Introduction: “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
“Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden, first appeared in 1682 as part of a collection of Dryden’s satirical works, is primarily a satire targeting the poet Thomas Shadwell, whom Dryden saw as lacking literary talent and taste. The poem’s title character, Richard Flecknoe, is a notoriously inept poet who, in the narrative, bequeaths his “throne” of literary mediocrity to Shadwell, thereby symbolizing Shadwell’s perceived shortcomings as a writer. The piece explores themes of incompetence, literary degeneration, and the decline of artistic standards, using elaborate irony and allusions to classical literature to elevate its satire. Its popularity lies in Dryden’s sharp wit, intricate wordplay, and his skillful use of the mock-epic form, which frames Shadwell’s literary mediocrity in an exaggeratedly grand style, making “Mac Flecknoe” a classic example of Restoration satire and a key work in Dryden’s critique of literary and cultural decay.
Text: “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
A Satire upon the True-blue Protestant Poet T.S.
All human things are subject to decay,
And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey:
This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young
Was call’d to empire, and had govern’d long:
In prose and verse, was own’d, without dispute
Through all the realms of Non-sense, absolute.
This aged prince now flourishing in peace,
And blest with issue of a large increase,
Worn out with business, did at length debate
To settle the succession of the State:
And pond’ring which of all his sons was fit
To reign, and wage immortal war with wit;
Cry’d, ’tis resolv’d; for nature pleads that he
Should only rule, who most resembles me:
Shadwell alone my perfect image bears,
Mature in dullness from his tender years.
Shadwell alone, of all my sons, is he
Who stands confirm’d in full stupidity.
The rest to some faint meaning make pretence,
But Shadwell never deviates into sense.
Some beams of wit on other souls may fall,
Strike through and make a lucid interval;
But Shadwell’s genuine night admits no ray,
His rising fogs prevail upon the day:
Besides his goodly fabric fills the eye,
And seems design’d for thoughtless majesty:
Thoughtless as monarch oaks, that shade the plain,
And, spread in solemn state, supinely reign.
Heywood and Shirley were but types of thee,
Thou last great prophet of tautology:
Even I, a dunce of more renown than they,
Was sent before but to prepare thy way;
And coarsely clad in Norwich drugget came
To teach the nations in thy greater name.
My warbling lute, the lute I whilom strung
When to King John of Portugal I sung,
Was but the prelude to that glorious day,
When thou on silver Thames did’st cut thy way,
With well tim’d oars before the royal barge,
Swell’d with the pride of thy celestial charge;
And big with hymn, commander of an host,
The like was ne’er in Epsom blankets toss’d.
Methinks I see the new Arion sail,
The lute still trembling underneath thy nail.
At thy well sharpen’d thumb from shore to shore
The treble squeaks for fear, the basses roar:
Echoes from Pissing-Alley, Shadwell call,
And Shadwell they resound from Aston Hall.
About thy boat the little fishes throng,
As at the morning toast, that floats along.
Sometimes as prince of thy harmonious band
Thou wield’st thy papers in thy threshing hand.
St. Andre’s feet ne’er kept more equal time,
Not ev’n the feet of thy own Psyche’s rhyme:
Though they in number as in sense excel;
So just, so like tautology they fell,
That, pale with envy, Singleton forswore
The lute and sword which he in triumph bore
And vow’d he ne’er would act Villerius more.
Here stopt the good old sire; and wept for joy
In silent raptures of the hopeful boy.
All arguments, but most his plays, persuade,
That for anointed dullness he was made.
Close to the walls which fair Augusta bind,
(The fair Augusta much to fears inclin’d)
An ancient fabric, rais’d t’inform the sight,
There stood of yore, and Barbican it hight:
A watch tower once; but now, so fate ordains,
Of all the pile an empty name remains.
From its old ruins brothel-houses rise,
Scenes of lewd loves, and of polluted joys.
Where their vast courts, the mother-strumpets keep,
And, undisturb’d by watch, in silence sleep.
Near these a nursery erects its head,
Where queens are form’d, and future heroes bred;
Where unfledg’d actors learn to laugh and cry,
Where infant punks their tender voices try,
And little Maximins the gods defy.
Great Fletcher never treads in buskins here,
Nor greater Jonson dares in socks appear;
But gentle Simkin just reception finds
Amidst this monument of vanish’d minds:
Pure clinches, the suburbian muse affords;
And Panton waging harmless war with words.
Here Flecknoe, as a place to fame well known,
Ambitiously design’d his Shadwell’s throne.
For ancient Decker prophesi’d long since,
That in this pile should reign a mighty prince,
Born for a scourge of wit, and flail of sense:
To whom true dullness should some Psyches owe,
But worlds of Misers from his pen should flow;
Humorists and hypocrites it should produce,
Whole Raymond families, and tribes of Bruce.
Now Empress Fame had publisht the renown,
Of Shadwell’s coronation through the town.
Rous’d by report of fame, the nations meet,
From near Bun-Hill, and distant Watling-street.
No Persian carpets spread th’imperial way,
But scatter’d limbs of mangled poets lay:
From dusty shops neglected authors come,
Martyrs of pies, and reliques of the bum.
Much Heywood, Shirley, Ogleby there lay,
But loads of Shadwell almost chok’d the way.
Bilk’d stationers for yeoman stood prepar’d,
And Herringman was Captain of the Guard.
The hoary prince in majesty appear’d,
High on a throne of his own labours rear’d.
At his right hand our young Ascanius sat
Rome’s other hope, and pillar of the state.
His brows thick fogs, instead of glories, grace,
And lambent dullness play’d around his face.
As Hannibal did to the altars come,
Sworn by his sire a mortal foe to Rome;
So Shadwell swore, nor should his vow be vain,
That he till death true dullness would maintain;
And in his father’s right, and realm’s defence,
Ne’er to have peace with wit, nor truce with sense.
The king himself the sacred unction made,
As king by office, and as priest by trade:
In his sinister hand, instead of ball,
He plac’d a mighty mug of potent ale;
Love’s kingdom to his right he did convey,
At once his sceptre and his rule of sway;
Whose righteous lore the prince had practis’d young,
And from whose loins recorded Psyche sprung,
His temples last with poppies were o’er spread,
That nodding seem’d to consecrate his head:
Just at that point of time, if fame not lie,
On his left hand twelve reverend owls did fly.
So Romulus, ’tis sung, by Tiber’s brook,
Presage of sway from twice six vultures took.
Th’admiring throng loud acclamations make,
And omens of his future empire take.
The sire then shook the honours of his head,
And from his brows damps of oblivion shed
Full on the filial dullness: long he stood,
Repelling from his breast the raging god;
At length burst out in this prophetic mood:
Heavens bless my son, from Ireland let him reign
To far Barbadoes on the Western main;
Of his dominion may no end be known,
And greater than his father’s be his throne.
Beyond love’s kingdom let him stretch his pen;
He paus’d, and all the people cry’d Amen.
Then thus, continu’d he, my son advance
Still in new impudence, new ignorance.
Success let other teach, learn thou from me
Pangs without birth, and fruitless industry.
Let Virtuosos in five years be writ;
Yet not one thought accuse thy toil of wit.
Let gentle George in triumph tread the stage,
Make Dorimant betray, and Loveit rage;
Let Cully, Cockwood, Fopling, charm the pit,
And in their folly show the writer’s wit.
Yet still thy fools shall stand in thy defence,
And justify their author’s want of sense.
Let ’em be all by thy own model made
Of dullness, and desire no foreign aid:
That they to future ages may be known,
Not copies drawn, but issue of thy own.
Nay let thy men of wit too be the same,
All full of thee, and differing but in name;
But let no alien Sedley interpose
To lard with wit thy hungry Epsom prose.
And when false flowers of rhetoric thou would’st cull,
Trust Nature, do not labour to be dull;
But write thy best, and top; and in each line,
Sir Formal’s oratory will be thine.
Sir Formal, though unsought, attends thy quill,
And does thy Northern Dedications fill.
Nor let false friends seduce thy mind to fame,
By arrogating Jonson’s hostile name.
Let Father Flecknoe fire thy mind with praise,
And Uncle Ogleby thy envy raise.
Thou art my blood, where Jonson has no part;
What share have we in Nature or in Art?
Where did his wit on learning fix a brand,
And rail at arts he did not understand?
Where made he love in Prince Nicander’s vein,
Or swept the dust in Psyche’s humble strain?
Where sold he bargains, whip-stitch, kiss my arse,
Promis’d a play and dwindled to a farce?
When did his muse from Fletcher scenes purloin,
As thou whole Eth’ridge dost transfuse to thine?
But so transfus’d as oil on waters flow,
His always floats above, thine sinks below.
This is thy province, this thy wondrous way,
New humours to invent for each new play:
This is that boasted bias of thy mind,
By which one way, to dullness, ’tis inclin’d,
Which makes thy writings lean on one side still,
And in all changes that way bends thy will.
Nor let thy mountain belly make pretence
Of likeness; thine’s a tympany of sense.
A tun of man in thy large bulk is writ,
But sure thou ‘rt but a kilderkin of wit.
Like mine thy gentle numbers feebly creep,
Thy Tragic Muse gives smiles, thy Comic sleep.
With whate’er gall thou sett’st thy self to write,
Thy inoffensive satires never bite.
In thy felonious heart, though venom lies,
It does but touch thy Irish pen, and dies.
Thy genius calls thee not to purchase fame
In keen iambics, but mild anagram:
Leave writing plays, and choose for thy command
Some peaceful province in acrostic land.
There thou may’st wings display and altars raise,
And torture one poor word ten thousand ways.
Or if thou would’st thy diff’rent talents suit,
Set thy own songs, and sing them to thy lute.
He said, but his last words were scarcely heard,
For Bruce and Longvil had a trap prepar’d,
And down they sent the yet declaiming bard.
Sinking he left his drugget robe behind,
Born upwards by a subterranean wind.
The mantle fell to the young prophet’s part,
With double portion of his father’s art.
Annotations: “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
| Passage | Annotation |
| “All human things are subject to decay, / And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey:” | Opening lines; Dryden alludes to the inevitability of decline and mortality, setting the scene for Flecknoe’s “succession” to Shadwell. |
| “This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young / Was call’d to empire, and had govern’d long:” | Flecknoe is mockingly compared to Emperor Augustus, suggesting his rule over the “realm of Nonsense” as one of misguided talent. |
| “Shadwell alone my perfect image bears, / Mature in dullness from his tender years.” | Dryden sarcastically praises Shadwell, implying he has excelled in “dullness” since youth, unlike others who occasionally achieve wit. |
| “Some beams of wit on other souls may fall, / Strike through and make a lucid interval;” | Dryden notes that others may have brief flashes of intelligence, but Shadwell remains perpetually and proudly dull. |
| “Besides his goodly fabric fills the eye, / And seems design’d for thoughtless majesty:” | Shadwell’s physical appearance is grand, suited to a “majestic” role devoid of thought or wit. |
| “Thoughtless as monarch oaks, that shade the plain, / And, spread in solemn state, supinely reign.” | Shadwell is compared to an oak tree, grand in appearance but inert and unthinking, reinforcing his portrayal as an unworthy leader. |
| “Heywood and Shirley were but types of thee, / Thou last great prophet of tautology:” | Dryden mockingly names Shadwell as the “prophet of tautology,” implying his writing is redundant and devoid of meaning, unlike Heywood and Shirley who are lesser examples. |
| “Echoes from Pissing-Alley, Shadwell call, / And Shadwell they resound from Aston Hall.” | Dryden references Pissing-Alley, a lowly area, to emphasize the wide reach of Shadwell’s lack of literary merit. |
| “Sometimes as prince of thy harmonious band / Thou wield’st thy papers in thy threshing hand.” | Shadwell’s poetry is mocked as “threshing,” an agricultural metaphor suggesting crude, unrefined work. |
| “Here Flecknoe, as a place to fame well known, / Ambitiously design’d his Shadwell’s throne.” | Flecknoe decides on a notorious, decaying location for Shadwell’s “coronation,” further underscoring the futility and lack of grandeur in Shadwell’s inheritance. |
| “An ancient fabric, rais’d t’inform the sight, / There stood of yore, and Barbican it hight:” | Dryden references the Barbican, an old, decayed building symbolizing the ruinous legacy Shadwell is inheriting. |
| “Of all the pile an empty name remains. / From its old ruins brothel-houses rise,” | Dryden uses the decayed building of Barbican as a metaphor for Shadwell’s literary inheritance – something once meaningful now in ruin and used for lowly purposes. |
| “Much Heywood, Shirley, Ogleby there lay, / But loads of Shadwell almost chok’d the way.” | The path to Shadwell’s coronation is strewn with the works of lesser poets, including Heywood and Shirley, indicating the lowly position of these writers. |
| “Shadwell swore, nor should his vow be vain, / That he till death true dullness would maintain;” | Shadwell takes a satirical oath to maintain “true dullness,” emphasizing Dryden’s contempt for Shadwell’s commitment to mediocrity. |
| “In his sinister hand, instead of ball, / He plac’d a mighty mug of potent ale;” | The regal symbols are mocked; instead of a scepter, Shadwell holds ale, further undercutting his supposed “coronation.” |
| “Beyond love’s kingdom let him stretch his pen; / He paus’d, and all the people cry’d Amen.” | Flecknoe’s wish for Shadwell’s “rule” to extend as far as possible is ironic, as it implies spreading his mediocrity further. |
| “Pangs without birth, and fruitless industry. / Let Virtuosos in five years be writ;” | Dryden mocks Shadwell’s unproductive efforts, suggesting he works hard but produces nothing of value or originality. |
| “Success let other teach, learn thou from me / Pangs without birth, and fruitless industry.” | Dryden satirically encourages Shadwell to embrace failure and unproductive effort rather than strive for literary success. |
| “Let gentle George in triumph tread the stage, / Make Dorimant betray, and Loveit rage;” | Characters from popular plays of the time are mentioned, perhaps implying Shadwell’s characters will never achieve similar fame. |
| “Nor let thy mountain belly make pretence / Of likeness; thine’s a tympany of sense.” | Dryden mocks Shadwell’s physical appearance and suggests his “bulk” is not matched by substance in wit or sense. |
| “Thy Tragic Muse gives smiles, thy Comic sleep.” | Dryden criticizes Shadwell’s lack of skill in both tragedy and comedy, implying his works fail to evoke the intended emotional responses. |
| “Leave writing plays, and choose for thy command / Some peaceful province in acrostic land.” | Dryden sarcastically advises Shadwell to abandon playwriting for simpler, non-dramatic forms like acrostics, suited to his limited abilities. |
| “Set thy own songs, and sing them to thy lute.” | Another mock suggestion; Dryden implies Shadwell should focus on minor art forms, suggesting his talent isn’t suited to larger, respected genres. |
| “Sinking he left his drugget robe behind, / Born upwards by a subterranean wind.” | In the final lines, Dryden completes Shadwell’s “coronation” into the realm of dullness, with a supernatural, yet ironic, elevation. |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
| Device | Example | Explanation |
| Alliteration | ” And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey” | Repetition of consonant sounds (e.g., monarchs and must) to create rhythm and emphasize phrases. |
| Allusion | “like Augustus, young / Was call’d to empire” | Reference to Emperor Augustus, ironically comparing Flecknoe’s rule of “nonsense” to the grandeur of Augustus. |
| Apostrophe | “Heavens bless my son” | Direct address to an absent or abstract entity (the heavens) to invoke blessings, often in a mock-serious tone. |
| Bathos | “A tun of man in thy large bulk is writ, / But sure thou ‘rt but a kilderkin of wit.” | A sudden drop from the serious or lofty to the trivial or ridiculous, enhancing the satire. |
| Classical Reference | “Methinks I see the new Arion sail” | Reference to the Greek poet and musician Arion, ironically associating Shadwell’s poetry with classical heroism. |
| Double Entendre | “mighty mug of potent ale” | Suggests both Shadwell’s dullness and his fondness for ale, mocking his lack of sophistication. |
| Extended Metaphor | “Throne of Non-sense” | The poem sustains the metaphor of monarchy, with Shadwell as the inheritor of Flecknoe’s “throne” of mediocrity. |
| Heroic Couplet | “All human things are subject to decay, / And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey:” | Two rhymed lines of iambic pentameter used throughout the poem to provide a formal structure, which contrasts with the satirical tone. |
| Hyperbole | “Of his dominion may no end be known” | Exaggeration to emphasize Shadwell’s rule over dullness, mocking his ambition to rule over a “kingdom” of mediocrity. |
| Imagery | “Echoes from Pissing-Alley, Shadwell call” | Vivid imagery that conveys the lowliness of Shadwell’s influence, adding to the satirical effect. |
| Irony | “Thou last great prophet of tautology” | Dryden ironically calls Shadwell a “great prophet,” though he actually mocks his redundancy and lack of creativity. |
| Metaphor | “mountain belly” | Shadwell’s large physique is used as a metaphor for his bloated and unoriginal literary output. |
| Mock-Epic | “As Hannibal did to the altars come, / Sworn by his sire a mortal foe to Rome” | The mock-epic style elevates trivial subjects (Shadwell’s dullness) with heroic language, highlighting the satire. |
| Parody | “Nor greater Jonson dares in socks appear” | Dryden parodies Shadwell’s imitation of great dramatists like Jonson to highlight Shadwell’s inferior talent. |
| Personification | “lambent dullness play’d around his face” | Dullness is personified as if it has a tangible presence around Shadwell, reinforcing his mediocrity. |
| Sarcasm | “Gentle George in triumph tread the stage” | Dryden uses sarcasm by calling Shadwell “gentle,” when he actually intends to ridicule his incompetence. |
| Simile | “Thoughtless as monarch oaks, that shade the plain” | Comparison using “as” to highlight Shadwell’s immobility and lack of purpose, like a tree. |
| Symbolism | “mighty mug of potent ale” | The mug symbolizes Shadwell’s coarse tastes and lack of refinement, mocking his fitness as a “monarch.” |
| Synecdoche | “Let gentle George in triumph tread the stage” | The “stage” represents Shadwell’s entire career, reducing his efforts to a single setting of mockery. |
| Tautology | “Thou last great prophet of tautology” | Intentional use of redundant phrases to mock Shadwell’s repetitive and uncreative writing style. |
Themes: “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
- The Decline of Literary Standards: One of the primary themes in “Mac Flecknoe” is the degeneration of literary quality, particularly as represented by the character of Shadwell. Dryden portrays Shadwell as the epitome of dullness and mediocrity, symbolizing the decline in taste and talent in contemporary literature. The passage, “Shadwell alone my perfect image bears, / Mature in dullness from his tender years,” emphasizes Shadwell’s unvarying lack of wit, suggesting that he has consistently embodied literary failure. This theme reflects Dryden’s criticism of a cultural environment that, in his view, promotes uninspired and derivative work.
- Mock Heroism and Parody: Dryden employs the style and structure of epic poetry, traditionally used to exalt heroes, to mock and parody Shadwell’s literary ineptitude. Through this mock-heroic form, Dryden uses grandiose language and epic conventions to elevate the trivial subject of Shadwell’s coronation as the “king of dullness.” For instance, “Methinks I see the new Arion sail,” references the classical figure Arion but applies it ironically to Shadwell, whose artistic talent is nonexistent. This parody serves to ridicule Shadwell and satirize the misuse of epic forms for unworthy subjects.
- Inheritance and Succession of Dullness: The poem centers on the idea of Shadwell as the natural successor to Flecknoe’s “throne” of dullness, representing a satirical take on the theme of succession. The lines “This aged prince now flourishing in peace, / And blest with issue of a large increase,” suggest that Flecknoe’s lineage is one of literary ineptitude, and Shadwell is deemed the “worthy” heir. Dryden uses this theme to mock the notion of inherited genius, implying instead that Shadwell has inherited only his father’s incompetence and lack of creativity, making him a fitting ruler of a kingdom where mediocrity is the standard.
- The Futility of Ambition in the Absence of Talent: Another key theme is the mockery of ambition unaccompanied by genuine skill. Dryden satirizes Shadwell’s aspirations to literary fame and success, underscoring the futility of ambition without the talent to back it up. In the poem, Flecknoe advises Shadwell, “Learn thou from me / Pangs without birth, and fruitless industry,” portraying Shadwell’s literary efforts as fundamentally unproductive. This theme highlights Dryden’s disdain for writers who pursue literary renown without the requisite ability, emphasizing that ambition alone cannot create art or lasting value.
Literary Theories and “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
| Literary Theory | Explanation | Application in “Mac Flecknoe” |
| New Historicism | This theory examines literature in the context of the historical and cultural circumstances of its creation, exploring how texts reflect or respond to their time. | “Mac Flecknoe” reflects Restoration England’s literary culture and its decline, as Dryden critiques the era’s literary standards. The line “Shadwell alone my perfect image bears” alludes to how Dryden perceived the cultural shift towards mediocrity and derivative works, positioning Shadwell as emblematic of this decline. |
| Satire and Parody Theory | Satire as a literary device involves ridiculing subjects, often using exaggeration or irony, to criticize individuals or social norms. Parody specifically imitates genres or styles for comedic effect. | Dryden employs both satire and parody to mock Thomas Shadwell, presenting him as the “king of dullness.” By ironically crowning Shadwell in a mock-heroic tone—”High on a throne of his own labours rear’d”—Dryden parodies epic traditions to criticize Shadwell’s perceived lack of talent. |
| Biographical Criticism | This theory connects an author’s personal experiences, relationships, and social context with their literary work, highlighting how these factors shape a text’s themes and tone. | Dryden’s personal rivalry with Shadwell shapes “Mac Flecknoe”‘s tone and content. His disdain for Shadwell’s style is evident in lines like “The rest to some faint meaning make pretence, / But Shadwell never deviates into sense,” which directly attacks Shadwell’s intellectual capabilities, revealing Dryden’s personal animosity. |
Critical Questions about “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
- How does Dryden use the mock-heroic form to enhance his satire in “Mac Flecknoe”?
- Dryden’s use of the mock-heroic form amplifies his satire by juxtaposing epic conventions with a trivial subject—Shadwell’s incompetence. Traditionally, the heroic form is reserved for grand narratives about noble characters, but Dryden subverts this to elevate Shadwell’s mediocrity to epic proportions, creating a comedic effect. In lines like “Methinks I see the new Arion sail,” Dryden compares Shadwell to the mythical Arion, a revered poet and musician, to highlight Shadwell’s lack of comparable talent. This contrast between form and subject underscores the absurdity of Shadwell’s pretensions and highlights Dryden’s disdain for his literary rival, ultimately making Shadwell’s lack of skill appear even more glaring.
- What role does the theme of succession play in Dryden’s critique of Shadwell’s literary abilities?
- Succession, a key theme in “Mac Flecknoe,” is used to critique Shadwell by casting him as the rightful heir to a kingdom of “nonsense.” Dryden frames Flecknoe’s abdication as a parody of royal succession, but instead of bequeathing a legacy of greatness, Flecknoe bestows his “throne” of dullness on Shadwell. When Flecknoe declares, “Shadwell alone my perfect image bears,” he cynically praises Shadwell for embodying all the qualities of mediocrity. By presenting Shadwell as a successor, Dryden mocks his literary legacy, implying that Shadwell’s “inheritance” will only further the decline of literary quality, perpetuating a lineage of untalented writers.
- How does Dryden use imagery to convey his disdain for Shadwell’s work?
- Dryden’s disdain for Shadwell is palpable through his use of unflattering imagery that reduces Shadwell’s literary achievements to absurd and crude comparisons. In lines like “Echoes from Pissing-Alley, Shadwell call,” Dryden conjures a lowly image of Shadwell’s work as something emanating from a sordid, derelict alley. By placing Shadwell in such ignoble surroundings, Dryden emphasizes the vulgarity and lack of refinement in Shadwell’s literary output. Additionally, the image of Shadwell’s “mighty mug of potent ale” during his coronation ridicules any notion of grandeur, associating Shadwell with coarseness and a lack of intellectual sophistication. This imagery not only mocks Shadwell but also critiques the literary culture Dryden believed Shadwell represented.
- In what ways does Dryden’s personal rivalry with Shadwell shape the tone and content of “Mac Flecknoe”?
- The tone and content of “Mac Flecknoe” are heavily influenced by Dryden’s personal animosity toward Shadwell, transforming the poem into a pointed attack rather than a detached critique. Dryden’s language is laced with scorn, as he continually demeans Shadwell’s intelligence and literary skills, calling him the “last great prophet of tautology.” Such phrases suggest that Dryden viewed Shadwell’s work not only as devoid of wit but as an offense to true artistry. This personal rivalry adds a layer of intensity to the satire, as Dryden doesn’t merely dismiss Shadwell’s work; he actively seeks to degrade his reputation. This personal vendetta sharpens the poem’s tone, making it a passionate, if scornful, critique rather than an impartial observation.
Literary Works Similar to “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
- “The Dunciad” by Alexander Pope – Similar to Mac Flecknoe, this satirical poem mocks mediocrity and poor taste in literature, targeting those Pope deemed culturally degenerate.
- “Absalom and Achitophel” by John Dryden – Another of Dryden’s satires, it uses biblical allegory to critique political figures, employing the same mock-heroic style seen in Mac Flecknoe.
- “Hudibras” by Samuel Butler – This satirical poem critiques hypocrisy and pretension in society, using humor and exaggerated characters similar to Dryden’s approach to ridiculing Shadwell.
- “The Rolliad” (Anonymous) – A satire on British politics and literature, this poem, like Mac Flecknoe, uses parody and ridicule to expose what the authors saw as cultural and intellectual decline.
- “Don Juan” by Lord Byron – Though more narrative, Byron’s poem shares Mac Flecknoe‘s satirical tone and mock-heroic style to critique societal norms and the pretensions of individuals.
Representative Quotations of “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “All human things are subject to decay, / And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey:” | Opening lines, setting a somber, universal truth in a mock-heroic tone as a prelude to Flecknoe’s abdication. | Satire Theory – Highlights the inevitability of decay to mock Shadwell’s mediocrity by elevating it to an “epic” level of decline. |
| “Shadwell alone my perfect image bears, / Mature in dullness from his tender years.” | Flecknoe names Shadwell as his successor, sarcastically praising his lack of wit and intellectual growth. | Biographical Criticism – Reflects Dryden’s personal disdain for Shadwell’s literary style, targeting him directly. |
| “Some beams of wit on other souls may fall, / Strike through and make a lucid interval;” | Dryden contrasts Shadwell with other poets, implying Shadwell lacks even momentary inspiration. | New Historicism – Dryden critiques contemporary literary culture by implying that even the lowest writers occasionally achieve some wit. |
| “But Shadwell never deviates into sense.” | Dryden’s pointed insult at Shadwell’s unchanging dullness and inability to produce meaningful work. | Satire and Parody Theory – Exemplifies Dryden’s direct ridicule through exaggerated insult, enhancing the satirical tone. |
| “Besides his goodly fabric fills the eye, / And seems design’d for thoughtless majesty:” | Describes Shadwell’s physical appearance as suited to a king, mockingly associating grandeur with shallowness. | New Criticism – Uses irony to subvert the traditional association of majesty with wisdom, implying Shadwell’s superficiality. |
| “Thou last great prophet of tautology:” | Dryden mocks Shadwell’s redundant writing style, calling him a prophet of unnecessary repetition. | Formalism – Highlights Shadwell’s lack of creativity by focusing on his repetitive structure and content. |
| “Echoes from Pissing-Alley, Shadwell call, / And Shadwell they resound from Aston Hall.” | Dryden’s use of lowly imagery to depict the widespread influence of Shadwell’s “dullness” in society. | Cultural Criticism – Dryden criticizes the spread of poor taste, symbolized by Shadwell, across different social strata. |
| “The hoary prince in majesty appear’d, / High on a throne of his own labours rear’d.” | Flecknoe seated on his “throne,” made from his body of work, elevates Shadwell’s mediocrity with irony. | Mock-Epic Theory – Uses the epic throne imagery to ridicule Shadwell’s literary incompetence as if it were majestic. |
| “Methinks I see the new Arion sail, / The lute still trembling underneath thy nail.” | Ironically compares Shadwell to Arion, a mythological figure of poetic excellence, for comedic effect. | Intertextuality – Draws from mythological references to satirically juxtapose Shadwell with a great poet, underscoring his flaws. |
| “Pangs without birth, and fruitless industry.” | Flecknoe’s advice to Shadwell to pursue pointless endeavors, reinforcing his ineptitude. | Psychoanalytic Criticism – Represents Shadwell’s creative impotence, suggesting an inability to achieve meaningful expression. |
Suggested Readings: “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
- West, Michael. “Some Neglected Continental Analogues for Dryden’s Mac Flecknoe.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 13, no. 3, 1973, pp. 437–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/449998. Accessed 9 Nov. 2024.
- Wilkinson, John. “A Note on Language in Dryden’s ‘Mac Flecknoe.'” Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700, vol. 4, no. 1, 1980, pp. 9–10. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43292457. Accessed 9 Nov. 2024.
- Dearing, Vinton A. “Dryden’s ‘Mac Flecknoe’: The Case for Authorial Revision.” Studies in Bibliography, vol. 7, 1955, pp. 85–102. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40372123. Accessed 9 Nov. 2024.
- Castrop, Helmut. “Dryden and Flecknoe: A Link.” The Review of English Studies, vol. 23, no. 92, 1972, pp. 455–58. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/514093. Accessed 9 Nov. 2024.
- Pritchard, William H. “Dryden Rules.” The Hudson Review, vol. 58, no. 4, 2006, pp. 541–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20464480. Accessed 9 Nov. 2024.
- McKeithan, D. M. “The Occasion of Macflecknoe.” PMLA, vol. 47, no. 3, 1932, pp. 766–71. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/457952. Accessed 9 Nov. 2024.