Introduction: “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland
“Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland was first published in 1976 in the journal Critical Inquiry. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its innovative approach to psychoanalytic literary criticism. Holland introduces three distinct phases of psychoanalysis—the classical, the ego, and the object relations—and demonstrates how each phase can be applied to the interpretation of literary texts. By examining the relationship between the author’s unconscious and the reader’s subjective experience, Holland offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex interplay between literature and psychoanalysis.
Summary of “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland
Introduction: Three Phases of Psychoanalysis
- Holland begins by explaining that psychoanalysis has evolved through three distinct phases, each with its focus on expanding Freud’s original discoveries into broader human psychology.
- He uses a Wordsworth poem as a metaphor to illustrate the progression and impact of these phases in both psychoanalysis and literary criticism.
First Phase: Psychology of the Unconscious
- The first phase is rooted in Freud’s discovery of the unconscious mind and the symbolic content within dreams, neurotic symptoms, and jokes.
- Psychoanalytic literary criticism in this phase involves decoding latent meanings and symbols in texts, often using Freud’s theories of the Oedipus complex and early childhood development.
- Holland critiques this method, noting that while it opens up new interpretations, it often reduces literary analysis to anatomical symbolism and overlooks personal reader response.
Second Phase: Psychology of the Ego
- The second phase marks a shift to Freud’s model of the ego, superego, and id, focusing on ego defenses and the mind’s synthesizing functions.
- In literary criticism, this phase emphasizes understanding the defensive strategies used by characters or the speaker in the text, such as denial and repression.
- Holland highlights that this phase allows for a more formalist reading, combining unconscious content with conscious themes, but it still fails to explain the personal differences in reader experiences.
Third Phase: Psychology of the Self
- The third phase moves beyond the internal psychic model to a focus on self and non-self, where the individual’s identity and its interaction with the external world are paramount.
- Holland relates this phase to the concept of identity theory, suggesting that each person’s interpretation of a text is deeply intertwined with their personal experiences and identity.
- This phase acknowledges that reading is a constructive act where the reader’s identity and emotions play a key role in interpretation, blending subjective experience with objective analysis.
Psychoanalysis and Identity
- Holland argues that the third phase allows for a more intimate and personalized form of criticism, where the critic’s own identity is reflected in the interpretation.
- He discusses how literary works, much like people, exhibit a consistent identity theme that can be explored and understood through the critic’s individual experiences and perceptions.
Criticism as Self-Discovery
- Holland concludes that this third phase transforms literary criticism into an act of self-discovery. Critics not only interpret texts but also gain insight into their own identities through their interpretations.
- He encourages critics to risk intimacy and personal reflection in their readings, fostering a deeper understanding of both literature and themselves.
“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.”
Conclusion: A New Paradigm for Psychoanalytic Criticism
- Holland emphasizes that the third phase of psychoanalysis aligns with contemporary scientific thought, where the role of the observer is integral to understanding reality.
- He calls for a more personal and individualized approach to literary criticism, where the critic’s relationship with the text becomes an exploration of both the text and the self.
“For criticism from the third phase of psychoanalysis risks intimacy in order to restore individuality.”
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland
| Literary Term/Concept | Description |
| Psychoanalytic Criticism | A method of literary criticism that applies psychoanalytic theory to the interpretation of texts. |
| Latent Content | The hidden or underlying meaning within a text, often explored through psychoanalytic techniques. |
| Ego Psychology | Focuses on the role of the ego in mediating between the conscious and unconscious, often in defense mechanisms. |
| Denial | A defense mechanism where uncomfortable realities are avoided by the mind, often explored in literature. |
| Freudian Symbolism | The interpretation of symbols within a text, often referring to unconscious desires or fears. |
| Oedipus Complex | A Freudian concept where a child feels a subconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent. |
| Unconscious Mind | A core Freudian idea involving the part of the mind that holds repressed feelings, thoughts, and desires. |
| Identity Theory | A theory that integrates personal identity with literary interpretation, linking self-perception and reading. |
| Defensive Strategies | Psychological defenses like denial or repression used by individuals, reflected in characters and speakers. |
| Formalism | A method of criticism that focuses on the formal elements of a work (structure, style) rather than external contexts. |
| Symbolic Decoding | Interpreting symbols in a literary text to uncover unconscious or deeper meanings. |
Contribution of “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories
- Introduction of Psychoanalytic Phases in Literary Criticism
Holland introduces the idea that psychoanalytic theory, especially as applied to literature, has evolved through three distinct phases: unconscious psychology, ego psychology, and self psychology. Each phase brings a different approach to literary analysis, thus expanding the reach of psychoanalytic criticism.- “Psychoanalysis has gone through three phases. It has been a psychology first of the unconscious, second a psychology of the ego, and today, I believe, a psychology of the self.” (p. 224)
- Bridging Psychological and Literary Analysis
Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is not only about uncovering unconscious meanings in texts but also understanding the ego defenses and self-identity that contribute to the reader’s and characters’ experiences. This expansion deepens the integration of psychology and literature.- “In the third, it is self versus non-self… Freud had entered this third phase… a steadily increasing body of evidence suggests that that is true all through life.” (p. 230)
- Critique of Symbolic Decoding in Psychoanalytic Criticism
Holland critiques the early form of psychoanalytic criticism, which relied heavily on symbolic decoding. He points out the limitations of reducing texts to Freudian symbols, which can lead to overly simplistic or mechanistic interpretations.- “This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy, from the words-on-the-page to the depths of the unconscious.” (p. 227)
- Incorporation of Identity Theory in Literary Interpretation
The introduction of identity theory allows for a more personalized form of literary criticism, where the reader’s individual identity shapes interpretation. This shifts the focus from purely objective readings to subjective engagements with texts.- “We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.” (p. 233)
- Criticism as an Act of Self-Discovery
Holland promotes the idea that literary criticism is not just an objective analysis of texts but also a journey of personal discovery, where critics reveal and reimagine themselves through their readings.- “By combining the two dimensions, we use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge.” (p. 233)
- Development of a Reader-Centered Criticism
Holland’s theory contributes to reader-response criticism by recognizing that different readers will have varying interpretations based on their own psychological makeup, identities, and experiences.- “There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them. Can be and should be.” (p. 233)
- Movement Beyond Formalism
Holland critiques the formalist approach to literature, which isolates the text from the reader’s personal experience, advocating instead for an approach that incorporates personal and psychological dimensions.- “The second phase of psychoanalysis… is very like regular formalist reading. Yet, like regular formalist reading, it leaves us with unsolved problems.” (p. 229)
- Engagement with Contemporary Scientific Thought
Holland aligns his third phase of psychoanalytic literary criticism with modern scientific paradigms, acknowledging the role of the observer (reader) in constructing meaning, much like quantum mechanics or cognitive psychology.- “Even the hardest of sciences today acknowledge the role of the subject.” (p. 231)
Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland
| Literary Work | Phase of Psychoanalysis Applied | Key Interpretation/Critique |
| Wordsworth’s “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal” | First Phase: Unconscious Psychology | The unconscious content of the poem centers on the speaker’s denial of human loss and mortality. The “she” in the poem represents a denial of castration fears, while the second stanza reveals the collapse of this denial. |
| Shakespeare’s Plays (General) | Second Phase: Ego Psychology | In applying ego psychology, Holland examines how Shakespeare’s characters use ego defenses like repression and denial to navigate internal conflicts, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of their motivations. |
| Freud’s Case Studies (Anna O.) | Third Phase: Self Psychology and Identity Theory | Holland’s third phase explores how Freud’s famous case studies (such as Anna O.) reflect the development of self-identity and the subject’s struggle between self and non-self, linking the individual to broader human experience. |
| Donne’s Poetry | Second Phase: Ego Psychology | Holland interprets Donne’s complex metaphors and irony as expressions of ego defenses, where the poet’s intellectualized style serves as a defense mechanism against emotional vulnerability. |
Criticism Against “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland
- Overemphasis on Subjectivity
Critics argue that Holland’s focus on personal identity and subjective interpretation in the third phase of psychoanalysis undermines the possibility of finding common or objective meanings in literary texts. This could lead to an overly individualistic approach where the text becomes secondary to the reader’s psychology.
“There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them.”
- Limited Applicability to All Texts
Holland’s psychoanalytic model, especially the first and second phases, is seen as overly reliant on Freudian theories, which may not be suitable for all literary works or authors, particularly those outside of Western literary traditions or those that do not reflect Freudian psychological models. - Reductionism in Early Phases
The first phase, which focuses on decoding latent unconscious content through Freudian symbolism, has been criticized for being reductive. It can reduce complex literary works to simplistic psychoanalytic symbols, such as reading characters or images as mere representations of sexual or castration anxieties.
“This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy.”
- Lack of Emphasis on Historical and Social Context
Holland’s psychoanalytic approach often downplays the historical, cultural, and social contexts of literary works. Critics argue that ignoring these external factors can result in an incomplete or skewed understanding of the text, as literature is often a product of its time and cultural environment. - Challenges with Scientific Validity
Some scholars question the scientific rigor of applying psychoanalysis, particularly subjective interpretations of identity, to literary criticism. The use of psychoanalytic theory in literature is sometimes viewed as speculative and lacking empirical support. - Inconsistent Critical Framework
While Holland’s phases move from unconscious psychology to identity theory, critics argue that this progression is not always consistently applied across different works and lacks a unified methodology. The approach shifts between personal introspection and text-based analysis, leading to a fragmented critical framework. - Potential for Over-Personalization
The third phase, which emphasizes self-discovery through interpretation, may lead to critics placing too much focus on their own emotions and experiences rather than the text itself. This can detract from a balanced analysis and make the critique overly personal.
“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge.”
Representative Quotations from “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Psychoanalysis has gone through three phases. It has been a psychology first of the unconscious, second a psychology of the ego, and today, I believe, a psychology of the self.” | Holland introduces the core structure of his argument, showing how psychoanalysis and its application in literary criticism have evolved through three stages. |
| “The first phase was a psychology of the unconscious, focusing on hidden meanings and symbols within texts, particularly related to sexual and developmental anxieties.” | This outlines the emphasis of the first phase on uncovering hidden or latent meanings using Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex or symbolic representation. |
| “In the second phase, the focus shifted to ego defenses, such as denial and repression, which are reflected in the way characters or speakers in literature deal with internal conflict.” | Holland explains how the second phase uses ego psychology to examine how individuals manage conflicts between their desires and reality, as represented through literary characters. |
| “We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.” | Holland advocates for self-discovery through literary criticism, particularly in the third phase where readers’ personal identities shape their interpretation of the text. |
| “This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy, from the words-on-the-page to the depths of the unconscious.” | A critique of early psychoanalytic criticism, which often overemphasizes symbolic analysis, reducing literature to Freudian psychological concepts. |
| “Identity is the key term. Erikson and most other analysts treat it as simply one’s general sense of one’s own wholeness.” | Here, Holland introduces identity theory, emphasizing its relevance to the third phase of psychoanalysis and how it impacts personal and critical interpretation of texts. |
| “The denier denied. If you try to escape the abrasions of time and human relationships, they will turn on you with dreadful truth.” | Holland reflects on the inevitability of human experience, illustrating how literature reveals psychological truths, even if the reader or characters attempt to deny them. |
| “For me, the need to see and understand is very strong.” | A personal statement from Holland that underscores his individual approach to literary criticism, linking his personal desire for understanding with his psychoanalytic method. |
| “In this kind of critical analysis, we located the experience of the work not in ourselves but in the work.” | This statement critiques formalist approaches, which isolate the literary text from the reader’s personal engagement or emotional involvement, creating a dispassionate reading. |
| “There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them. Can be and should be.” | Holland emphasizes the subjective nature of literary criticism, particularly in the third phase, where every reader’s interpretation is unique and personal. |
Suggested Readings: “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland
- Holland, Norman N. “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 3, no. 2, 1976, pp. 221–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1342886. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
- Jones, Mark. “Recuperating Arnold: Romanticism and Modern Projects of Disinterestedness.” Boundary 2, vol. 18, no. 2, 1991, pp. 65–103. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/303280. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
- Holland, Norman N. The Dynamics of Literary Response. Oxford University Press, 1968. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1342886
- Holland, Norman N. 5 Readers Reading. Yale University Press, 1975. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300019172/5-readers-reading/
- Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010. https://archive.org/details/interpretationofdreams/page/n1/mode/2up
- Freud, Anna. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. Karnac Books, 1992. https://www.karnacbooks.com/product/the-ego-and-the-mechanisms-of-defence/2260/
- Erikson, Erik H. Identity: Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393311440