Etymology of Inference
The term “inference” originated from the Latin verb inferre. It means “to bring in” or “to carry.” The word “inference” was first used in the English language in the 16th century. However, it used to refer to the act of bringing or carrying something particularly in the context of legal or philosophical arguments.
Meanings of Inference
It is a multidimensional term, having several semantic uses. Some of the meanings of this term are as follows.
- Logical reasoning: It refers to the process of logical reasoning in which premises or evidence become the source of the conclusion.
- Concluding from evidence: It refers, more broadly, to the act of drawing a conclusion or making a judgment based on available evidence or information.
- Prediction: Inference refers to the act of predicting or projecting future outcomes based on current or past events.
- Deduction: Inference is sometimes used synonymously with deduction, which refers, specifically, to the process of reasoning from general principles or assumptions to specific conclusions.
- Induction: In this shape, it refers to the process of reasoning from specific instances to general conclusions.
Definition of Inference
Inference as a literary device/rhetorical device refers to the process of drawing conclusions or making judgments based on hints or clues within a text. It involves using evidence from the text to arrive at a deeper understanding of the characters, themes, or plot.
Types of Inference
Here are some examples of the types of inferences.
| Inference Type | Definition | Example |
| Character inference | It means concluding a character’s traits, motivations, or intentions based on their actions, dialogue, or other textual clues. | For example, it would happen in a story that a character who consistently helps others is compassionate and caring. |
| Theme inference | It means using evidence from the text to determine the underlying themes or messages that the author is conveying. | Here it means that a novel explores the theme of redemption based on the protagonist’s journey from a life of crime to one of redemption and self-discovery. |
| Plot inference | It means using clues from the text to predict future events in the story or make sense of past events. | Here it means that a character’s suspicious behavior will lead to a plot twist or reveal later in the story. |
| Setting inference | It means using details about the setting (time, location, social context) to conclude the themes or messages of the text. | Here it means that a story set in a dystopian society comments on the dangers of unchecked governmental control. |
| Structural inference | It means using the structure of the text (foreshadowing, flashback) to draw concludes the themes or messages of the text. | Here infer means that a recurring symbol represents the cycle of life and death based on its appearance at key moments in the story. |
| Historical inference | It means using knowledge about the historical or cultural context of the text to conclude its meaning or significance. | Here it means that a poem written during a time of war reflects the poet”s feelings of despair and loss. |
| Emotional inference | It means using textual cues (tone, word choice) to infer the emotional state of characters or the overall mood of the text. | Here infer means a character’s use of sarcastic and bitter language indicates feelings of resentment or frustration. |
| Intertextual inference | It means using knowledge of other texts or cultural references to draw connections or deeper meaning from the text. | Here it means that an allusion to a famous Shakespearean tragedy in a novel that invites comparisons and adds layers of meaning to the story. |
| Reader-response inference | It means using the reader’s personal experiences and perspectives to conclude the text. | Here it means that a particular scene evokes a strong emotional response in the reader based on their personal history or background. |
| Authorial inference | It means concluding the author”s intentions or attitudes based on the text and other relevant information, such as biographical details. | Here infer means that a satirical essay criticizing societal norms reflects the author”s desire for social change and reform. |
| Psychological inference | It means using knowledge of psychology and human behavior to conclude about characters” motivations or reactions in the text. | Here it means that a character’s irrational fears stem from a traumatic experience based on their behavior and thought patterns. |
| Linguistic inference | It means using knowledge of language and linguistic structures to draw conclusions about the meaning and significance of the text. | Here it means that the repetition of a specific word in a poem emphasizes its central theme or idea. |
Literary Examples of Inference
- Character Inference:
Example: From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
Extract: “Jem threw open the gate and sped to the side of the house, slapped it with his palm, and ran back past us, not waiting to see if his foray was successful. Dill and I followed on his heels. Safely on our porch, panting and out of breath, we looked back.”
Explanation: In this extract, Jem’s impulsive act of running to the side of the house and slapping it implies that he is trying to conquer his fear or prove his bravery to his friends. This inference is based on his quick and excited response, suggesting a desire for validation.
- Theme Inference:
Example: From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
Extract: “Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us.”
Explanation: The recurring symbol of the green light and Gatsby’s belief in it suggests the theme of the American Dream and the relentless pursuit of an idealized future. The green light represents Gatsby’s hope and longing for wealth, success, and his desire to recapture the past.
- Setting Inference:
Example: From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
Extract: “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.”
Explanation: This famous opening line suggests that the novel is set in a society where marriage and social status are highly valued. The inference is that the setting of the story revolves around the social conventions and expectations of a society where marriage is a primary concern for both men and women.
- Structural Inference:
Example: From Macbeth by William Shakespeare
Extract: “By the pricking of my thumbs, Something wicked this way comes.”
Explanation: The use of foreshadowing through the witches’ prophecy creates a sense of impending evil or misfortune. The inference is that a malevolent force or character is about to enter the scene, which adds tension and builds anticipation for what is to come.Top of Form
These examples show how different types of inference could be identified and analyzed in various literary works, contributing to the reader’s understanding and interpretation of the text.
Suggested Readings
- Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1983.
- Eco, Umberto. Interpretation and Overinterpretation. Edited by Stefan Collini, Cambridge University Press, 1992.
- Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
- I.A. Richards. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1936.
- Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
- Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge University Press, 1958.
- Walton, Douglas. Media Argumentation: Dialectic, Persuasion, and Rhetoric. Cambridge University Press, 2018.