Introduction: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson
“Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson first appeared in 2007 in the Journal of Gerontological Social Work and was later published online by Routledge on September 25, 2008. The article investigates skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority care workers among elderly care recipients in Sweden. Through interviews with caregiver organization representatives and minority care workers, Jönson reveals a disconnect between official anti-racist policies and the pragmatic and pathologizing approaches adopted by care providers. While officials often downplay racism, framing it as language barriers or fear of the unknown, ethnic minority caregivers report frequent discrimination, particularly in first-time encounters. The study contributes to literature and literary theory by exposing how ideological frameworks, including anti-racism and patient rights, shape discourse on discrimination. Jönson’s work is significant in highlighting how structural inequalities and power dynamics influence caregiving relationships, challenging simplistic narratives of racism and advocating for a nuanced understanding of care, vulnerability, and systemic bias.
Summary of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson
Investigating Resistance Toward Ethnic Minority Care Workers
- The study examines skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority caregivers among elderly recipients in Sweden.
- Care provider representatives downplay resistance, often attributing it to:
- Language barriers
- Temporary adjustment difficulties
- Fear of the unknown (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).
- Minority care workers report more severe and frequent racism, especially in first-time encounters (Jönson, 2007, p. 83).
Changing Demographics in Swedish Elder Care
- Sweden has shifted from a monocultural to a multicultural society with:
- 10% of the population foreign-born.
- 20% of newly employed elder care workers from outside Sweden (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).
- While many appreciate minority care workers, some elderly recipients display skepticism or outright rejection.
Language as a Pretext for Racism
- Many elderly recipients cite language difficulties as a reason for rejecting minority care workers.
- Some complaints are legitimate, particularly when miscommunication affects care quality.
- Others use language as a socially acceptable excuse to refuse non-Swedish staff (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
- A manager noted: “If we complain about somebody’s headcloth, we would be labeled as racists. So, we’ll attack the language” (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
Pragmatic and Pathologizing Responses to Racism
- Care institutions avoid addressing racism directly by reframing it as:
- A symptom of dementia, dependency, or aging (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
- A temporary issue that disappears with familiarity.
- Pragmatic solutions dominate:
- Many comply with racist requests to prevent conflicts (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
- Supervisors often replace minority workers rather than confront discrimination.
Care Recipient Rights vs. Anti-Discrimination Laws
- A core conflict exists between:
- Care recipients’ rights to choose caregivers.
- Anti-discrimination laws protecting employees.
- Some managers justify compliance by comparing care recipients to customers who can choose their services (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
- Others argue that forcing care recipients to accept certain workers may cause distress (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).
Need for Clearer Anti-Racism Policies
- Care organizations lack clear policies on handling racism from care recipients.
- An overly ideological anti-racist approach may:
- Create tensions among staff.
- Alienate elderly care recipients who fear repercussions for complaints (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).
- Jönson recommends localized anti-racist policies that balance:
- Pragmatism (practical service delivery).
- Ethical caregiving (ensuring fair treatment).
- Protection of employees from discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).
Conclusion: Addressing Conflicting Interests
- Elder care providers and policymakers must acknowledge the complex dynamics of race, care, and aging.
- Ignoring racism by labeling it as pathology or pragmatism leaves minority care workers vulnerable.
- A balanced approach should:
- Educate staff and recipients on anti-racist practices.
- Implement fair but flexible workplace policies.
- Recognize that both caregivers and care recipients deserve respect and protection (Jönson, 2007, p. 96).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson
| Term/Concept | Definition | Application in the Article |
| Racism | Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against individuals based on ethnicity, race, skin color, or religion (Jönson, 2007, p. 80). | Explored through skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority caregivers by elderly care recipients. |
| Ethnic Discrimination | Unfair treatment of individuals based on ethnicity, race, religion, or descent, often in legal and workplace settings (Westin, 2000). | Examined in the conflict between care recipients’ preferences and anti-discrimination laws protecting minority caregivers. |
| Pathologizing Approach | Framing discriminatory behavior as a result of illness, dementia, dependency, or cognitive decline rather than deliberate racism (Jönson, 2007, p. 89). | Used by care providers to excuse racism among elderly care recipients, avoiding direct confrontation. |
| Pragmatic Approach | Emphasizing practical solutions over ideological or ethical considerations (Jönson, 2007, p. 90). | Care providers comply with racist requests to avoid conflicts rather than challenge discrimination. |
| Fear of the Unknown | Psychological resistance to unfamiliar individuals or cultural differences, often leading to prejudice (Jönson, 2007, p. 80). | Used as a justification for initial skepticism and rejection of minority care workers. |
| Social Construction of Race | The idea that racial and ethnic categories are shaped by social and cultural perceptions rather than biological differences (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). | Care recipients’ negative perceptions of minority workers are influenced by societal narratives about race and immigration. |
| Customer-Service Model | A perspective in which care recipients are treated as consumers who have the right to choose services (Jönson, 2007, p. 88). | Used by some managers to justify complying with racist preferences by equating care to a commercial service. |
| Techniques of Neutralization | Strategies used to justify or excuse morally questionable actions, such as denying responsibility or minimizing harm (Sykes & Matza, 1957). | Care providers justify replacing minority workers by framing it as a practical necessity rather than discrimination. |
| Power Relations in Care Work | The dynamic between caregivers and care recipients, shaped by race, gender, and social status (Szebehely, 1995). | While care workers typically hold authority, racialized power structures reverse this dynamic, making minority workers more vulnerable to discrimination. |
| Elderly Vulnerability vs. Caregiver Protection | The ethical dilemma of balancing elderly recipients’ emotional well-being with the rights of care workers (Jönson, 2007, p. 91). | Care providers hesitate to challenge racist behavior to avoid distressing elderly individuals, often at the cost of minority staff. |
| Institutional Anti-Racism vs. Everyday Practices | The gap between official anti-racist policies and real-world workplace decisions (Jönson, 2007, p. 92). | While institutions uphold anti-racist policies, pragmatic decisions often reinforce racial bias in practice. |
| Workplace Discrimination | Unequal treatment of employees based on ethnicity, race, or religion, often embedded in organizational culture (Jönson, 2007, p. 95). | Care workers of foreign origin experience frequent resistance, microaggressions, and exclusion. |
| Moral Balancing in Policy Implementation | The need to balance competing moral and ethical concerns in workplace policies (Jönson, 2007, p. 94). | Calls for localized policies that balance pragmatism, fairness, and anti-discrimination laws in elder care. |
Contribution of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson to Literary Theory/Theories
- Explores racialized power structures in caregiving, where ethnic minority workers are subjected to discrimination despite their vital role (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).
- Links resistance to historical colonial narratives, where non-European individuals are framed as “the other” (Jönson, 2007, p. 83).
- Examines how language barriers serve as a disguised form of racial exclusion, reflecting colonial legacies of linguistic hierarchy (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
2. Critical Race Theory (CRT)
- Highlights systemic racism in Swedish elder care, showing how policies and institutional practices reinforce discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).
- Demonstrates “colorblind racism”—where care providers avoid addressing racism directly by reframing it as practical concerns (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
- Challenges “white normativity”, as elder care is structured around the expectations of white Swedish care recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
3. Structuralism and the Social Construction of Race
- Applies Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) concept of the social construction of reality, arguing that race is socially constructed through discourse and everyday interactions (Jönson, 2007, p. 84).
- Shows how racist attitudes toward care workers are culturally produced rather than biologically determined (Jönson, 2007, p. 85).
- Demonstrates how “fear of the unknown” operates as a socially learned response rather than an innate reaction (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).
4. Discourse Analysis (Foucaultian Theory)
- Investigates how racism is rationalized through institutional discourse, enabling care providers to comply with racist preferences while maintaining an anti-racist stance (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
- Examines how managerial language (“customer service model”) legitimizes discrimination by reframing racism as a service preference (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
- Connects elderly care policies to broader national discourses on multiculturalism and migration in Sweden (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).
5. Feminist Theory and Intersectionality
- Highlights gendered and racialized labor divisions, showing how immigrant women are disproportionately placed in caregiving roles (Jönson, 2007, p. 81).
- Analyzes the intersection of race, gender, and labor precarity, as minority care workers face both racial and gender-based discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 85).
- Demonstrates how power dynamics in caregiving are shaped by both ethnicity and social status, reinforcing double marginalization of minority women in elder care (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).
- Discusses the role of perception and interpretation in shaping racist attitudes among elderly care recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
- Suggests that resistance toward minority care workers is influenced by personal experiences, social conditioning, and media representation (Jönson, 2007, p. 87).
- Illustrates how care recipients “read” racialized bodies and respond to them based on pre-existing biases rather than actual interactions (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
7. Ideology and Hegemony (Gramscian Theory)
- Examines how hegemonic ideologies shape both individual and institutional responses to racism in elder care (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
- Shows how care providers are complicit in maintaining racial hierarchy by prioritizing the preferences of Swedish care recipients over the rights of minority workers (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).
- Discusses how pragmatic approaches to racism are shaped by dominant ideologies that normalize workplace discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).
8. Human Rights and Ethics in Literary Theory
- Addresses conflicts between human rights frameworks and real-world caregiving ethics (Jönson, 2007, p. 93).
- Questions whether elderly individuals should be granted the “right” to refuse minority caregivers, even when such refusals are rooted in racism (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).
- Advocates for policy solutions that balance anti-racism with ethical caregiving, ensuring both caregivers and recipients are treated fairly (Jönson, 2007, p. 96).
Examples of Critiques Through “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson
| Literary Work | Themes in the Work | Critique Through Jönson’s Framework |
| Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness | – Colonialism and racial hierarchy – “Othering” of non-Europeans – White European superiority complex | – Jönson’s study critiques how colonial narratives continue to influence racial perceptions, particularly in elder care, where minority care workers are viewed as the “other” (Jönson, 2007, p. 80). – Similar to Heart of Darkness, Swedish elder care reproduces racialized power structures, where non-Swedish workers are treated as outsiders (Jönson, 2007, p. 83). – Language barriers in Jönson’s study parallel Conrad’s depictions of “unintelligible natives,” reinforcing how communication differences become a pretext for exclusion (Jönson, 2007, p. 86). |
| Toni Morrison – Beloved | – Legacy of slavery and racial trauma – Dehumanization of Black bodies – Psychological impact of racism | – Jönson’s findings align with Morrison’s exploration of racial trauma, showing how care workers of foreign origin internalize racist abuse as part of their job (Jönson, 2007, p. 85). – In Beloved, characters struggle against systemic racism, much like minority care workers in Sweden who face discrimination but lack institutional support (Jönson, 2007, p. 92). – The pathologizing approach in Jönson’s study (“It’s just dementia, not racism”) mirrors the rationalizations of white violence in Beloved, where oppressors excuse or justify their actions through social norms (Jönson, 2007, p. 89). |
| Jean Rhys – Wide Sargasso Sea | – Postcolonial displacement – Racial and cultural marginalization – Identity crisis of Creole characters | – The resistance toward ethnic minority care workers in Jönson’s study mirrors the alienation of Antoinette (Bertha) in Wide Sargasso Sea, where she is “too white for the Caribbean, too foreign for England” (Jönson, 2007, p. 81). – Fear of the unknown (Jönson, 2007, p. 80) plays a key role in both texts—elderly Swedes reject minority caregivers just as Rochester rejects Antoinette based on racial and cultural stereotypes. – The discourse of “civilized” vs. “uncivilized” in Rhys’s novel parallels Jönson’s critique of Sweden’s care system, where minority workers must “prove” their competence to skeptical Swedish recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 88). |
| Ralph Ellison – Invisible Man | – Racial invisibility and identity – Power structures and systemic oppression – Survival under racism | – Like Ellison’s narrator, ethnic minority care workers in Sweden become “invisible”—their presence is tolerated but not fully accepted (Jönson, 2007, p. 83). – The customer-service model in Jönson’s study (“the patient gets to choose”) reflects how racialized workers are dehumanized and reduced to economic functions (Jönson, 2007, p. 88). – Both Invisible Man and Jönson’s study highlight how institutions adopt a rhetoric of anti-racism while maintaining discriminatory practices (Jönson, 2007, p. 92). |
Criticism Against “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson
1. Limited Scope and Sample Size
- The study relies on a small sample size of 12 representatives and 3 ethnic minority care workers, making it difficult to generalize the findings (Jönson, 2007, p. 82).
- The research focuses on a single Swedish municipality, which may not represent broader trends in Sweden or other multicultural societies.
- A larger, more diverse sample could provide deeper insights into racism in elder care across different regions and care institutions.
2. Overemphasis on Pragmatism and Pathologization
- The study argues that care providers frame racism as “fear of the unknown” or dementia, rather than actively confronting it (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
- Critics may argue that this framing oversimplifies the complexity of prejudice among elderly care recipients.
- By emphasizing pathologization, the study risks excusing racist behavior instead of advocating for stronger institutional interventions.
3. Lack of Direct Ethnographic Engagement with Care Recipients
- The study primarily relies on interviews with care providers and minority staff, rather than directly interviewing elderly care recipients about their perceptions.
- Without firsthand accounts from care recipients, the study risks misinterpreting their motives, potentially exaggerating or downplaying the role of racism.
- Ethnographic fieldwork or observational research could provide a more nuanced understanding of recipient-caregiver interactions.
4. Insufficient Policy Recommendations
- While Jönson highlights the gap between anti-racist policies and real-world practices, his recommendations remain vague (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).
- The study does not offer concrete solutions for care institutions, such as training programs, institutional reforms, or legal enforcement strategies.
- A stronger policy-driven conclusion could have enhanced the study’s impact on workplace reforms.
5. Failure to Address the Role of Care Workers’ Agency
- The study focuses on care workers as victims of racism, but does not deeply explore how they resist, navigate, or reshape power dynamics in care institutions.
- Some scholars argue that migrant care workers develop coping strategies, solidarity networks, and active resistance, which Jönson does not fully examine.
- Including examples of agency among minority care workers could have provided a more balanced portrayal of power relations in elder care.
6. Potential Bias in Framing Institutional Racism
- The study presents elder care institutions as largely complicit in maintaining racial discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
- However, it does not explore cases where institutions have successfully challenged racism or where care recipients have changed their attitudes over time.
- A more balanced discussion of institutional responses—both failures and successes—could have strengthened the study’s credibility.
7. Oversimplification of Cultural Conflicts
- The study frames resistance to minority care workers as largely a racial issue, but does not sufficiently consider cultural misunderstandings or generational differences in social norms.
- Some care recipients may struggle with linguistic differences, unfamiliar caregiving styles, or religious customs, which the study overlooks as non-racialized concerns (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
- Addressing how cultural adjustment plays a role in care work would have made the analysis more nuanced.
Representative Quotations from “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation & Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “Fear of the unknown among older people who had previously met few people of foreign origin.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 80) | Jönson explains how elderly care recipients often react with skepticism toward ethnic minority caregivers due to limited exposure to multicultural environments. Care providers justify this reaction as a natural response rather than active racism. | Social Construction of Race & Othering – Aligns with postcolonial theory and structuralism, where race and difference are socially constructed rather than inherent. |
| “We are trained to provide service and the customer pays for that service… It is a form of service and then we’ll have to ignore that other issue [playing along with racism].” (Jönson, 2007, p. 86) | This statement reflects a pragmatic approach used by care providers to justify compliance with discriminatory requests from care recipients. It highlights market-based reasoning in elder care. | Neoliberalism & Market Logic in Social Work – Demonstrates how commodification of care shifts ethical decisions into consumer-driven services. |
| “No, I haven’t really reflected on this and sometimes I wonder if it is not really the regular Swedish staff who make up this problem.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 87) | A care provider shifts the focus from care recipients’ racism to potential bias within staff interactions. This deflects accountability from institutions and elder care policies. | Structural Racism & Institutional Bias – Shows how racism is often downplayed or redirected within bureaucratic settings. |
| “It’s her home, and she has the right to decide who to let in.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 88) | This justification prioritizes the autonomy of care recipients over ethical concerns about racial discrimination. It frames private homes as exempt from anti-discrimination policies. | Liberal Individualism vs. Anti-Discrimination – Highlights tension between personal choice and societal responsibility in multicultural care settings. |
| “Some do know and think that these are not people who… I mean these are sick people, old people, helpless people—and they [staff] are pretty able to see the circumstances.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 90) | This statement pathologizes racism among elderly care recipients, dismissing it as a symptom of aging rather than a social issue. It reflects the normalization of elder racism in caregiving. | Medicalization of Prejudice – Frames racist attitudes as a side effect of illness rather than an ethical problem requiring intervention. |
| “We are not here to educate the pensioners.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 89) | This statement highlights a pragmatic refusal to challenge racist attitudes among older people. Care providers prioritize avoiding conflict over promoting social change. | Political Correctness vs. Moral Responsibility – Engages with debates on whether social workers should challenge discrimination or accommodate it. |
| “Adding to this, populist claims makers with nationalist/racist agendas have referred to the growing interest in the special needs of elderly immigrants when arguing for similar needs among ethnic Swedes.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 83) | Right-wing groups use discourses of cultural needs to justify exclusionary policies that prioritize ethnic Swedes over minority groups in elder care. | Cultural Nationalism & Identity Politics – Shows how care policies can be co-opted by xenophobic narratives. |
| “Organizations perceived to comply with racism will be subject to public criticism.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 91) | Institutions must balance public accountability and practical caregiving decisions, leading to compromised anti-racism policies. | Corporate Image & Ethical Responsibility – Examines how social institutions navigate public perception in ethical dilemmas. |
| “There is a need to develop research and policy perspectives that take the complexity of care work into account and acknowledge the occurrence of mixed and shifting power relations.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 94) | Jönson argues that power dynamics in elder care are fluid, involving both vulnerable caregivers and care recipients. | Intersectionality & Power Relations – Demonstrates how racism interacts with aging, labor conditions, and social vulnerabilities. |
| “A strong anti-racist policy may result in oppression of care recipients, who fear labeling and sanctions.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 93) | Jönson warns that overly rigid anti-racism policies might discourage elderly people from voicing valid concerns about care quality. | Critical Race Theory & Free Speech Debate – Explores the tension between anti-racism enforcement and individual expression. |
Suggested Readings: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson
- Jönson, Hakan. “Is it racism? Skepticism and resistance towards ethnic minority care workers among older care recipients.” Journal of Gerontological Social Work 49.4 (2007): 79-96.
- Suedfeld, Peter. “Racism in the Brain; Or Is It Racism on the Brain?” Psychological Inquiry, vol. 15, no. 4, 2004, pp. 298–302. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20447243. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
- DiAngelo, Robin. “WHAT IS RACISM?” Counterpoints, vol. 497, 2016, pp. 107–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45157301. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
- Ronald R. Sundstrom, and David Haekwon Kim. “Xenophobia and Racism.” Critical Philosophy of Race, vol. 2, no. 1, 2014, pp. 20–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5325/critphilrace.2.1.0020. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.