Islam and English Literature

Introduction: Islam and English Literature

The relationship between Islam and English literature is a complex and multifaceted one that reflects the rich diversity of narratives and cultural intersections within the global literary landscape.

Throughout the centuries, Islamic themes, characters, and narratives have found their place in English literature, often shaped by the cultural exchanges and encounters between the Islamic world and the English-speaking West.

This literary dialogue has not only given rise to works that explore Islamic cultures, beliefs, and identities but has also generated a critical examination of Orientalism and the representation of Islam in Western literature.

From the Elizabethan era, where Shakespeare’s “Othello” introduced a Moorish, Muslim protagonist, to contemporary novels by authors like Mohsin Hamid and Khaled Hosseini, who delve into the complexities of identity, migration, and the global Muslim experience, the relationship between Islam and English literature continues to evolve, offering readers a broader understanding of the ever-evolving interplay between these two cultural worlds.

Islam and English Literation: Islam as Religion in English

Negative Portrayals in Early Modern English Literature	Diverse Portrayals in English Literature
– Portraying Muslims as “the Other”: Many works of Early Modern English Literature portrayed Muslims as “the Other,” emphasizing their differences from Western Christians and portraying them as barbaric, uncivilized, and inferior.	– As a religion of diversity: Islam has a rich and diverse history, and many works of English literature explore the themes of cultural exchange, diversity, and the influence of Islam on various cultures around the world.
– Associating Islam with violence: In the Early Modern era, Islam was often associated with violence, particularly in the context of military conflicts between Western powers and Muslim states. This led to negative portrayals of Islam in literature, with Muslims depicted as bloodthirsty and fanatical.	– As a religion of mysticism: Islamic mysticism, or Sufism, has inspired many works of English literature, which explore themes of spiritual transcendence, divine love, and the search for inner truth.
– Using Islam as a symbol of religious conflict: The religious tensions between Islam and Christianity were a major theme in the Early Modern period, and this conflict was often used as a symbol of larger political and cultural struggles. This led to negative portrayals of Islam in literature, with Muslims depicted as enemies of Christianity and the Western world.	– As a religion of conflict: Given the historical and political context of Islam, many works of English literature also portray Islam as a religion of conflict, with themes of war, violence, and religious intolerance.
– Portraying Islam as a false religion: In the Early Modern period, many Christian writers saw Islam as a false religion that threatened the true faith. This led to negative portrayals of Islam in literature, with Muslims depicted as misguided and deceived.	– As a religion of misunderstanding: Islam is often presented in English literature as a religion that is misunderstood by Western cultures, with themes of cultural clash, ignorance, and prejudice. This can be seen in works that explore the experiences of Muslim characters who are marginalized or discriminated against due to their religion.

Islam and English Literature: Presentation of Islam Figures in English Literature

Positive Presentations:

1. Saladin in The Talisman by Sir Walter Scott: Saladin is portrayed as a noble and chivalrous leader in this historical novel, set during the Crusades. He is depicted as a worthy opponent to the Christian knights and is shown to possess qualities of honor, compassion, and wisdom.
2. Rumi in The Essential Rumi by Rumi (translated by Coleman Barks): Rumi, the 13th-century Persian poet and Sufi mystic, is celebrated in this collection of his poems. His work is presented as a source of spiritual inspiration and a celebration of divine love.
3. Aladdin in The Arabian Nights: Aladdin is a beloved figure in this collection of Middle Eastern tales, where he is depicted as a clever and resourceful hero who overcomes adversity with wit and courage.
4. Bilal ibn Rabah in The Autobiography of Malcolm X by Malcolm X and Alex Haley: Bilal is presented as a model of faith and perseverance in this memoir, which tells the story of Malcolm X’s conversion to Islam. Bilal was an Ethiopian slave who became one of the Prophet Muhammad’s companions and was known for his beautiful voice in reciting the call to prayer.

Negative Presentations:

1. Iago in “Othello” by William Shakespeare: Iago is a villainous character in this tragedy who uses the fear of the “Turks” (an early modern term for Muslims) to manipulate Othello and stoke his jealousy. He uses negative stereotypes of Muslims to paint Othello as a dangerous outsider.
2. Salim al-Hakim in “The Siege of Krishnapur” by J.G. Farrell: Salim is a fanatical Muslim warrior in this novel, set during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He is portrayed as a brutal and merciless opponent to the British forces, and his actions are used to justify the colonial violence of the British.
3. Fu Manchu in the “Fu Manchu” series by Sax Rohmer: Although not explicitly identified as a Muslim, Fu Manchu is often interpreted as a racist caricature of an Asian villain. He is portrayed as a ruthless and cunning mastermind who seeks to overthrow Western civilization.
4. Zuleika Dobson in “Zuleika Dobson” by Max Beerbohm: Zuleika is an exoticized and fetishized Muslim woman in this novel, set at Oxford University. She is presented as a seductive and mysterious object of desire for the male characters, perpetuating negative stereotypes of Muslim women as exotic and sexually available.

These examples illustrate the varied and sometimes complex portrayals of Islamic figures in English literature, highlighting both positive and negative depictions influenced by the cultural and historical contexts of their respective works.

Islam and English Literature: Presentation of Islamic Characters in English Literature

The presentation of Islamic characters in English literature can vary widely depending on the time period, author, and cultural context in which the work is written. Islamic characters can be depicted in a multitude of ways, reflecting both positive and negative stereotypes as well as complex, nuanced portrayals. Here are some common ways in which Islamic characters have been presented in English literature:

1. Stereotypes:
   • Villains/Terrorists: In some contemporary literature, especially after the events of 9/11, Islamic characters have been depicted as villains or terrorists. These portrayals can reinforce negative stereotypes and contribute to Islamophobia.
   • Orientalism: Historically, Western literature often portrayed Islamic characters as exotic or “other.” This approach reduced them to superficial stereotypes, emphasizing their difference rather than their common humanity.
2. Positive Representations:
   • Noble Heroes: Islamic characters have also been portrayed as noble and heroic figures, often embodying traits such as bravery, honor, and wisdom. For example, the character of Saladin in Sir Walter Scott’s “The Talisman” is a positive representation of an Islamic character.
   • Diversity: In more contemporary literature, authors have attempted to present a diverse and multifaceted view of Islamic characters. They highlight the complexity and individuality of Muslim individuals, moving away from one-dimensional stereotypes.
3. Complex and Multifaceted:
   • Some authors strive to create characters with depth, complexity, and a mix of both positive and negative qualities. These characters challenge simplistic views of Islam and Muslims.
4. Religious and Cultural Exploration:
   • Some works of English literature delve into Islamic characters and their faith, customs, and culture in a respectful and educational manner. These works aim to promote understanding and bridge cultural gaps.
5. Historical Context:
   • In historical novels, Islamic characters may be depicted in the context of significant historical events, such as the Crusades, providing insight into the interactions between different cultures.
6. Muslim Authors’ Perspectives:
   • Literature written by Muslim authors offers an authentic portrayal of Islamic characters. These works often provide insights into the lives, beliefs, and struggles of Muslims, allowing readers to gain a better understanding of the Islamic world.
7. Colonial and Post-Colonial Literature:
   • Literature from the colonial and post-colonial eras often explores the complex relationships between Western powers and Islamic societies. Characters may be depicted as victims of colonialism or as individuals struggling against oppressive colonial forces.

It’s essential to recognize that the portrayal of Islamic characters in English literature has evolved over time, and contemporary literature is generally more sensitive to issues of diversity, representation, and cultural understanding. However, negative stereotypes and biases still persist in some works, and it’s important for readers to approach these portrayals critically and engage in discussions about representation and cultural sensitivity.

Suggested Readings

1. Irwin, Robert. The Arabian Nights: A Companion. Penguin Books, 2004.
2. Chambers, Claire, editor. The Cambridge Companion to British Muslim Literature. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
3. Ahmed, Rehana. Writing British Muslims: Religion, Class and Multiculturalism. Manchester University Press, 2015.
4. Vitkus, Daniel J., editor. Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England: Selim, Selim, Suleyman and Mustapha. Columbia University Press, 2000.
5. Morey, Peter, and Amina Yaqin, editors. Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11. Harvard University Press, 2011.