Introduction: “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton
“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton is a seminal piece that first appeared in the esteemed journal New Blackfriars in 2002. This insightful exploration of the relationship between irony and the Eucharist has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s analysis delves into the complexities of irony as a literary device and its potential to challenge traditional religious beliefs. His work has been widely cited and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and students alike.
Summary of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton
- Metaphor and Transubstantiation:
Eagleton begins by drawing a parallel between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how a word like “fire” can change its meaning (to anger or passion) while retaining its original form. Similarly, in the Eucharist, bread and wine retain their outward appearance but are understood to become the body and blood of Christ. Eagleton explains, “The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine,” but their “substance” has changed through metaphorical transformation. This comparison highlights the mystery of transubstantiation where physical signs take on profound spiritual meaning. - Semiotics of the Eucharist – The Concept of Meta-signs:
Eagleton introduces the idea of the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, meaning they not only signify but also comment on the nature of signification itself. He explains, “The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one,” signifying both the presence and absence of meaning. In this sense, the Eucharist functions as a meta-signification, reflecting on signs and meanings beyond their literal forms. - Irony in Signification:
The Eucharist, Eagleton argues, carries an inherent irony. While it appears to be bread and wine, it symbolizes a reality beyond mere physical presence: the body of Christ. This is “a kind of symbolic face-to-faceness” where the elements signify both the presence of Christ and the transcendence of earthly signs. Eagleton emphasizes the irony in signifying the “non-discursive discursively,” pointing out the paradox that the bread and wine, though symbols, transcend the very concept of signification. - The Role of the Body as a Sign:
Eagleton discusses the body of Christ as both a sign and a meta-sign. The human body, like Christ’s body, is inherently expressive, making it a “sign” already. This expressivity is fully realized in the risen body, where “the material body itself becomes pure communication.” The Eucharistic bread and wine, therefore, signify a deeper form of expressivity and signification, encapsulating the fullness of spiritual meaning. - Death and Fulfillment of Signs:
One of Eagleton’s core arguments is that the Eucharist symbolizes both the death and consummation of the sign. In the Kingdom of God, signs give way to a state of pure expressivity – the body of Christ – rendering signs redundant. This duality, Eagleton argues, highlights the Eucharist as a self-cancelling semiotic system, where signs “bounce” the participant beyond their immediate meaning, much like “a trampoline.” - Conclusion – Irony as the Ultimate Signification:
Eagleton concludes by reinforcing the irony within the Eucharist. The bread and wine signify “their own emptiness” while remaining physically present, reflecting a semiotic system in which “there must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.” For Christian faith, the Eucharist is a paradoxical representation of presence and absence, encapsulating the divine reality that cannot be fully represented within earthly systems of meaning.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton
| Literary Term/Concept | Definition | Explanation in “Irony and the Eucharist” |
| Metaphor | A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. | Eagleton draws an analogy between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how bread and wine can signify the body and blood of Christ, just as “fire” can mean anger or passion. |
| Transubstantiation | The change of the substance of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ during the Eucharist, while retaining their appearances. | Central to Eagleton’s argument, transubstantiation is discussed as a change in the “substance” of the Eucharistic elements while their form remains the same, likened to the operation of metaphor. |
| Meta-sign | A sign that reflects on or comments on the nature of signification itself. | The Eucharistic elements are described as meta-signs, as they not only signify the body of Christ but also comment on the process of signification, going beyond mere representation. |
| Irony | A rhetorical device or figure of speech in which the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning. | Eagleton identifies irony in the Eucharist, where the elements appear as bread and wine but signify something far more profound—the body of Christ—creating a paradox of meaning and non-meaning. |
| Semiotics | The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation. | The entire essay revolves around a semiotic interpretation of the Eucharist, exploring how signs like bread and wine can hold and transcend meaning within Christian theology. |
| Symbolism | The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities. | The Eucharist is heavily symbolic, with the bread and wine symbolizing Christ’s body and blood, but also representing the broader theological concepts of sacrifice, redemption, and divine presence. |
| Paradox | A seemingly contradictory statement that may nonetheless be true. | The Eucharist embodies a paradox: the bread and wine signify Christ’s body, yet remain bread and wine. This contradiction is central to the theological and semiotic understanding of the ritual. |
| Signifier and Signified | In semiotics, the signifier is the form that a sign takes, and the signified is the concept it represents. | Eagleton uses this structuralist concept to explain how the Eucharist functions as a sign where the signifier (bread and wine) represents the signified (body and blood of Christ) but also transcends these meanings. |
| Expressivity | The capacity of a form (such as language or the body) to express meaning. | Eagleton highlights how the body of Christ is itself expressive, embodying meaning as a sign. The risen body, in particular, is described as “pure communication.” |
Contribution of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Semiotics and Meta-signs
- Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton extends semiotic theory by analyzing how religious symbols, like the bread and wine in the Eucharist, function as meta-signs—signs that comment on the nature of signification itself. His discussion moves beyond traditional signifier/signified relationships, exploring the role of absence and transcendence within religious symbols. - Reference:
Eagleton describes the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, “signs of an absence of signification” (p. 513). He likens the bread and wine to meta-signs that reflect not only on their immediate meaning but also on the broader system of signification in which they exist. - Impact on Theory:
By analyzing the Eucharist through a semiotic lens, Eagleton contributes to religious semiotics, showing how theological symbols can transcend their ordinary signifying function. This aligns with the post-structuralist notion that signs often point to gaps or absences in meaning, challenging the stability of signification in language and symbolism.
2. Irony and the Theory of Signification
- Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton deepens the theory of irony by connecting it to religious symbolism. He argues that the Eucharist is an inherently ironic sign, signifying something that it is not while remaining itself. This paradoxical structure of meaning aligns with theories of irony in postmodernism and deconstruction, where the gap between signifier and signified creates layers of meaning. - Reference:
Eagleton discusses irony in the Eucharist, noting how the bread and wine “signify the non-being of the future by the non-being of its own ironic self-destruction” (p. 514). The Eucharist, as a symbolic act, carries an ironic tension: it signifies Christ’s body, yet remains bread and wine. - Impact on Theory:
This contribution aligns with deconstructive approaches to irony, where Eagleton’s analysis suggests that irony arises from the instability of meaning within religious symbols. The Eucharist, as a semiotic system, self-negates to represent a condition beyond signification, a notion akin to Derrida’s deconstruction of language where meaning is constantly deferred.
3. Post-structuralism and the Transcendence of Signifiers
- Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton’s analysis of the Eucharist contributes to post-structuralist understandings of the instability of signifiers. He argues that religious symbols like the Eucharist do not simply point to a fixed signified (Christ’s body) but point to a condition beyond signification itself, echoing post-structuralist concerns about the impossibility of final meaning. - Reference:
Eagleton argues, “the bread has to behave like bread but not actually be it” (p. 514), emphasizing the instability and paradox of signification. He further notes that the Eucharist “has to signify a condition beyond signification,” thus transcending the usual boundaries of semiotic systems. - Impact on Theory:
This analysis resonates with Jacques Derrida’s notion of différance, where the Eucharist represents a signifier that points to its own absence and the impossibility of fully representing the transcendent “real.” The analysis challenges traditional semiotic relationships, positioning religious symbols as fluid, contingent, and beyond full representation.
4. Religious Semiotics and the Sublime
- Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton links the Eucharist to theory of the sublime, particularly in its ironic representation of infinity. He connects religious semiotics with the sublime by arguing that the Eucharist gestures toward a reality that is beyond human comprehension or representation—aligning this with the classical sublime, where overwhelming forces like God or nature can only be represented indirectly or negatively. - Reference:
Eagleton draws parallels to the sublime when he states, “infinity can be represented only in negative guise, by the representation drawing attention to its own stringent limits” (p. 514). Here, he aligns the Eucharist with the sublime, where signs can only point to their own limits when trying to signify the infinite. - Impact on Theory:
This contribution resonates with Immanuel Kant’s and Edmund Burke’s theories of the sublime, where representations of the divine or infinite can only be rendered indirectly. Eagleton’s interpretation of the Eucharist as a representation of the “beyond-sign” ties theological semiotics to broader aesthetic and philosophical discussions of the sublime.
5. Political Semiotics and Revolution
- Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton makes a unique contribution by tying the Eucharist to political semiotics, particularly in the revolutionary context. He compares the Eucharist to avant-garde poetics and Marxist ideas of revolution, where the sign points toward a future condition in which it will be unnecessary—reflecting Marx’s notion that “the content goes beyond the phrase.” - Reference:
Eagleton uses Marxist semiotics to describe the Eucharist: “what socialist transformation envisages outstrips the language in which we might now describe it” (p. 515). He likens the Eucharist to revolutionary symbols that simultaneously negate themselves while pointing to a future utopian reality. - Impact on Theory:
Eagleton’s interpretation aligns with Marxist literary theory, where signs, particularly revolutionary symbols, are understood as pointing to a future state that negates the need for current discourses. The Eucharist, in this context, becomes a revolutionary symbol that gestures toward a future redemption, blending theology with political and social semiotics.
6. The Body as Language and Communication
- Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton’s discussion of the body as a form of language contributes to theories of embodiment and expressivity in literary and cultural theory. He argues that the body of Christ in the Eucharist is not only a sign but also the most expressive form of communication, thus merging linguistic and corporeal forms of signification. - Reference:
Eagleton notes, “the body as Word” and argues that “the risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity” (p. 513). He highlights how the body in the Eucharist serves as both a physical and semiotic presence, merging material and linguistic forms of expression. - Impact on Theory:
This connects to cultural theories of embodiment, such as those by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, where the body is seen as a central site of meaning and expression. Eagleton’s analysis of the Eucharist enhances discussions of the body as signifier, positioning it as a crucial intersection of language, semiotics, and theology.
Examples of Critiques Through “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton
| Literary Work | Critique Through “Irony and the Eucharist” | Explanation |
| The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot | Semiotic Breakdown and Meta-Signs | Using Eagleton’s concept of the meta-sign, Eliot’s fragmented style in The Waste Land can be seen as a breakdown of traditional signifiers, reflecting a world in which meaning has become disjointed. Just as Eagleton discusses the Eucharist as a sign pointing to the absence of meaning, Eliot’s work can be interpreted as a commentary on the disintegration of meaning in the modern world. |
| Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett | Irony and the Absence of Meaning | Beckett’s play parallels Eagleton’s discussion of irony, where the bread and wine in the Eucharist represent something that they are not. In Waiting for Godot, the anticipation of Godot symbolizes a quest for meaning that never materializes. Beckett uses irony to show that the act of waiting itself becomes meaningless, much like Eagleton’s depiction of the Eucharist signifying its own emptiness. |
| Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad | Signifier and Signified Gap | Eagleton’s exploration of the gap between signifier and signified can be applied to Heart of Darkness, where Kurtz symbolizes the ineffable nature of imperialism’s horrors. Just as Eagleton argues that the Eucharist’s signified (Christ’s body) transcends representation, Conrad’s portrayal of Kurtz suggests that the true nature of colonialism is beyond the grasp of language and signification. |
| The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoevsky | Religious Semiotics and the Sublime | Through the lens of Eagleton’s analysis of religious semiotics, the Eucharistic themes in The Brothers Karamazov can be critiqued as a struggle between material and spiritual realms. The character of Alyosha represents the sublime faith that transcends reason, aligning with Eagleton’s notion that religious symbols like the Eucharist signify something beyond rational or material comprehension. |
Criticism Against “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton
- Complexity and Accessibility:
Eagleton’s use of dense philosophical language, particularly his engagement with semiotics and meta-signs, may render the essay inaccessible to readers unfamiliar with advanced literary theory or theological concepts. - Over-reliance on Semiotic Analysis:
Critics might argue that Eagleton’s heavy focus on semiotics could reduce the rich theological significance of the Eucharist to a mere play of signs, downplaying its spiritual and sacramental aspects. - Lack of Theological Depth:
Some may claim that Eagleton’s literary and semiotic approach lacks sufficient engagement with theological scholarship on the Eucharist, potentially oversimplifying or misrepresenting its deep religious significance. - Limited Application to Broader Christian Practices:
While Eagleton focuses on the Eucharist, his analysis may be too narrow in scope, failing to address how irony and signification play a role in other Christian sacraments or religious experiences. - Philosophical Generalization:
Eagleton’s linking of the Eucharist with post-structuralist theories of signification and irony could be seen as an overextension of literary theory into theology, making generalizations that may not resonate with traditional religious interpretations. - Irony as Reductionist:
By emphasizing the irony in the Eucharist, Eagleton might be accused of reducing the profundity of the ritual to a philosophical paradox, neglecting the emotional, communal, and devotional dimensions of the sacrament.
Representative Quotations from “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine.” | Eagleton begins by illustrating the mystery of transubstantiation, where the physical elements remain the same while their spiritual essence changes, introducing the central theme of irony. |
| “Flame has transubstantiated into fury.” | This metaphor explains how words change their meaning while retaining their form, paralleling how bread and wine transform into the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist. |
| “The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one.” | Eagleton introduces the concept of meta-signs, emphasizing that the Eucharist is not just symbolic but reflects on the very nature of signification and meaning. |
| “It has to signify a condition beyond signification.” | The Eucharist is presented as a paradox: it must communicate something (divine presence) that inherently transcends ordinary forms of communication and representation. |
| “The sign is where degradation and redemption intersect.” | Eagleton connects the Eucharist to the idea of redemption through the degradation of signs, suggesting that it symbolizes both the suffering (degradation) and the salvation (redemption) of Christ. |
| “The irony of this love-feast is that it has to convey the non-discursive discursively.” | The Eucharist is described as inherently ironic because it tries to represent a non-verbal, divine mystery using the human medium of language and ritual. |
| “There must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.” | Eagleton highlights a core irony in the Eucharist: the bread and wine serve as signs of something (the body of Christ) that cannot be fully signified or represented within the system of signs. |
| “The symbol is the death of the thing.” | Borrowing from Jacques Lacan, Eagleton argues that symbols replace the actual objects they represent, and this applies to the Eucharist, where Christ’s body is symbolized through bread and wine. |
| “The risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity.” | Eagleton describes the resurrected body of Christ as the ultimate form of communication, where the physical body itself becomes pure expression and meaning. |
| “In this sense, the death of the sign is also the consummation of it.” | This phrase captures the paradox at the heart of the Eucharist, where the end of signification (death of the sign) is also its fulfillment, mirroring the death and resurrection of Christ. |
Suggested Readings: “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton
- Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 2008. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
- Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/press/books/of_grammatology - Ricoeur, Paul. The Symbolism of Evil. Beacon Press, 1967.
https://www.beacon.org/The-Symbolism-of-Evil-P1515.aspx - Milbank, John. Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.
https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Theology+and+Social+Theory%3A+Beyond+Secular+Reason%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781405136846 - Zizek, Slavoj. The Puppet and the Dwarf: The Perverse Core of Christianity. MIT Press, 2003. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262740258/the-puppet-and-the-dwarf/
- Lacan, Jacques. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. W.W. Norton, 1998. https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393317756
- Ward, Graham. Cities of God. Routledge, 2000.https://www.routledge.com/Cities-of-God/Ward/p/book/9780415196376
- McCabe, Herbert. God Matters. Continuum, 1987. https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/god-matters-9780826494668/
- Radford Ruether, Rosemary. Faith and Fratricide: The Theological Roots of Anti-Semitism. Wipf and Stock, 1996. https://wipfandstock.com/9781579107971/faith-and-fratricide/
- “Semiotics of Religion.” Oxford Bibliographies, 2014.
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0076.xml