Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

Introduction: Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

Table of Contents

Matthew Arnold as a theorist is distinguished by his commitment to “making reason and the will of God prevail” (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 5) and by the critical idealism that shaped his cultural philosophy. Born on 24 December 1822 at Laleham-on-Thames and dying suddenly on 15 April 1888 in Liverpool, he spent his early childhood under the strong moral and intellectual influence of his father, Dr. Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School . Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and later Oxford, Arnold developed the classical and moral foundations that informed both his poetry and criticism. His writing career began with poetry in the late 1840s, exploring themes of “love, faith and doubt, stoicism and aesthetic pleasure,” before he rose to prominence as a critic in the 1860s . Major works such as Essays in Criticism and Culture and Anarchy established his belief that culture is “a study of perfection” aimed at cultivating “sweetness and light” (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 36) . Among his most influential ideas were his distinctions between Hellenism and Hebraism, the need for disinterested criticism, and the belief that culture should serve as a moral and intellectual corrective to social anarchy. As Antony H. Harrison notes, Arnold’s career reflects a deliberate shaping of intellectual authority, making him “the preeminent critic of his generation” .

Major Works of Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

• Culture and Anarchy (1869)

Arnold’s most influential theoretical text, written to define culture as a moral and intellectual force rather than mere aesthetic refinement.
He famously defines culture as “a study of perfection” rooted in the desire “to make reason and the will of God prevail” (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 5) .

Attacks the moral narrowness of Victorian society, criticizing “the ordinary self” and urging the discovery of “our best self” (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 36) .
Introduces the influential dichotomy Hellenism vs. Hebraism, discussing tensions between “spontaneity of consciousness” and “strictness of conscience” (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 95–96) .
Critiques political and religious anarchy, attacking “doing as one likes” and asserting culture as a corrective social force (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 53) .

• Essays in Criticism: First Series (1865)

Establishes Arnold as the leading Victorian critic advocating for “disinterestedness” in criticism.
In “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time,” he argues that criticism must allow for “the free play of mind on all subjects” (Arnold, Essays in Criticism 270) .
Rejects narrow nationalism, calling instead for engagement with European thought to overcome England’s “intellectual provincialism.”

Promotes the critic as a social guide, not merely a literary evaluator, insisting that criticism leads to social improvement through ideas and reflection.

• Essays in Criticism: Second Series (1888)

(Not in uploaded files, but essential for completeness; however, no direct citations will be used.)

Expands Arnold’s earlier positions on literature, religion, and society.
Includes seminal essays on Tolstoy, Newman, and others.
Reinforces his concept of literature as a vehicle for spiritual and moral renewal.

• On the Study of Celtic Literature (1867)

Delivered as Oxford lectures during his Professorship of Poetry.
Uses Celtic literature to theorize cultural diversity within Britain, arguing that English, Celtic, and European temperaments must be understood together.
In Culture and Anarchy, this becomes part of his broader cultural dialectic between Saxon energy and Celtic imagination (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 73–75) .

• St. Paul and Protestantism (1870)

Applies Arnold’s cultural theory to religion, distinguishing between the “historical” and “spiritual” elements of Christianity.

Develops his argument that dogma must yield to ethical and moral principles, a view foreshadowed in his critique of “narrow and distorted conceptions of religion” in Culture and Anarchy (36) .

• Literature and Dogma (1873)

Extends the religious critique initiated in St. Paul and Protestantism.
Defines the Bible as “literature” containing “the best that has been thought and said,” not as infallible dogma—a notion rooted in his insistence on rational scrutiny (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 31–36) .

Sees religious reform as essential to social harmony, echoing his broader call for clarity, reason, and moral purpose.

• Preface to Poems (1853) (Critical Preface)

Although attached to a poetry volume, the Preface is a major theoretical document.
Demands objectivity and moral seriousness in poetry, insisting that poetry must address “the most important truths of human life.”

Anticipates his later maxim that poetry will replace religion as the chief moral force in modern society—a view hinted at in Culture and Anarchy where he associates poetry with “sweetness and light” (36) .

Major Work	Central Focus	Major Themes	Key Quotations (MLA Style)
Culture and Anarchy (1869)	Defines culture as moral and intellectual perfection; argues for reason, the “best self,” and the State as a moral force.	• Culture as “perfection” • Best self vs. ordinary self • Hebraism vs. Hellenism • Critique of individualism (“doing as one likes”) • Culture as moral authority	• “Culture is a study of perfection” (Arnold 5). • “Not a having and a resting, but a growing and a becoming” (36). • “To make reason and the will of God prevail!” (5).
Essays in Criticism: First Series (1865)	Establishes Arnold’s philosophy of criticism; defines role of critic as disinterested and intellectually free.	• Disinterestedness • Free play of mind • Criticism as social guidance • Need for European influence	• Criticism requires “the free play of mind on all subjects” (Arnold 270). • Criticism must be “a disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought” (270).
On the Study of Celtic Literature (1867)	Uses Celtic temperament to theorize cultural diversity in Britain; contrasts Saxon and Celtic racial-cultural traits.	• Celtic imagination vs. Saxon practicality • Cultural pluralism • Literary temperament	(Cited through Culture and Anarchy) • The Celt brings “quick feeling and subtle thought,” balancing the Saxon’s “energy and honesty” (Arnold 73–75).
St. Paul and Protestantism (1870)	Applies Arnold’s theory of culture to Christianity; distinguishes moral essence from doctrinal rigidity.	• Spirit vs. letter of religion • Moral core of Christianity • Ethical over dogmatic religion	(Foreshadowed in Culture and Anarchy) • Religion becomes distorted when it “sacrifices all other sides of our nature to the religious side” (Arnold 95–96).
Literature and Dogma (1873)	Reinterprets the Bible through reason and moral insight; separates literary truth from dogma.	• Bible as literature • Rational inquiry into faith • Ethical religion	(Rooted in Arnold’s religious critique in Culture and Anarchy) • Arnold rejects “narrow and distorted conceptions of religion” that resist reason (Arnold 36).
Essays in Criticism: Second Series (1888)	Extends criticism to modern European and world writers; literature as moral illumination.	• Global literary criticism • Literature as moral guide • Expands earlier critical ideals	(No quotations available from uploaded files, but essential for theoretical completeness.)
Preface to Poems (1853)	Establishes Arnold’s early aesthetics: seriousness, objectivity, and truth in poetry.	• High poetic seriousness • Objective treatment of life • Poetry as moral force	(Connected to principles later seen in Culture and Anarchy) • Poetry must express “the best that has been thought and said.” (Commonly attributed to Arnold’s critical philosophy.)

Main Literary and Theoretical Ideas of Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

• Culture as the Pursuit of Perfection

Arnold defines culture as a progressive striving toward moral, intellectual, and social excellence.
He famously writes: “Culture is a study of perfection” (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 5).

Culture is not luxury or ornament, but an ethical force shaping society for the better.
It requires self-improvement, reflection, and a commitment to “our best self” (36).

• The “Best Self” versus the “Ordinary Self”

Arnold distinguishes between a higher moral-intellectual self and a lower, unreflective one.

Culture awakens individuals to their “best self,” enabling them to transcend class bias and egoism.
The “ordinary self” remains bound by prejudice and self-interest, while the “best self” seeks truth and harmony (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 36).

• Disinterestedness in Criticism

Arnold argues that criticism must be free from personal, political, or sectarian bias.

True criticism requires “the free play of mind on all subjects” (Arnold Essays in Criticism 270).
The critic’s duty is to discover and propagate “the best that is known and thought in the world” (270).
Disinterestedness allows criticism to function as a moral and intellectual corrective.

• Hellenism vs. Hebraism

Arnold’s most famous duality describing two modes of human development.
Hellenism = reason, spontaneity of consciousness, intellectual light.
Hebraism = morality, discipline, “strictness of conscience.”
He writes that both aim at “man’s perfection or salvation” but differ in method (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 95–96).
Victorian England, he argues, had become excessively “Hebraising,” needing the balance of Hellenic openness and thought.

• Critique of “Doing as One Likes” (Individualism)

Arnold attacks the Victorian obsession with personal liberty detached from moral responsibility.
He calls this dangerous impulse “our preference for doing as we like,” which leads to “anarchy” (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 53).
True liberty must align with reason, culture, and collective good—not selfish license.

• Sweetness and Light

Borrowed from Jonathan Swift, but transformed by Arnold into a cultural ideal.
Sweetness = beauty, refinement, aesthetic pleasure.
Light = intelligence, reason, clarity.
These together express the essence of culture’s transformative power (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 36).
They counteract Victorian materialism and philistinism.

• The Role of the State

Arnold contends that the State must embody the collective “best self” and uphold culture.

England suffers, he argues, from a “woefully narrow conception of the State” and excessive suspicion of government (Arnold Culture and Anarchy Introduction).
A culturally informed State guides society toward moral and intellectual order.

• Literature and Poetry as Moral Forces

Arnold sees literature—especially poetry—as replacing religion in modern life.
Poetry provides “the best that has been thought and said” and becomes a source of spiritual illumination.

Although the exact phrase appears across his criticism, the principle is reflected in his belief that poetry helps society confront “the withdrawing Sea of Faith” (from Dover Beach).
As Culture and Anarchy suggests, poetry is linked to “sweetness and light,” elevating individuals and communities (36).

• The Importance of European Thought

Arnold warns against English intellectual isolation, urging openness to Continental thinkers.

He criticizes “English provincialism” and argues for broader literary horizons (Arnold Essays in Criticism 270).
This comparative perspective strengthens national culture rather than weakening it.

• Religion Reimagined: Spirit Over Dogma

Arnold seeks to rescue religion from rigidity by emphasizing its ethical, spiritual essence.

He criticizes forms of belief that “sacrifice all other sides of our nature to the religious side,” producing narrowness (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 95–96).
His later works (St. Paul and Protestantism, Literature and Dogma) extend this idea, treating religion through the lens of reason and culture.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts of Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

Theoretical Term / Concept	Explanation	Key Quotation (MLA Citation)
Culture	Arnold defines culture as a moral, intellectual, and social ideal aimed at human perfection. Culture is not luxury, but disciplined self-improvement and pursuit of truth.	“Culture is a study of perfection” (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 5).
Perfection	Perfection is the purpose of culture—achieved through striving toward the “best self,” moral clarity, and intellectual expansion.	Culture seeks “sweetness and light” and aims at “our best self” (Arnold 36).
Best Self vs. Ordinary Self	The “best self” is the higher moral-intellectual nature; the “ordinary self” is governed by prejudice, class ego, and habit. Cultural practice helps individuals transcend the ordinary self.	Arnold urges society to find “our best self,” rather than remain bound to “the ordinary self” (36).
Sweetness and Light	Borrowed and transformed from Swift, this phrase symbolizes the union of beauty (sweetness) and intelligence (light)—the essence of culture.	Culture brings “sweetness and light” through beauty and intelligence (Arnold 36).
Hellenism	Represents the spirit of “seeing things as they really are” through reason, clarity, and spontaneity of consciousness. It emphasizes intellectual light and openness.	Arnold contrasts the Hellenic “spontaneity of consciousness” (95) with Hebraic strictness.
Hebraism	Represents moral rigor, obedience, discipline, and “strictness of conscience.” It aims at perfection through moral action rather than intellectual contemplation.	Hebraism is defined by “strictness of conscience” (Arnold 95–96).
Philistinism	Borrowed from German thought (Heine), Philistinism refers to middle-class materialism, moral narrowness, and cultural insensitivity. Arnold criticizes the English middle class as “Philistines.”	He attacks England’s “materialistic narrowness” and “Philistinism” as obstacles to culture (Introduction).
Barbarian, Philistine, Populace (Three Classes)	Arnold humorously classifies English society: Barbarians = aristocracy (polished but ignorant); Philistines = middle class (materialistic); Populace = working class (lawless unless educated).	These categories expose “social and spiritual anarchy” created by class egoism (Introduction).
Disinterestedness	A central critical ideal. The critic must detach from personal biases and political or religious partisanship in order to pursue truth.	Criticism requires “the free play of mind on all subjects” and must be “disinterested” (Arnold Essays in Criticism 270).
Free Play of the Mind	A principle of criticism encouraging openness, curiosity, and undogmatic thinking—opposed to rigid doctrinal systems.	Criticism depends on “the free play of mind on all subjects” (270).
Doing as One Likes	Arnold’s critique of libertarian individualism. He argues that unchecked personal liberty leads to social chaos and “anarchy.”	Victorian society glorifies “doing as one likes” which leads to disorder (Arnold Culture and Anarchy 53).
State as Moral Authority	The State should embody and guide the “best self” of the nation. Arnold criticizes England’s narrow and suspicious view of the State.	England suffers from “a woefully narrow conception of the State” (Introduction).
Sea of Faith	A metaphor from Arnold’s poetic imagination symbolizing the decline of religious certainty in the modern world—though not from the uploaded files, integral to his theoretical worldview.	(From Dover Beach, echoed in his cultural criticism.) Represents the spiritual crisis of modernity.
Religion as Morality	Arnold distinguishes ethical religion (spirit) from rigid dogma (letter). True religion must align with reason and moral purpose.	Religion becomes distorted when it “sacrifices all other sides of our nature to the religious side” (95–96).

Application of Ideas of Matthew Arnold As a Theorist to Literary Works

1. Dover Beach — Applying “Culture,” “Best Self,” and the Crisis of Modernity

Arnold’s idea that culture is “a study of perfection” (Arnold, Culture and Anarchy 5) explains the poem’s deep concern with spiritual loss and intellectual illumination. The speaker’s longing for faith reflects the struggle to attain the “best self” in an age when the “Sea of Faith” has withdrawn.
The poem dramatizes the need for “sweetness and light”, which Arnold describes as beauty and intelligence (36), by contrasting the calm opening imagery with the harsh “eternal note of sadness.” The poem’s craftsmanship exemplifies the sweetness, while its philosophical depth represents the light.
The poem critiques social chaos, parallel to Arnold’s warning against “doing as one likes” which leads to “anarchy” (Arnold 53). In the final lines, the lovers stand alone “on a darkling plain,” symbolizing a world lacking cultural cohesion and moral authority.

Thus the poem becomes a poetic enactment of Arnold’s theory: culture, moral clarity, and intellectual order are desperately needed against modern confusion.

2. King Lear (Shakespeare) — Applying Hellenism, Hebraism, and the Critique of Anarchy

In Culture and Anarchy, Arnold explains that society collapses when people follow impulsive will rather than reason. Lear’s initial actions embody the danger of “doing as one likes” (53), as he divides his kingdom according to flattery, not judgment.

The tragedy illustrates Arnold’s concept of Hebraism vs. Hellenism. Lear begins in a Hebraic state of rigid, conscience-driven authority, but gains Hellenic clarity only through suffering—learning finally to “see things as they really are,” echoing Arnold’s praise of Hellenic insight (95).
Arnold’s notion that culture develops the “best self” is reflected in Cordelia, whose integrity and calm intelligence demonstrate moral-perceptive excellence. Her stance embodies what Arnold calls “the best self” that resists societal corruption (36).
Shakespeare’s depiction of a kingdom collapsing into civil war mirrors Arnold’s fear of social dissolution when cultural authority is weak—what he calls “social and spiritual anarchy” (Introduction).

Thus King Lear powerfully illustrates Arnold’s belief in culture as the force that stabilizes human life.

3. Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë) — Applying Criticsm, Disinterestedness, and the Role of the State

Arnold’s ideal critic practices “the free play of mind on all subjects” (Arnold, Essays in Criticism 270). Jane embodies this intellectual independence, frequently questioning religious hypocrisy, gender inequality, and class hierarchy with a balanced, critical mind.

Her resistance to Rochester’s proposal of an unlawful marriage reflects Arnoldian disinterestedness, acting not out of desire (ordinary self) but moral and intellectual principle (best self).
The oppressive environments of Lowood and Thornfield illustrate Arnold’s critique of Philistinism, the “materialistic narrowness” and moral rigidity of Victorian institutions (Introduction). Jane’s journey becomes a struggle against the ordinary, unreflective life enforced by social pressures.
Jane’s final union with Rochester aligns with Arnold’s belief that culture leads to harmonious order—“a growing and a becoming” toward the ideal self (Arnold 36).

Brontë’s novel thus applies Arnold’s values of criticism, reason, and moral clarity to challenge Victorian social structures.

4. Frankenstein (Mary Shelley) — Applying the State, Moral Responsibility, and Cultural Restraint

Arnold warns against unchecked intellectual freedom divorced from moral responsibility—his critique of “doing as one likes” (Arnold 53). Victor Frankenstein embodies this danger: pursuing knowledge without culture, restraint, or ethical principles.

In Arnold’s terms, Victor is a model of Hellenism without Hebraism: unlimited intellectual curiosity (“spontaneity of consciousness”) but no “strictness of conscience” (Arnold 95–96).
The Creature, meanwhile, expresses the human need for the cultural components Arnold associates with perfection: reason, sympathy, moral development. His tragedy arises from society’s refusal to allow him access to “sweetness and light” (Arnold 36).
The destruction that follows echoes Arnold’s argument that societies lacking cultural order fall into “social and spiritual anarchy” (Introduction). Victor’s private rebellion becomes a public catastrophe because no authoritative cultural structure restrains him.

Shelley’s novel, through its catastrophic consequences, affirms Arnold’s insistence on the State and culture as moral regulators preventing destructive individualism.

Representation Quotations of Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

No.	Quotation	Explanation
1	“If culture, then, is a study of perfection, and of harmonious perfection, general perfection, and perfection which consists in becoming something rather than in having something” (Arnold 36)	This defines Arnold’s famous doctrine that culture seeks inner growth, not material gain.
2	“Not a having and a resting, but a growing and a becoming, is the character of perfection as culture conceives it” (Arnold 36)	Arnold insists that perfection is dynamic self-improvement, not static achievement.
3	“The pursuit of perfection, then, is the pursuit of sweetness and light” (Arnold 51)	This sentence formulates his most famous ideal: culture = sweetness (beauty) + light (intelligence).
4	“Culture looks beyond machinery, culture hates hatred; culture has but one great passion, the passion for sweetness and light” (Arnold 51–52)	Arnold critiques Victorian “machinery” (institutions) and elevates moral-intellectual refinement.
5	“The men of culture are the true apostles of equality” (Arnold 52)	Culture guides society toward moral and intellectual egalitarianism.
6	“Culture seeks to do away with classes; to make all live in an atmosphere of sweetness and light” (Arnold 52)	Arnold frames culture as a social unifier, dissolving class divisions.
7	“Perfection… is an harmonious expansion of all the powers which make the beauty and worth of human nature” (Arnold 36)	Here he defines perfection as balanced development of all human faculties.
8	“The idea of perfection as an inward condition of the mind and spirit is at variance with the mechanical and material civilisation in esteem with us” (Arnold 46–47)	A critique of Victorian materialism, stressing spiritual-intellectual inwardness.
9	“To reach this ideal, culture is an indispensable aid, and that is the true value of culture” (Arnold 35)	Culture is necessary for humanity’s moral and intellectual ideal.
10	“It seeks to do away with classes; to make all live in an atmosphere of sweetness and light, and use ideas… freely, to be nourished and not bound by them” (Arnold 52)	Arnold’s theory of culture encourages freedom of thought, not ideological rigidity.

Criticism of Ideas of Matthew Arnold As a Theorist

• Elitism and Cultural Hierarchy

Arnold’s belief in “the best that has been thought and said” has been criticized for creating a canon centered on elite, Western, upper-class values.
Critics argue that he treats culture as something possessed by a refined few, reinforcing intellectual hierarchy rather than democratizing knowledge.

Postcolonial critics note that his framework excludes non-Western traditions, revealing Victorian assumptions of superiority.

• Eurocentrism and Victorian Bias

Arnold universalizes European cultural norms as if they represent all of humanity’s highest achievements.
His emphasis on Greek-Christian humanism is critiqued for marginalizing global cultures, oral traditions, and non-European intellectual histories.

Many theorists argue that Arnold’s “sweetness and light” is coded with Western civilizational ideals that erase diverse cultural experiences.

• Idealism Detached from Social Realities

Arnold’s concept of culture as the pursuit of “perfection” is criticized as idealistic, vague, and removed from material conditions, such as class struggle, poverty, and political conflict.
Marxist critics contend that he avoids confronting economic inequalities and instead promotes a moral uplift vision detached from structural injustice.

His “disinterestedness” disregards the fact that criticism is always embedded in power structures.

• Anti-Democratic Undertones

Although Arnold claims culture pursues equality, his writings imply that ordinary people must be guided by cultured elites.
Critics see a tension between his stated universalism and his assumption that the middle and working classes are “Philistines” needing correction.

Scholars argue that his theory masks a paternalistic view of governance, where social improvement is top-down.

• Dismissal of Modernity and Popular Culture

Arnold’s critique of the “mechanical age,” industrial progress, and popular literature is seen as reactionary nostalgia, resisting cultural plurality.
Modern critics argue that he undervalues popular forms—journalism, fiction, mass reading—and elevates only the “high culture” he prefers.

His rejection of “machinery” overlooks its role in democratizing knowledge through mass print, literacy, and education.

• Ambiguity and Contradiction

Scholars note that Arnold often contradicts his own arguments, advocating detachment yet intervening publicly in politics, religion, and education.
His phrase “free play of ideas” is celebrated, but critics argue that his own definitions are flexible and unclear, allowing selective interpretation.

Harrison and others argue that Arnold’s abstractions encourage readers to extract slogans rather than coherent theories.

• Exclusion of Gendered and Marginal Voices

Feminist critics highlight that Arnold’s model of culture is androcentric, excluding women’s literary contributions and undervaluing domestic, emotional, or relational forms of knowledge.
Authors like Hemans and Landon were dismissed as “lesser” poets because Arnold’s framework privileges masculine, rational, public discourse.

• Limited Practical Impact

Arnold argues the critic must remain “disinterested” and apart from direct action, but this has been critiqued as politically ineffective.
His notion of standing “outside” practice is viewed as a luxury of privilege that ignores the urgency of real social issues.
Critics contend that cultural ideals cannot reform society without material engagement.

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