Islam and Early Modern English Literature

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Term and Concept

Term

The term “Islam and Early Modern English Literature” refers to an interdisciplinary field of study within literary criticism and historical analysis. It focuses on the period roughly spanning the 16th and 17th centuries in England, examining how English literature of this era reflects, engages with, and is influenced by the Islamic world. This can include representations of Muslims, Islamic cultures, contact with the Ottoman Empire, Orientalist themes, and the possible influence of Islamic thought on English writers.

Concept

As a broader concept, “Islam and Early Modern English Literature” investigates the complex and often misunderstood relationship between England and the Islamic world during a time of significant cultural exchange and global power shifts. Works within this field explore how English authors portrayed Muslims, sometimes as threatening “others,” but also as figures of fascination, romance, or even potential allies. Simultaneously, the concept examines potential traces of Islamic philosophy, literature, and artistic traditions on Early Modern English writers and their works.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Writers, Works and Arguments

Writer	Key Works	Arguments
Christopher Marlowe	Tamburlaine the Great (plays), Doctor Faustus (play)	His works portray Islamic empires with a mix of awe and fear. Muslim characters, like the conquering Tamburlaine, embody both ambition and potential tyranny. Marlowe’s depictions reflect English anxieties about rising Islamic power as well as a fascination with the exotic.
William Shakespeare	The Merchant of Venice, Othello, Titus Andronicus	Shakespeare’s Muslim characters are complex and multimensional. Shylock challenges simplistic stereotypes, while Othello explores themes of love, jealousy, and the destructive power of prejudice. Aaron the Moor embodies tropes of villainy, yet also exhibits moments of defiance.
Edmund Spenser	The Faerie Queene (epic poem)	Spenser utilizes allegory to demonize Islam, casting it as an existential threat to Christian England. His work reinforces notions of religious conflict and cements the image of the Muslim as a dangerous “other.”
Francis Bacon	Essays, such as “Of Empire” and “Of the True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates”	Bacon’s political writings reveal a shrewd analysis of Islamic empires, particularly the Ottomans. He acknowledges their power and sophistication while upholding Christian superiority, offering a complex blend of admiration and competition.
George Peele	The Battle of Alcazar (play)	Peele’s play dramatizes historical conflicts with Moors, portraying them with a mixture of exoticism, respect for their martial valor, and occasional vilification. His work reflects the ambiguous English views towards Moorish figures.
Robert Greene	Selimus, Emperor of the Turks (play)	Depicts the bloody intrigues of the Ottoman court, feeding into English perceptions of the Ottomans as both formidable and prone to barbaric infighting.
Travel Writers	Accounts of travels to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa	These firsthand (though frequently biased) narratives shaped English perceptions of Islamic societies. They often emphasized exotic customs and cultural differences, contributing to an Orientalist view of the Muslim world.
Translation Projects	Translations of texts like the Qur’an or Arabic works	Facilitated limited exposure to Islamic thought and literature. However, these translations were often filtered through Christian biases and contributed to a distorted understanding of Islam.

Important Notes:

• Orientalism significantly shapes these representations. It’s crucial to analyze these works for their construction of the “East” as exotic and inferior to the “West.”
• Each writer holds unique perspectives, reflecting the multifaceted ways in which early modern England engaged with the Islamic world.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Key Principals

• Orientalism: A pervasive mode of representation, as theorized by Edward Said, through which the West constructed the Islamic world as fundamentally “other.” This entailed portraying it as exotic, backwards, and in opposition to Western values.
  • Literary References: This construction is evident in Marlowe’s depiction of Tamburlaine as a powerful yet tyrannical figure, and Spenser’s allegorical portrayal of Muslims as enemies of Christian virtue in The Faerie Queene.
• Ambivalence and Complexity: Representations of Muslims and Islamic cultures were rarely straightforward. English authors often expressed a mixture of fear, fascination, and begrudging respect.
  • Literary References: Shakespeare’s Othello offers a nuanced portrayal of a Moorish general, while simultaneously grappling with racial prejudice. Travelogues frequently expressed both admiration and disdain for customs within Islamic societies.
• Religious Antagonism: Christian and Islamic faiths were often framed in opposition, with Christian superiority asserted and Muslims depicted as religious threats.
  • Literary References: Spenser’s The Faerie Queene presents Muslims as enemies of Christendom. Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus includes scenes suggesting the protagonist’s potential rejection of Christianity in favor of Islam, reflecting anxieties about religious conversion.
• Geopolitical and Mercantile Contact: Expanding diplomatic and trade relations with the Ottoman Empire influenced English perceptions. Works acknowledged Islamic empires as formidable, yet often positioned them as rivals.
  • Literary References: Francis Bacon’s essays display awareness of Ottoman power structures. Plays like Selimus, and travel narratives provide insights (however biased) into Islamic political and social systems.
• Misrepresentation of Islamic Thought: Direct exposure to Islamic philosophy and theology was limited. Translations were often flawed or filtered through a Christian worldview, contributing to distorted understandings of Islamic beliefs.
  • Literary References: References to the Qur’an or Islamic figures within literary works frequently reveal misconceptions rather than accurate knowledge.

Important Note: These principles are intertwined and illustrate the complex ways in which Early Modern English writers engaged with, and were shaped by, their perceptions of the Islamic world.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Orientalism: As outlined by Edward Said, Orientalism provides a crucial framework for understanding how Western cultures, including early modern England, constructed the “East” (inclusive of the Islamic world) as fundamentally different and inferior. Key concepts include:
  • Othering: Portraying the Muslim world as radically “other”, emphasizing difference to reinforce a Western sense of superiority.
  • Exoticization: Depicting Islamic cultures as exotic, mysterious, and often sensualized, feeding into a fascination with the East.
  • Essentialism: Reducing complex cultures to a set of simplistic and stereotypical traits, often with negative connotations.
• Postcolonial Studies: Rooted in the analysis of colonialism and its enduring legacies, postcolonial theory helps unpack the power dynamics embedded in early modern representations of Islam. Key areas of focus include:
  • Imperialism: Examining how portrayals of Muslims might reinforce English imperial ambitions or reveal anxieties about those ambitions.
  • Cultural Hegemony: Analyzing how English literature contributed to establishing dominant narratives about the Islamic world and suppressing alternative voices.
  • Hybridity and Mimicry: Exploring potential counter-currents to purely negative representations, looking for spaces where authors depict cultural exchange, instances of admiration, or even subversion of Orientalist tropes.
• Religious Studies: This perspective offers critical tools for understanding the theological underpinnings of literary representations. Key inquiries might include:
  • Comparative Analysis: Examining how portrayals of Islam in English literature contrast with Christian doctrine, revealing biases and polemics.
  • Apologetics: Investigating instances where texts defend Christianity by demonizing Islam or misrepresenting Islamic beliefs.
  • Interfaith Encounters: Analyzing depictions of theological debates or conversions (real or imagined) between Christians and Muslims.
• Critical Race Studies: Illuminates how early modern literature might construct notions of race in relation to representations of Muslims. Of interest is:
  • Racialization of Religion: Examining how religious difference is conflated with racial difference, particularly in negative portrayals of Muslims.
  • Colorism and Physiognomy: Analyzing if descriptions of Muslim characters rely on tropes associating darker skin or specific physical features with negative qualities.

How to Apply:

These perspectives provide lenses to:

• Uncover biases and examine power dynamics within literary texts.
• Deconstruct stereotypes and challenge simplistic portrayals of the Islamic world.
• Explore the intersections of race, religion, and empire in early modern England.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Criticism Against It

• Exaggerated Focus on Islam: Critics argue that the overwhelming attention paid to Islam within some Early Modern studies distorts historical reality. England’s interactions with the Islamic world were significant, but limited compared to broader European concerns and continental conflicts.
• Overemphasis on Othering: Some suggest that a focus on Orientalism and the construction of the Muslim “other” can lead to a reductive reading of texts. It might oversimplify complex works and neglect themes unrelated to representations of Islam.
• Anachronistic Interpretations: Critics contend that applying modern concepts like “Orientalism” or rigid notions of religious identity anachronistically obscures the fluidity of early modern perceptions. The concept of a monolithic “Islam” was less established than in later centuries.
• Neglect of Diverse Muslim Voices: Focusing primarily on English representations risks silencing Muslim voices from the period. Neglecting available texts from the Islamic world reduces it to a passive object of study rather than an active participant in cultural exchange.

Counterarguments and Considerations

• Revealing Power Structures: Even exaggerated representations of Islam can expose English anxieties, desires, and the processes by which cultural identities were constructed, both of self and other.
• Unpacking Unconscious Bias: Works might express Orientalist views unintentionally. Analyzing these depictions can reveal deeply ingrained biases that shaped how early modern England viewed the world.
• Historicizing Frameworks: It’s crucial to apply theories like Orientalism with awareness of their historical development. These frameworks are tools for analysis, not rigid templates to impose onto the past.
• Seeking Alternative Sources: While the focus may often be on English representations, actively seeking out translations of Ottoman writings, travel narratives from the Islamic world, and other sources offers a more balanced perspective.

Important Note:

Valid criticism encourages nuanced study of Islam and Early Modern English Literature. It’s essential to be mindful of potential oversimplification, acknowledge the period’s complexities, and actively incorporate perspectives from the Islamic world whenever possible.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Orientalism	A mode of Western representation, analyzed by Edward Said, that constructs the East (including the Islamic world) as exotic, backward, and inferior to the West.
Othering	The process of depicting a group or culture as fundamentally different and often inferior, serving to reinforce a sense of superiority over the “other.”
Moor	A historical term often used in Early Modern England to refer to Muslims of North African or Iberian descent. Depictions often carry racialized connotations.
Turk	A term frequently used to denote Muslims of the Ottoman Empire. Could be employed pejoratively or express fascination and respect.
Saracen	A historical term with roots in the Crusades, often used by early modern writers to refer to Muslims in a broader, often negative context.
Infidel	A derogatory term used by Christians to denote non-Christians, particularly Muslims, implying a lack of faith or false belief.
Renegado	An individual who converts from Christianity to Islam, often portrayed as a treacherous act in Early Modern English literature.
Mahomet (or Mohammed)	An outdated and often derogatory term used in the period to refer to the Prophet Muhammad.
Qur’an (or Alcoran)	The central religious text of Islam. Early Modern English portrayals frequently reveal misunderstandings of its content.
Sultan	A title used for Muslim rulers, particularly of the Ottoman Empire, often signifying power and political authority.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Suggested Readings

Books

• Dimmock, Matthew. New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England. Penn State University Press, 2005.
• El Shakry, Omnia. The Arabic Freud: Psychoanalysis and Islam in Modern Egypt. Princeton University Press, 2017.
• Matar, Nabil. Islam in Britain, 1558-1685. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
• Matar, Nabil. Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery. Columbia University Press, 1999.
• Said, Edward. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
• Vitkus, Daniel (editor). Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England. Columbia University Press, 2000.
• Vitkus, Daniel. Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean, 1570-1630. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Research Articles

• Blaydes, Lisa, and Christopher Paik. “The Impact of Holy Land Crusades on Anti-Muslim Harassment.” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 56, no. 5, 2019, pp. 691-706.
• Loomba, Ania, and Jonathan Burton. “The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680-1880.” Race, Class, and Gender in the Renaissance, edited by Ania Loomba and Jonathan Burton, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999, pp. 203-221.