master from Germany” personifies it with both agency and nationality, transforming death into a calculated, almost revered figure that commands respect and obedience. This depiction critiques the systematic nature of Nazi violence, where killing became an organized, normalized process under the guise of state authority. Phrases like “he whistles his pack out” suggest death’s subordinates (guards or soldiers) act upon his orders, underscoring the orchestrated cruelty inflicted on Holocaust victims. By elevating death to a “master,” Celan highlights the chilling control of Nazi ideology over life, ultimately condemning the obedience and loyalty it demanded to carry out acts of unimaginable horror.

Literary Works Similar to “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

1. “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas
   Though not explicitly about war, this poem’s fierce resistance against death and its repetitive structure echo Celan’s rhythmic struggle against the inescapable presence of death.
2. “The Dead” by Siegfried Sassoon
   Sassoon’s poem on the senselessness of death in World War I parallels Celan’s themes of dehumanization, presenting death as an inevitable, haunting force amidst wartime suffering.
3. “September Song” by Geoffrey Hill
   This poem mourns a child lost in the Holocaust, employing minimalist language and painful brevity akin to Celan’s to evoke the scale of loss and tragedy.
4. “Yom Kippur 1984” by Adrienne Rich
   Rich’s work reflects on the collective memory of trauma, using fragmented images and historical allusions that resonate with Celan’s exploration of loss and memory in a broken world.

Representative Quotations of “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown”	Repeated throughout the poem, this line introduces the paradox of “black milk,” symbolizing tainted nourishment.	Post-Structuralism: The contradictory “black milk” disrupts meaning, suggesting language’s inadequacy to convey the Holocaust’s horror.
“we drink it and drink it”	Describes the endless, forced consumption of suffering, symbolizing repetitive trauma.	Trauma Theory: Repetition represents the cyclical, inescapable nature of trauma, reflecting the prisoners’ lack of agency in their suffering.
“A man lives in the house he plays with the serpents”	Introduces the figure of a Nazi officer, dehumanized and associated with evil (“serpents”).	Psychoanalytic Theory: The officer embodies the monstrous “Other,” whose cruelty reflects suppressed human capacity for dehumanization.
“he writes when dusk falls to Germany”	The Nazi officer writes letters, symbolizing the ordinary routine within a context of horror.	Historical Materialism: Shows the bureaucratic, organized nature of Nazi operations, where cruelty is enacted through everyday actions.
“your golden hair Margarete”	Refers to Margarete, an idealized German figure from Goethe, contrasting with the poem’s Jewish victims.	Cultural Criticism: Margarete symbolizes Aryan purity, juxtaposing German cultural ideals with the reality of genocide.
“your ashen hair Sulamith”	Sulamith, with “ashen hair,” symbolizes Jewish suffering and mourning.	Post-Colonial Theory: Represents the marginalized Other, oppressed and destroyed by the dominant Aryan ideal.
“death is a master from Germany”	Death personified as an authoritarian figure, associating Nazi Germany with systematic death.	Critical Theory: Highlights the destructive ideology of Nazism, turning death into a methodical process controlled by the state.
“he calls out jab deeper into the earth you lot”	The guard orders prisoners to dig, dehumanizing them and mocking their impending death.	Existentialism: Emphasizes the loss of human agency, reducing prisoners to objects within a nihilistic system.
“then as smoke you will rise into air”	Depicts victims rising as smoke, a chilling reference to the crematoria.	Ecocriticism: The transformation of human remains into air and ash reflects a violation of nature, as bodies are denied peaceful rest.
“a grave in the air”	Suggests a surreal, unmarked burial without dignity, symbolizing the fate of Holocaust victims.	Deconstruction: Challenges traditional concepts of burial, life, and death, symbolizing the fragmented reality of those lost in the Holocaust.

Suggested Readings: “Fugue of Death” by Paul Celan

1. Weimar, Karl S. “Paul Celan’s ‘Todesfuge’: Translation and Interpretation.” PMLA, vol. 89, no. 1, 1974, pp. 85–96. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/461671. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
2. Glenn, Jerry. “Nightmares, Dreams and Intellectualization in the Poetry of Paul Celan.” World Literature Today, vol. 51, no. 4, 1977, pp. 522–25. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40131608. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
3. Friedlander, Albert Hoschander. “Paul Celan.” European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe, vol. 5, no. 1, 1970, pp. 19–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41442278. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.
4. Exner, Richard. “Some Reflections on Holocaust and Post-Holocaust Writing.” World Literature Today, vol. 60, no. 3, 1986, pp. 402–06. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40142204. Accessed 30 Oct. 2024.