John Dryden As a Literary Theorist

Introduction: John Dryden As a Literary Theorist

Table of Contents

John Dryden (1631–1700), born at Aldwincle near Oundle, Northamptonshire, and educated at Westminster School under Dr. Busby and later at Trinity College, Cambridge, emerged as one of the foundational figures of English literary criticism and poetic theory. His early life was marked by intellectual rigor and exposure to classical learning, which would profoundly shape his critical sensibility. Dryden’s major works as a critic include An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668), Of Heroic Plays (1672), A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire (1693), and numerous prefaces and dedications that serve as vehicles for his literary thought. These writings collectively laid the groundwork for English neoclassical criticism by synthesizing classical principles from Aristotle, Horace, and the French critics with the evolving English literary tradition. His Essay of Dramatic Poesy stands as the first systematic piece of literary criticism in English, where he defended the vitality of English drama against the rigid constraints of French neoclassicism and famously balanced the merits of ancient and modern literature.

Dryden’s critical philosophy was dynamic rather than dogmatic. He acknowledged change in his opinions—such as his later rejection of rhyme in tragedy—with intellectual honesty, revealing an evolving aesthetic that prized nature, decorum, and the balance of art and judgment. His criticism united poetic grace with philosophical insight, blending moral reflection and literary analysis into a prose style that Sir Walter Scott praised as “the most delightful in the English language”. As both theorist and practitioner, Dryden elevated the role of the critic from commentator to creator, shaping English letters by refining satire, formalizing translation, and defending the imaginative liberties of poetry. His death in 1700 marked the close of the Restoration era, leaving behind a critical legacy second only to Milton and Shakespeare in influence.

Major Works and Ideas of John Dryden As a Literary Theorist

1. An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668)

Main Idea: Defense of English drama and innovation within classical norms.

Details: Dryden presents a dialogue among Eugenius, Lisideius, Crites, and Neander (his alter ego), debating the merits of ancient vs. modern and French vs. English drama.
Key Points:
- Advocated flexibility of the dramatic unities—time, place, and action—against French rigidity.
- Proposed that “fancy and reason go hand in hand”, insisting on a balance between imaginative creation and rational control.
- Suggested that English drama’s “variety and freedom” offered a richer representation of human nature than French decorum.
- Wrote: “I confess I find many things in this discourse which I do not now approve; my judgment being a little altered since the writing of it; but whether for the better or the worse, I know not” (Dryden, 1668/1956, p. 23), showing his evolving critical sensibility.

(APA citation: Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. In J. Lynch (Ed.), Rutgers Electronic Edition.)

2. Of Heroic Plays (Preface to The Conquest of Granada, 1672)

Main Idea: Defense of the heroic drama as a moral and elevated form.

Details: Dryden articulates the principles of heroic tragedy—noble characters, elevated verse, and moral purpose.
Key Points:
- Defined heroic plays as “an imitation of nature but in her noblest form.”
- Upheld rhyme in tragedy, claiming verse enhances grandeur: “The poet is then to endeavour an absolute dominion over the minds of the spectators”.
- He viewed poetry as a “delightful teaching,” linking art to moral philosophy.
Significance: Established the Restoration concept of the “heroic ideal” and legitimized verse drama as a high art form.

(APA citation: Dryden, J. (1672/1926). Of Heroic Plays. In W. P. Ker (Ed.), Essays of John Dryden (Vol. 1). Clarendon Press.)

3. A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire (1693)

Main Idea: Historical and moral analysis of satire as a poetic genre.

Details: Written as a preface to his translations of Juvenal and Persius.
Key Points:
- Defined satire as “a kind of poetry that exposes vice and folly through wit.”
- Distinguished Horatian and Juvenalian modes—gentle correction versus moral indignation.
- Argued for satire’s civic function: to “reform manners and instruct mankind.”
- Illustrated his belief that the critic’s role was both aesthetic and ethical, blending artistry with social conscience.
Quotation: “The business of the poet is to instruct while he entertains.”

(APA citation: Dryden, J. (1693/1882). A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire. In W. Scott & G. Saintsbury (Eds.), The Works of John Dryden (Vol. XIII). Edinburgh.)

4. The Author’s Apology for Heroic Poetry and Poetic Licence (1677)

Main Idea: Defense of imaginative freedom in poetry.
Details: Written as an introduction to The State of Innocence.

Key Points:
- Asserted that poetry is a form of divine imitation, a “discourse which, by a kind of enthusiasm, makes it seem that we behold what the poet paints”.
- Rejected literal realism: “You are not obliged, as in History, to a literal belief of what the poet says; but you are pleased with the image, without being cozened by the fiction.”
- Upheld the poet’s license as a mark of creative vitality rather than distortion of truth.

(APA citation: Dryden, J. (1677/1926). The Author’s Apology for Heroic Poetry and Poetic Licence. In W. P. Ker (Ed.), Essays of John Dryden (Vol. 1). Clarendon Press.)

5. Preface to Fables Ancient and Modern (1700)

Main Idea: Final synthesis of his critical principles—translation, imitation, and universality of art.

Details: A reflective summation of his life’s literary philosophy.
Key Points:
- Advocated creative imitation rather than servile translation: “Another poet, in another age, may take the same liberty with my writings; if at least they live long enough to deserve correction.”
- Stressed adaptability of classical models to modern experience.
- Emphasized poetry’s moral and emotional truth over formal precision.
Significance: Showed Dryden’s humility and critical openness—his belief that literary art evolves through reinterpretation.

(APA citation: Dryden, J. (1700/1882). Preface to Fables Ancient and Modern. In W. Scott & G. Saintsbury (Eds.), The Works of John Dryden (Vol. XVIII). Edinburgh.)

6. Central Ideas as Literary Theorist

Reason and Nature: Poetry as “a just and lively image of human nature” governed by both reason and imagination.
Decorum and Verisimilitude: Advocated naturalness over artificial rule-following.
Critical Method: Empirical, comparative, and reformist—based on observation, not scholastic rigidity.

Dynamic Self-Reflection: Admitted change and self-correction in criticism, a sign of intellectual integrity.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts of John Dryden As a Literary Theorist

Theoretical Term / Concept	Explanation	Supporting Quotation	Reference (APA 7th)
1. Imitation	Central to Dryden’s poetics; poetry is an imitation of human nature and universal truth. He believed imitation should be creative, not servile.	“A just and lively image of human nature… such as is found in every age”	Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. In J. Lynch (Ed.), Rutgers Edition.
2. Fancy and Reason	Dryden harmonized imagination (fancy) with rational control (reason). Art should please but remain credible.	“Fancy and Reason go hand in hand; the first cannot leave the last behind.”	Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy.
3. Decorum	The principle that style, character, and subject matter should be appropriate to one another.	“To observe decorum is the foundation of all just writing.”	Scott, W. (1882). The Life of John Dryden. Edinburgh: Saintsbury Edition.
4. Verisimilitude	Emphasis on probability in fiction; poetry must imitate nature in a believable way.	“Though our fancy will contribute to its own deceit, yet a writer ought to help its operation.”	Dryden, J. (1672/1926). Essay of Heroic Plays. In W. P. Ker (Ed.). Clarendon Press.
5. Poetic Justice	Advocated moral balance: virtue rewarded, vice punished. He linked this to the didactic aim of art.	“The business of the poet is to instruct while he entertains.”	Dryden, J. (1693/1882). A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire. Edinburgh: Scott & Saintsbury.
6. Three Unities (Time, Place, Action)	Accepted Aristotle’s principles but argued for flexible interpretation, favoring English drama’s variety.	“The regulation of the unities is condemned, as often leading to greater absurdities than those they were designed to obviate.”	Scott, W. (1882). The Life of John Dryden. Edinburgh.
7. Heroic Drama	Elevated form of tragedy in verse, expressing noble passions and moral grandeur.	“The poet is then to endeavour an absolute dominion over the minds of the spectators.”	Dryden, J. (1672/1926). Of Heroic Plays. Clarendon Press.
8. Poetic License	Freedom of the poet to transcend literal truth for imaginative effect; defended as essential to creativity.	“You are not obliged, as in History, to a literal belief of what the poet says; but you are pleased with the image.”	Dryden, J. (1677/1926). The Author’s Apology for Heroic Poetry and Poetic Licence. Clarendon Press.
9. Delight and Instruction (Horatian Ideal)	True art must both delight the senses and instruct the mind—a synthesis of pleasure and morality.	“Delight is the chief end of poetry, yet instruction is its most noble design.”	Scott, W. (1882). The Life of John Dryden. Edinburgh.
10. Nature	Dryden defines “Nature” as the universal order of truth and experience reflected in art; poets imitate nature refined by art.	“Nature is best when she is dressed and polished by art.”	Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy.
11. Translation as Creation	Advocated adaptive translation—faithful in spirit, not word-for-word; translator should recreate the original’s genius.	“Another poet, in another age, may take the same liberty with my writings.”	Dryden, J. (1700/1882). Preface to Fables Ancient and Modern. Edinburgh.
12. Wit	Defined as the harmonious expression of thought and language; balance between imagination and judgment.	“Wit is propriety of thoughts and words… such as we find in every age.”	Aden, J. M. (1963). Critical Opinions of John Dryden. Vanderbilt University Press.
13. Judgment	The critical faculty that distinguishes true beauty in art; the guiding principle of the critic.	“Judgment is the master workman; wit is but the instrument.”	Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy.
14. The Poet as Teacher	The poet’s role is moral, guiding readers toward virtue while engaging their imagination.	“Poets are the first instructors of mankind.”	Dryden, J. (1693/1882). A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire.
15. Comparative Criticism	Dryden introduced the comparative method—evaluating ancient and modern, English and French writers together.	“To begin with me… it is not to combat their opinions, but to defend my own.”	Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy.

Contribution to Literary Criticism and Literary Theory of John Dryden As a Literary Theorist

1. Founding of English Neoclassical Criticism

Contribution: Dryden systematized English literary criticism by interpreting classical (Aristotelian and Horatian) principles through a modern lens.
Key Ideas:
- Advocated rational order, decorum, and adherence to nature as central principles of poetic art.
- Established criticism as a rational, comparative, and evaluative discipline rather than mere opinion.
Quotation:

“Poetry is a just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humours, and teaching delightfully what we ought to do.”
— An Essay of Dramatic Poesy

Explanation: Dryden’s concept of poetry as both mimetic and didactic provided a foundation for later English neoclassicism, influencing Pope and Johnson.
Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. In J. Lynch (Ed.), Rutgers Electronic Edition.

2. Theory of Imitation and Nature

Contribution: Developed a moderate version of Aristotelian mimesis—art as imitation of “universal nature” refined by artistic selection.

Key Ideas:
- Art imitates not raw reality but the idealized form of human nature.
- The poet “perfects nature” through judgment and imagination.
Quotation:

“Nature is best when she is dressed and polished by art.”
— Essay of Dramatic Poesy (Dryden, 1668/1956)

Explanation: Dryden’s balance between truth to nature and artistic embellishment foreshadowed later critical realism and aesthetic theory.
Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. Rutgers Edition.

3. Theory of Drama and The Dramatic Unities

Contribution: Reformulated Aristotle’s Three Unities—Time, Place, and Action—into a flexible English context.

Key Ideas:
- Opposed French rigidity; supported “probable” rather than “literal” unity.
- Asserted English drama’s strength in variety and vitality.
Quotation:

“The regulation of the unities is condemned, as often leading to greater absurdities than those they were designed to obviate.”
— The Life of John Dryden

Explanation: Dryden’s pragmatic defense of Shakespeare and English dramatists laid the groundwork for realistic and national drama theory.

Citation (APA):
Scott, W. (1882). The Life of John Dryden. Edinburgh: G. Saintsbury.

4. Theory of Heroic Poetry and Tragedy

Contribution: In Of Heroic Plays (1672), Dryden developed the concept of heroic drama—a fusion of epic grandeur with tragic emotion.
Key Ideas:
- Heroic plays portray noble actions and moral dilemmas.
- Verse (rhyme) elevates emotional intensity and moral purpose.

Quotation:

“The poet is then to endeavour an absolute dominion over the minds of the spectators.”

Explanation: His theory influenced Restoration drama and connected moral idealism with aesthetic elevation, a hallmark of neoclassical tragedy.
Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1672/1926). Of Heroic Plays. In W. P. Ker (Ed.), Essays of John Dryden (Vol. 1). Clarendon Press.

5. Theory of Poetic License and Imagination

Contribution: Defended the poet’s freedom from literal truth, legitimizing imagination as a critical faculty.
Key Ideas:
- Poetry is not bound to fact but to emotional and imaginative truth.
- Poetic license allows the artist to surpass nature while remaining credible.
Quotation:

“You are not obliged, as in history, to a literal belief of what the poet says; but you are pleased with the image, without being cozened by the fiction.”

Explanation: Dryden’s recognition of imagination as a legitimate mode of truth anticipates romantic aesthetics.

Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1677/1926). The Author’s Apology for Heroic Poetry and Poetic Licence. In W. P. Ker (Ed.), Essays of John Dryden (Vol. 1). Clarendon Press.

6. Theory of Satire

Contribution: In A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire (1693), Dryden elevated satire from ridicule to moral correction through wit.
Key Ideas:
- Distinguished Horatian (gentle correction) from Juvenalian (moral indignation) satire.
- Saw satire as a moral art aimed at reforming manners and exposing vice.
Quotation:

“The business of the poet is to instruct while he entertains.”
— A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire (1693/1882)

Explanation: His synthesis of wit, morality, and critique made satire a vehicle for Enlightenment rationalism.

Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1693/1882). A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire. In W. Scott & G. Saintsbury (Eds.), The Works of John Dryden (Vol. XIII). Edinburgh.

7. Theory of Translation and Adaptation

Contribution: Redefined translation as creative transformation, not literal replication.
Key Ideas:
- Advocated “imitation” and “paraphrase” as artistic forms of translation.
- The translator is a poet who reinterprets the spirit of the original.

Quotation:

“Another poet, in another age, may take the same liberty with my writings; if they live long enough to deserve correction.”

Explanation: Dryden’s translation theory prefigures modern views of intertextuality and creative equivalence.
Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1700/1882). Preface to Fables Ancient and Modern. In W. Scott & G. Saintsbury (Eds.), The Works of John Dryden (Vol. XVIII). Edinburgh.

8. Theory of Criticism as a Moral and Creative Act

Contribution: Elevated criticism from commentary to moral philosophy and creative participation in art.
Key Ideas:
- The critic’s role is interpretive and reformative, not merely judgmental.
- Criticism refines taste, cultivates virtue, and improves art.
Quotation:

“Criticism is the knowledge of good sense, applied to works of genius.”
— Critical Opinions of John Dryden (Aden, 1963)

Explanation: This notion established the critic as both artist and moral guide, shaping later critical theory.

Citation (APA):
Aden, J. M. (1963). Critical Opinions of John Dryden. Vanderbilt University Press.

9. Comparative and Dialogic Criticism

Contribution: Introduced comparative criticism—evaluating writers and traditions through balanced dialogue.
Key Ideas:
- Compared ancients vs. moderns, English vs. French, with fairness and empiricism.
- Encouraged critical pluralism rather than rigid dogma.
Quotation:

“It is not to combat their opinions, but to defend my own.”

Explanation: This dialogic approach anticipated modern comparative and reader-response criticism.

Citation (APA):
Dryden, J. (1668/1956). An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. Rutgers Edition.

Summary

Dryden’s critical legacy lies in his creation of a rational, moral, and creative theory of literature. He:

Bridged ancient and modern criticism through comparative dialogue.
Established key concepts—imitation, nature, judgment, poetic license, wit, and decorum—as the foundation of English neoclassicism.

Humanized theory, seeing art as a moral and imaginative act, not mechanical imitation.

“He found criticism a chaos and left it a science.” — The Cambridge Companion to John Dryden (Zwicker, 2004, p. 112).

Application of Ideas of John Dryden As a Literary Theorist to Literary Works

Dryden’s Theoretical Idea	Applied Literary Work	Explanation of Application	Supporting Quotation
Mimesis (Imitation of Nature)	Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Dryden’s belief that art should imitate “universal human nature” aligns with Shakespeare’s portrayal of Hamlet’s moral conflict, capturing reason and passion.	“Poetry is a just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humours.”
Poetic Justice	King Lear by William Shakespeare	Dryden held that tragedy should balance moral order—punishing vice and rewarding virtue—reflected in Lear’s redemption through suffering.	“The end of tragedy is to instruct by example, rewarding virtue and punishing vice.”
Wit and Judgment	The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope	Pope’s mock-heroic style embodies Dryden’s union of wit (creative imagination) and judgment (reasoned order).	“Wit is propriety of thoughts and words… Judgment is the master workman.”
Translation as Creative Rewriting	Fables Ancient and Modern by John Dryden	Dryden’s theory of translation—as “imitation with liberty”—is realized in his modern renderings of Chaucer and Virgil, preserving spirit over literal form.	“I have found it necessary to alter much, and sometimes to add.”

Criticism of John Dryden As a Literary Theorist

1. Lack of Systematic Theory

Dryden is often criticized for not constructing a coherent or unified system of aesthetics.

His critical writings were occasional and pragmatic, emerging from specific literary controversies rather than a philosophical framework.
As George Saintsbury noted, his criticism “follows the temper of the time rather than transcends it.”
Critics argue that Dryden’s ideas are “empirical observations” rather than consistent theoretical principles (Aden, 1963).

2. Dependence on Classical Authorities

Dryden heavily relied on Aristotle, Horace, and French neoclassical critics such as Corneille and Boileau.
His criticism is seen as derivative, more interpretive than original, as he often reformulated existing classical norms for English literature.
As Zwicker (2004) points out, “Dryden’s neoclassicism is a translation, not a transformation.”

3. Contradictions and Self-Revisions

Dryden’s theoretical positions often shifted over time, revealing inconsistency.
- For instance, he defended rhyme in tragedy in Of Heroic Plays (1672) but later abandoned it.
- He praised French regularity yet defended English freedom in Essay of Dramatic Poesy.

Such self-contradiction led T. S. Eliot to remark that “Dryden is the greatest of critics who never knew what his critical principles were.”

4. Limited Philosophical Depth

Dryden’s criticism lacks the metaphysical and epistemological depth found in later critics like Coleridge or Eliot.
His focus was aesthetic and practical, not speculative or psychological.

Critics describe his thought as “rational but not profound,” oriented toward stylistic and moral norms rather than exploring the nature of creativity.

5. Overemphasis on Decorum and Rules

Dryden’s insistence on decorum, proportion, and judgment sometimes led to an overvaluing of restraint over innovation.
Romantic critics accused him of limiting imagination under the authority of reason and rules.

Wordsworth rejected Dryden’s neoclassical restraint, calling it “the bondage of custom rather than the liberty of art.”

6. Class and Court Bias

As a court poet, Dryden’s aesthetic values were tied to aristocratic taste and political patronage.
His critical ideals often mirrored Restoration elitism, prioritizing refinement, wit, and elegance over sincerity and emotion.

Zwicker (2004) notes that his critical voice “was shaped in service of monarchy and hierarchy, not against it.”

7. Neglect of the Reader and Subjectivity

Dryden’s criticism centers on the poet and the text, largely ignoring the reader’s response or interpretive subjectivity.
Modern critics fault him for excluding readerly engagement, a key element in post-structural and reception theory.

8. Incomplete Engagement with Poetic Imagination

While defending poetic license, Dryden stops short of exploring imagination as an independent creative power.
Coleridge later expanded this concept, viewing imagination as divine creation, beyond Dryden’s moral and rational boundaries.

9. Eurocentric and Elitist Framework

Dryden’s theory is confined to Greco-Roman and European traditions, dismissing vernacular and folk literatures.

His model of “nature” and “universal truth” was defined through classical European aesthetics, excluding cultural plurality.

10. Historical Contextual Limitation

Some critics argue Dryden’s ideas, though influential, were too bound to the Restoration milieu—serving literary politics rather than universal principles.
His criticism is therefore “historically foundational but philosophically limited” (Ernst, 2000).