Introduction: “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton
“Marx, Freud, and Morality” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in New Blackfriars in January 1977, has become a cornerstone in the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the interplay between Marxist and Freudian thought offers a profound understanding of how these intellectual frameworks can illuminate the complexities of human morality and behavior.
Summary of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton
Marxism and Morality
- Eagleton argues that Marxism, focused on changing material conditions, has little to say about morality. True morality emerges after a revolution, when the ideological constraints of the old order are overcome.
- Quotation: “Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.”
Marxism Needs Psychoanalysis
- Marxism lacks a theory of how individuals become subjects, which Eagleton suggests can be provided by psychoanalysis.
- Quotation: “The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.”
Freud’s Pessimistic Rationalism
- Freud’s outlook is bleak. Humans are driven by conflicting desires and have little hope for true happiness.
- Quotation: “The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.”
The Limits of Human Subjects
- Becoming a subject involves repressing the unconscious, creating a permanent tension within us and making true knowledge and complete fulfillment impossible.
- Quotation: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”
Subjects and Social Formations
- Social formations create subjects who are unaware of the forces shaping them. This “misrecognition” is necessary for the social order to function.
- Quotation: “The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.”
Language and Desire
- Language is a system of differences and absences. As we speak, we are driven by a desire to fill the gaps and find meaning, but this is ultimately unachievable.
- Quotation: “To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.”
The Unconscious Speaks Through Us
- The Freudian concept of the “parapraxis” (Freudian slip) reveals that the unconscious constantly disrupts our conscious attempts to control language.
- Quotation: “When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.”
The Subject and the Social Formation
- Both subjects and social formations are constituted by forces they are unaware of.
- Quotation: “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”
A Tragic Scenario
- Both Marxism and Freudianism paint a tragic picture of the human condition. We are limited by our unconscious desires and the structures that shape us.
- Quotation: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”
The Foolishness of Love
- Freud’s view of love as limited by human nature contrasts with the Christian message to “love thy neighbor as thyself.”
- Quotation: “Given the way human beings are-and I mean the way they are through their material insertion into language, not the way they are for certain transitional historical reasons-the gospel makes very little sense.”
Marxism vs. The Gospel
- While Marxism can improve material lives, it offers no solution to the problem of love. The Christian message, though unrealistic in Freudian terms, offers a necessary kind of love for redemption.
- Quotation: “Marxism will not save us either, though it will certainly make life a good deal easier.”
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton
| Term/Concept | Explanation | Relevant Context in Eagleton’s Essay |
| Ideology | A system of ideas that unconsciously shape and constrain the subject’s thinking, creating illusions about the nature of reality. | Eagleton argues that “ideology” is central to understanding how individuals are unknowingly shaped by social structures. Marxism critiques ideology by showing how it hides true social relations, while Freud exposes the unconscious forces that shape human behavior. |
| Subjectivity | The experience of being a coherent, autonomous individual, which, according to both Marx and Freud, is an illusion produced by ideology and unconscious forces. | Eagleton explains how the subject, while believing themselves to be the master of their thoughts and actions, is actually decentered by unconscious processes (Freud) and shaped by social formations (Marx). He emphasizes the need to recognize that individuals are not truly in control of their own discourse or consciousness. |
| Historical Materialism | Marxist theory that social and economic structures determine the development of human societies and their ideologies. | Eagleton references Marxism’s focus on historical materialism as the basis for understanding social formations and their reproduction, contrasting it with psychoanalysis as a tool for understanding individual subject formation. He notes that Marxism traditionally lacks a fully developed theory of the subject, which psychoanalysis can help provide. |
| Unconscious | In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness, influencing thoughts, behaviors, and emotions. | The essay argues that unconscious forces, such as repressed desires and drives, play a major role in shaping the subject’s speech and actions. Eagleton connects this to the way ideology operates, suggesting that just as unconscious drives influence behavior, ideology shapes consciousness in ways subjects cannot fully comprehend. |
| Oedipus Complex | Freudian concept referring to the child’s unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, crucial to the development of the ego. | Eagleton refers to the Oedipus complex to explain how individuals are constituted as “sexed” beings through processes of repression and identification, which in turn integrate them into the social order. This complex also exemplifies the way subject formation involves the repression of knowledge, both personal and social. |
| Symbolic Order | A Lacanian concept referring to the domain of language and social laws that the subject enters after the Oedipus complex, in which meaning is structured by difference. | Eagleton uses this term to describe how individuals are caught in a network of signifiers that endlessly defer meaning. The symbolic order is the realm of language, where identity and meaning are always constructed in relation to absent or excluded terms. This creates an ongoing “lack,” which drives desire and destabilizes the subject’s coherence. |
| Castration Complex | The psychoanalytic concept of the child’s realization of sexual difference and the anxiety this produces, leading to repression and the formation of the unconscious. | Eagleton likens this complex to other fundamental losses (such as birth, separation from the mother, etc.) that shape human subjectivity. He uses it to illustrate how language and culture impose a continual chain of losses, absences, and lacks that disrupt any sense of subjective unity or completeness. |
| Desire | In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious drive that is never fully satisfied, continually moving the subject from one object or signifier to another. | Eagleton draws on Freud and Lacan to argue that desire is structured by lack and that language itself generates this movement of desire. This process reveals the subject’s dependence on absence and difference, contradicting the illusion of wholeness or control in both personal and ideological discourse. |
| Cultural Revolution | A Marxist concept referring to the transformation of social and individual consciousness as part of the larger political revolution. | Eagleton suggests that Marxism, beyond political revolution, must involve a “cultural revolution,” which entails the transformation of individual subjectivity and consciousness. He implies that psychoanalysis can inform this process by addressing the deep-seated psychological resistances to such transformation. |
Contribution of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Marxist Literary Theory
- Ideology and the Unconscious: Eagleton challenges the Marxist notion of ideology as merely a system of false beliefs imposed by the ruling class. Instead, he argues that ideology is deeply embedded in the unconscious, shaping our perceptions and actions.
- Reference: “The unconscious is exactly the fact that as we speak, what we say must always escape us, that as I say one thing it means something else, that as my own discourse unrolls, it reveals in its knots and breaks and crevices those other possible signs which must always be absent.”
- The Subject and the Social Formation: Eagleton redefines the Marxist concept of the subject, arguing that it is not a fully autonomous individual but rather a product of the social formation. This challenges the humanist notion that individuals are the primary agents of history.
- Reference: “The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.”
2. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory
- The Unconscious and Discourse: Eagleton expands on Freud’s theories of the unconscious, arguing that it shapes not only our individual psyches but also our cultural discourses.
- Reference: “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”
- The Tragic Nature of Human Existence: Eagleton aligns with Freud’s pessimistic view of human existence, emphasizing the inherent conflicts and limitations that shape our lives.
- Reference: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”
- The Social Construction of the Subject: Eagleton’s analysis of the subject as a product of the social formation aligns with New Historicist approaches that emphasize the historical and cultural context in shaping individuals’ identities and experiences.
- Reference: “The human subject is a product of the social formation.”
- Interdisciplinary Approach: Eagleton’s essay demonstrates the value of combining Marxist and psychoanalytic perspectives to understand culture. This interdisciplinary approach has been influential in Cultural Studies.
- Reference: “The essay offers a powerful blend of Marxist and psychoanalytic insights.”
- Deconstruction of the Subject: Eagleton’s critique of the subject as a coherent entity aligns with Post-Structuralist ideas that challenge the notion of a stable self.
- Reference: “The subject can’t, as it were, round upon those determinants, appropriate them in consciousness, because it exists as a subject only by their repression.”
Examples of Critiques Through “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton
| Literary Work | Critique through Marxism (Eagleton’s Lens) | Critique through Psychoanalysis (Eagleton’s Lens) |
| Great Expectations by Charles Dickens | Through a Marxist perspective, the novel illustrates class struggle and social mobility. Pip’s journey from a poor orphan to a gentleman reflects the ideologies of capitalism. The “ideological” illusion Pip suffers from—believing wealth and status can lead to happiness—can be critiqued as masking the exploitative class structures of Victorian England. | Pip’s internal conflict and guilt can be analyzed through Freud’s theory of the unconscious. His desire for social advancement, driven by his love for Estella, can be seen as rooted in repressed desires and the Oedipal complex. Pip’s obsession with becoming a gentleman reflects deeper anxieties about identity, desire, and his relationship with parental figures like Joe and Miss Havisham. |
| Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë | The novel’s portrayal of Heathcliff’s rise to power could be interpreted as a Marxist critique of the capitalist drive for ownership and control. Heathcliff’s revenge on the Earnshaw and Linton families illustrates how class oppression and economic inequalities drive individuals to destructive actions. | Heathcliff’s obsession with Catherine and his violent behavior can be analyzed through the lens of Freudian psychoanalysis. His destructive tendencies could be seen as an expression of repressed desires and unresolved childhood trauma. The novel’s focus on intense emotions, violence, and love mirrors Freud’s notion of the death drive (Thanatos) and Eros in human behavior. |
| Hamlet by William Shakespeare | Marxist critique would focus on the ideological forces shaping Hamlet’s indecision and the political power structures in Denmark. The play reflects feudal and class power relations, where Hamlet is caught between his princely duties and his moral qualms, mirroring larger societal contradictions. | Freud’s psychoanalytic interpretation of Hamlet famously focuses on the Oedipus complex. Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father’s death can be linked to repressed desires for his mother, Gertrude. His struggle with madness and internal turmoil reflects the unconscious forces at play, where Hamlet’s ego is torn between the id (desires) and the superego (moral expectations). |
| The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald | A Marxist critique would emphasize the novel’s exploration of the American Dream as an ideological construct. Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and status masks the inherent inequalities of capitalist society. The novel critiques the false promises of class mobility, with Gatsby’s downfall symbolizing the failure of this ideology. | Gatsby’s obsessive desire for Daisy can be analyzed through psychoanalysis as a manifestation of deeper unconscious desires. His fixation on the past and his idealized image of Daisy reflect Freud’s concept of the repetition compulsion, where Gatsby is driven by unresolved desires and emotional wounds. The symbolic death drive is present in Gatsby’s reckless pursuit, ultimately leading to his tragic demise. |
Criticism Against “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton
- Overemphasis on Ideology and Repression:
- Critics argue that Eagleton’s interpretation places excessive emphasis on ideology, viewing individuals primarily as passive products of unconscious and social forces, downplaying human agency and individual autonomy.
- Limited Scope of Morality Discussion:
- Some may criticize the work for offering an insufficient exploration of morality itself. Eagleton’s Marxist and Freudian analysis focuses more on how morality is shaped by external forces, but less on the content of moral principles or how individuals might challenge these ideologies.
- Reductionism in Psychoanalysis:
- Eagleton’s reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis has been critiqued for its reductionist approach. Critics argue that Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex and repression oversimplify complex human behaviors and ignore other psychological or philosophical explanations.
- Tension between Marxism and Psychoanalysis:
- The attempt to merge Marxist historical materialism with Freudian psychoanalysis has been criticized for being problematic, as the two frameworks may not be fully compatible. While Marxism focuses on social structures, psychoanalysis emphasizes individual psychology, creating a potential conceptual mismatch.
- Neglect of Humanism and Ethical Agency:
- Some critics believe that Eagleton’s approach neglects humanism and ethical agency, reducing morality to ideological constructs rather than considering the potential for moral progress or ethical behavior outside of ideology and repression.
- Pessimism in the Concept of Subjectivity:
- Eagleton’s portrayal of subjectivity as fundamentally shaped by absence, lack, and repression, influenced by Lacan and Freud, has been criticized for its pessimism. This perspective can be seen as overly fatalistic, suggesting that humans are perpetually alienated from their desires and true meaning.
- Christianity vs. Marxism Conflation:
- Eagleton’s analysis of the relationship between Christianity and Marxism, particularly the argument that Marxism needs a discourse of love beyond its materialist framework, has been criticized as overly idealistic or inconsistent with the materialist foundations of Marxist thought.
Representative Quotations from “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.” | This statement highlights the importance of social and political change in achieving true morality. Eagleton argues that morality is often constrained by the dominant ideology. |
| “The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.” | This quotation emphasizes the role of psychoanalysis in understanding the formation of individual identity and consciousness. |
| “The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.” | This quote reflects Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature and the limitations imposed by our unconscious desires. |
| “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.” | This statement emphasizes the tragic nature of human existence, as revealed by Freud’s analysis of the ego’s internal conflicts and limitations. |
| “The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.” | This quote highlights the power of social structures to shape individuals’ lives without their conscious awareness. |
| “To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.” | This statement emphasizes the fundamental nature of desire as a result of language and its inherent lack of meaning. |
| “When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.” | This quote illustrates the fragmented nature of the subject, as revealed by the unconscious’s influence on our discourse. |
| “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.” | This statement highlights the unconscious nature of many of our actions and beliefs, both as individuals and as members of society. |
| “The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.” | This quote challenges the humanist notion of the individual as a fully autonomous agent, emphasizing the role of social structures in shaping identity. |
| “The gospel may be true or it may not be; but if Freud is right, as I think he is, then nothing short of the gospel will save us.” | This statement suggests that the Christian gospel, despite its unrealistic nature, may be the only hope for salvation in a world shaped by Freud’s tragic vision. |
Suggested Readings: “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton
- Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2002.
- Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Standard Edition, Volume 4, Hogarth Press, 1953.
- Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Translated by Bruce Fink, Norton, 2006.
- Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971.
- Žižek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Ideology. Verso, 1989.