“Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

“Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler was first published in 1981 as part of the collection Criticism. This seminal work was instrumental in shifting the focus of literary analysis from formalist approaches to a discourse-oriented perspective. By treating literature as a form of social interaction rather than an isolated aesthetic object, Fowler’s work opened up new avenues for exploring the relationship between language, power, and ideology within texts. This paradigm shift significantly impacted the trajectory of literary theory, leading to a more socially and culturally engaged mode of literary criticism.

Summary of “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

• Critique of Linguistic Formalism: Fowler challenges “linguistic formalism,” particularly its focus on “distinctive syntactic and phonological shape,” as seen in Roman Jakobson’s work. He argues that this approach is “of limited significance” and “educationally restrictive” in literary studies.
• Literature as Discourse: Fowler proposes viewing literature as “discourse,” emphasizing the “interactional dimensions of texts.” This approach considers literature as “mediating relationships between language-users,” including “consciousness, ideology, role, and class.”
• Rejection of Formal Autonomy: Fowler rejects the idea that literary works possess “formal autonomy” and insists that literature is “part of social process” and subject to “causal and functional interpretations” similar to those in the sociology of language.
• Functional Linguistic Approach: Fowler advocates for a “functional theory of language,” as opposed to purely formalist approaches. He references Halliday’s functional grammar, which includes “ideational, interpersonal, and textual” functions, asserting that language’s purpose is rooted in its “communicative purposes.”
• Critique of Jakobson’s Poetic Function: Fowler criticizes Jakobson’s emphasis on the “phonetic and syntactic features” of poetry, arguing that it “suppresses” other language functions and reflects the “formalist goals” of a “historically specific culture.”
• Literature’s Responsibility: Fowler emphasizes that literature is not “exempt” from its “responsibility to work in the real world.” He argues that literature must acknowledge its “interpersonal function” and cannot be “cocooned” from its “relationship with society.”
• Speech Act Theory in Literary Criticism: Fowler introduces John Searle’s revision of Austin’s speech act theory, suggesting that “every utterance” in literature involves “locutionary, propositional, and illocutionary acts.” He uses Blake’s “Tyger” as an example to show how understanding these acts is “prerequisite to interpretation.”
• Focus on Interactional Features: Fowler concludes that analyzing literature as discourse allows critics to focus on “features of language” that “signal the interaction of consciousnesses.” This approach challenges “evasive critics’ strategies” that attempt to separate literature from “communicative transactions.”
• Literature as an Answerable Discourse: The essay argues that viewing literature as discourse makes it “inevitably answerable” and “responsible,” opposing the notion that literature can be an “objective” or “depersonalized” entity detached from society.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

Literary Device/Concept	Definition	Example
Formalism	A literary theory that focuses on the text as an independent object, emphasizing its structure and form.	Jakobson’s analysis of poetry, concentrating on phonetic and syntactic features.
Discourse	Language in use, focusing on the interaction between language users and the social context.	Fowler’s approach to treating literature as a process of communication between implied speakers.
Ideational Function	The function of language that conveys a worldview and structures experience.	The transmission of a particular perspective through the use of nouns, predicates, and logical connectives.
Interpersonal Function	The function of language that establishes and maintains relationships between people.	The use of questions, assertions, and status markers to signal the relationship between speaker and listener.
Textual Function	The function of language that creates well-formed and coherent texts.	The use of grammatical structures and cohesive devices to create a complete and understandable message.
Speech Act	A unit of language that performs an action, such as stating, promising, or questioning.	Blake’s rhetorical questions in “Tyger” which challenge the reader’s understanding of power and beauty.
Illocutionary Act	The intended meaning of a speech act, such as requesting, informing, or promising.	The implied meaning behind Blake’s rhetorical questions, which is to persuade the reader of the error and inscrutability of power and beauty.

Contribution of “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	Supporting Quoted Phrases
Formalism	Challenges the focus on form, syntax, and structure as the primary elements of literary analysis.	“Linguistic formalism is of limited significance in literary studies, and educationally restrictive.”
Structuralism	Criticizes the reduction of literature to formal structures, advocating for a broader view of text as discourse.	“The text ceases to be an object and becomes an action or process.”
Marxism	Aligns with Marxist perspectives by recognizing literature’s connection to social and economic structures.	“The values are neither universal… They derive from the economic and social structures of particular societies.”
Sociolinguistics	Introduces the idea of literature as part of social discourse, focusing on its interactional dimensions.	“To treat literature as discourse is to see the text as mediating relationships between language-users: not only relationships of speech, but also of consciousness.”
Pragmatics	Applies speech act theory to literature, examining how language functions within texts to convey actions.	“Every utterance is simultaneously three language acts… locutionary, propositional, and illocutionary acts.”
Post-Structuralism	Questions the stability and universality of meaning, emphasizing literature’s role in social processes.	“No plausible essentialist or intrinsic definition of literature has been or is likely to be devised.”
Reader-Response Theory	Suggests that literature involves the reader in a communicative process, highlighting the role of interaction.	“These unanswerable questions bounce off the tiger towards the implied reader of the poem, and so a discourse is established.”
Discourse Analysis	Positions literature as a form of discourse that cannot be isolated from social communication and power relations.	“Literature isn’t exempt from language’s general responsibility to work in the real world of conflicts and sympathies.”
Cultural Studies	Recognizes literature as a product of cultural values, subject to historical and ideological influences.	“What literature is, can be stated empirically, within the realm of sociolinguistic fact… recognized by a culture as possessing certain institutional values.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

Literary Work	Critique (using Fowler’s concepts)
William Blake’s “Tyger”	Blake’s poem “Tyger” is a prime example of how discourse analysis can illuminate a text’s meaning. The speaker’s questions, though directed at the tiger, are infelicitous (violating the conditions of normal communication) and function rhetorically. These unanswerable questions (“What the hammer? what the chain?”) are not meant to elicit information from the tiger but rather to create a sense of disorientation in the reader. By highlighting the limitations of language to comprehend the tiger’s existence (“What the anvil? what dread grasp / Dare its deadly terrors clasp?”), the poem challenges our understanding of power and beauty.
Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”	Through the lens of discourse analysis, Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” can be seen as a commentary on social class and its impact on communication. The characters’ language choices and interactions reveal their social standing and influence their relationships.   For instance, Mr. Darcy’s initial aloofness and Elizabeth Bennet’s spirited retorts reflect the societal expectations and power dynamics between the landed gentry and the middle class. The witty banter and underlying tension highlight the importance of interpersonal function in the novel, where language is used not just to convey information but also to establish dominance and negotiate social positions.
Charles Dickens’ “Oliver Twist”	Charles Dickens’ “Oliver Twist” utilizes language to convey a particular ideology and critique social injustices. The impoverished characters’ limited vocabulary and the use of slang reflect their marginalization within society.   Dickens employs the ideational function extensively, shaping the reader’s worldview by depicting the harsh realities of poverty and the power imbalances between the rich and the poor. The narrative exposes the hypocrisy of Victorian society through the characters’ language and actions.
Modern Dystopian Novel	In a modern dystopian novel, the manipulation of language by the ruling class becomes a central theme. The government restricts vocabulary and enforces specific forms of discourse to control the population’s thoughts and behavior.   This suppression of free speech and critical thinking exemplifies Fowler’s concept of discourse as a tool for social control. By analyzing the limited language choices available to the characters, we can understand the oppressive nature of the regime and the characters’ potential resistance strategies.

Criticism Against “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

• Overemphasis on Social Context: Critics argue that Fowler places too much emphasis on the social and ideological context of literature, potentially overshadowing the aesthetic and artistic qualities of the text.
• Neglect of Literary Autonomy: Fowler’s rejection of the formal autonomy of literature is seen by some as diminishing the unique qualities that distinguish literary texts from other forms of discourse.
• Reduction of Literature to Discourse: Some critics believe that treating literature solely as discourse may oversimplify complex literary works, reducing them to mere social or ideological functions rather than appreciating their multifaceted nature.
• Potential Undervaluation of Formalist Insights: By dismissing linguistic formalism as “of limited significance,” Fowler may overlook valuable insights that formalist approaches can offer in understanding the structure and technique of literary works.
• Risk of Ideological Bias: Fowler’s approach, which emphasizes literature’s role in reflecting and mediating social relationships, might introduce an ideological bias that interprets texts primarily through a political or social lens, potentially skewing interpretations.
• Challenge to Traditional Aesthetics: Fowler’s challenge to conventional literary aesthetics, such as the notion of “objective” or “depersonalized” literature, is seen by some as an undermining of well-established critical frameworks that have long been valued in literary studies.
• Complexity of Speech Act Theory Application: The application of speech act theory to literature, as advocated by Fowler, might be viewed as overly complex or impractical, especially for literary works that do not fit neatly into the framework of locutionary, propositional, and illocutionary acts.

Suggested Readings: “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

1. Culler, Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature. Cornell University Press, 1975.
2. Fowler, Roger. Essays on Style and Language: Linguistics and Critical Approaches to Literary Style. Routledge, 1966.
3. Fowler, Roger. Literature as Social Discourse: The Practice of Linguistic Criticism. Batsford Academic and Educational, 1981.
4. Halliday, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. Edward Arnold, 1978.
5. Jakobson, Roman. “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics.” Style in Language, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, MIT Press, 1960, pp. 350-377.
6. Lodge, David. The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Typology of Modern Literature. Cornell University Press, 1977.
7. Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment. Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1929.
8. Searle, John R. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1969.
9. Widdowson, H.G. Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. Longman, 1975.

Representative Quotations from “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The text ceases to be an object and becomes an action or process.”	This quotation highlights Fowler’s central thesis that literature should be seen as an interactive discourse, not merely as a static, formal structure.
“To treat literature as discourse is to see the text as mediating relationships between language-users.”	Fowler emphasizes that literature plays a role in shaping and reflecting social relationships, making it a dynamic participant in communication and society.
“Linguistic formalism is of limited significance in literary studies, and educationally restrictive.”	Fowler critiques the traditional focus on formalist approaches in literary studies, arguing that they fail to account for the broader social and communicative functions of literature.
“What literature is, can be stated empirically, within the realm of sociolinguistic fact.”	This statement reflects Fowler’s view that literature’s definition is not fixed but is shaped by cultural and social contexts, which can be observed and analyzed empirically.
“Literature isn’t exempt from language’s general responsibility to work in the real world of conflicts and sympathies.”	Fowler argues that literature, as a form of language, must engage with real-world issues, and cannot be isolated from social and ethical responsibilities.
“A text is treated as a process, the communicative interaction of implied speakers and thus of consciousnesses and of communities.”	This quotation encapsulates Fowler’s approach to literary analysis, which focuses on understanding texts as active communicative processes that involve multiple perspectives and social interactions.