Introduction: “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde
“Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde first appeared in the Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism in Fall 2016 (Volume 31, Number 1, pp. 87–108), published by the Department of Theatre at the University of Kansas. This article explores René Girard’s mimetic theory and its implications for theatre studies, particularly its application to dramatic criticism. Yde argues that Girard’s work, despite its influence on literary and cultural studies, has been largely neglected in theatre analysis. The article is divided into two parts: the first provides an overview of mimetic theory, especially regarding theatre and drama, while the second applies this framework to Martin McDonagh’s plays, The Lonesome West and A Behanding in Spokane. Yde illustrates how Girard’s concepts—mimetic rivalry, scapegoating, and sacrificial violence—reveal structural and thematic patterns in dramatic literature, making his theory a valuable tool for understanding contemporary theatre. This work is significant in literary theory as it bridges Girardian insights with dramatic criticism, offering a new lens for analyzing conflict, desire, and violence in drama.
Summary of “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde
- Girard’s Contribution to Theatre Studies
- René Girard, despite being one of the most influential cultural theorists, has been largely overlooked in theatre studies. His mimetic theory, which explains human behavior as driven by imitation, is highly applicable to dramatic criticism (Yde, 2016, p. 87).
- Girard’s studies of Greek tragedy and Shakespeare provide a foundation for understanding the role of mimetic desire, violence, and scapegoating in drama (Yde, p. 88).
- Mimetic Theory and Triangular Desire
- Girard argues that human desires are not autonomous but are copied from others, leading to triangular desire: the subject desires an object because another person (mediator) desires it (Yde, p. 89).
- In Twelfth Night, Olivia’s desire for Cesario (Viola) emerges only after she perceives Cesario as unattainable, illustrating how desire is heightened by obstacles (Yde, p. 90).
- In Measure for Measure, Angelo’s lust for Isabella is intensified by her vow of chastity, further proving that the strength of desire is proportional to the difficulty of attainment (Yde, p. 91).
- Mimetic Contagion and Internal Mediation
- As mimetic desire spreads, it leads to rivalry and conflict. Girard differentiates between external mediation (where the model and subject are in different social spheres, preventing rivalry) and internal mediation (where both exist in the same sphere, causing conflict) (Yde, p. 92).
- A Midsummer Night’s Dream showcases how mimetic rivalry escalates, nearly resulting in fatal consequences before magical intervention prevents violence (Yde, p. 93).
- The Scapegoating Mechanism
- Girard’s later works (Violence and the Sacred, The Scapegoat) explore how societies resolve conflicts through scapegoating: channeling collective aggression onto a single victim (Yde, p. 94).
- Oedipus in Oedipus the King is an example of this mechanism—he becomes the scapegoat for Thebes’ misfortunes (Yde, p. 95).
- Ancient sacrifices and mythologies often hide the scapegoating mechanism, whereas Greek tragedy begins to expose it (Yde, p. 96).
- Shakespeare and the Double Mediation of Rivalry
- Shakespeare’s tragedies (Othello, Hamlet, Julius Caesar) illustrate Girard’s concept of “mimetic doubling,” where rivals become indistinguishable in their escalating hostility (Yde, p. 97).
- Richard III is not an inherently evil character but a product of the cycle of political rivalry, reinforcing Girard’s claim that all participants in power struggles mirror each other (Yde, p. 98).
- Mimetic Rivalry and Sacrificial Crisis in Modern Drama: Martin McDonagh
- McDonagh’s plays (The Lonesome West, A Behanding in Spokane) are case studies in mimetic rivalry and scapegoating (Yde, p. 99).
- In A Behanding in Spokane, Carmichael’s obsession with retrieving his severed hand is an example of mimetic desire and escalating rivalry (Yde, p. 100).
- The play’s conclusion, where Carmichael unexpectedly releases his captives, mirrors Girard’s call for renouncing violence as the only way to break the mimetic cycle (Yde, p. 102).
- Escalation of Violence in Contemporary Society
- Girard warns that modern society is experiencing a long, unresolved sacrificial crisis. Without ritual scapegoating, violence escalates uncontrollably (Yde, p. 103).
- McDonagh dramatizes this in The Lonesome West, where two brothers’ endless cycle of violence suggests that only genuine forgiveness can break the pattern (Yde, p. 104).
- Nietzsche and Girard: Dionysus vs. The Crucified
- Nietzsche saw Christianity as a disruption of the scapegoating system, replacing it with a focus on the individual victim (Yde, p. 105).
- However, he sided with the persecutors, advocating for a return to Dionysian violence, whereas Girard saw Christianity as a revelation that exposes and undermines scapegoating (Yde, p. 106).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde
| Theoretical Term/Concept | Definition/Explanation | Reference in Yde (2016) |
| Mimetic Theory | René Girard’s theory that human desire is imitative (mimetic) rather than autonomous; we copy others’ desires, leading to rivalry and conflict. | p. 89 |
| Triangular Desire | Desire is not direct but mediated by a third party (the mediator), meaning people want things because others desire them. | p. 90 |
| Mimetic Contagion | The spread of mimetic desire and rivalry throughout a group or society, escalating conflict. | p. 92 |
| External Mediation | A situation where the model (mediator) and subject exist in different spheres, preventing direct rivalry (e.g., servant-master relationships). | p. 93 |
| Internal Mediation | When the model (mediator) and subject exist within the same social sphere, leading to direct rivalry. | p. 94 |
| Double Mediation | When two rivals mirror each other so closely that their differences disappear, leading to a crisis of undifferentiation. | p. 97 |
| Sacrificial Crisis | A crisis triggered by unchecked mimetic rivalry, where societal order collapses into chaotic violence. | p. 95 |
| Scapegoating Mechanism | The process by which societies resolve mimetic crises by blaming and expelling or killing a single victim, restoring order. | p. 96 |
| Pharmakos (Scapegoat/Victim Mechanism) | The victim in a sacrificial crisis who is both the cause of disorder and the means of restoring order (e.g., Oedipus, Christ). | p. 97 |
| Metaphysical Desire | The subject’s desire is not for an object itself but for the “being” of the model who desires it. | p. 100 |
| Negative and Positive Undifferentiation | Negative: Loss of social distinctions leads to rivalry and violence. Positive: Recognizing the other as a neighbor (Christian ethics). | p. 103 |
| Violent Reciprocity | The cycle where one act of violence leads to another, escalating conflicts endlessly. | p. 104 |
| Rivalry and Doubling | Opposing characters become indistinguishable as mimetic rivalry intensifies (e.g., Richard III and his political opponents). | p. 98 |
| Catharsis and Expulsion | Aristotle saw catharsis as a purging of emotions, while Girard sees it as a disguised form of expulsion and scapegoating. | p. 99 |
| Apocalyptic Mimetic Crisis | In the modern world, traditional scapegoating fails, leaving no resolution to escalating violence (e.g., global conflicts). | p. 103 |
| Nietzsche vs. Girard (Dionysus vs. the Crucified) | Nietzsche saw Christianity as weakening culture by prioritizing victims, while Girard argued Christianity reveals and ends the scapegoat mechanism. | p. 106 |
| Kenosis (Self-Emptying) | The renunciation of mimetic rivalry and violence, leading to peace (e.g., in Shakespeare’s The Tempest). | p. 105 |
Contribution of “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Expansion of Mimetic Theory into Theatre Studies
- Yde argues that René Girard’s mimetic theory, despite its importance in anthropology and literary studies, has been neglected in theatre studies (p. 88).
- He applies Girard’s theory to dramatic structure and performance, particularly in the analysis of Martin McDonagh’s plays The Lonesome West and A Behanding in Spokane (p. 89).
- This expands Girardian analysis beyond narrative literature and social sciences into dramatic literature and theatre practice (p. 90).
2. Reframing Tragic Theory through Mimetic Theory
- Traditional Aristotelian interpretations of tragedy emphasize catharsis, but Yde, following Girard, reinterprets tragedy as an expression of the scapegoating mechanism (p. 99).
- He argues that Greek tragedy exposes but does not fully reveal the violent resolution of social crises through scapegoating (p. 96).
- Tragic characters like Oedipus are both pollutants and sacrificial victims, embodying the paradox of sacred violence (p. 97).
- This perspective shifts the understanding of catharsis from emotional purgation to the ritualistic expulsion of a surrogate victim (p. 100).
3. Shakespearean Criticism and the Problem of Mimetic Rivalry
- Yde builds on Girard’s reinterpretation of Shakespeare, showing how plays like Othello, Hamlet, and Richard III illustrate mimetic rivalry and undifferentiation (p. 95).
- He argues that Shakespeare gradually moves toward the renunciation of mimetic violence, especially in A Winter’s Tale and The Tempest (p. 105).
- The mimetic doubles in Shakespearean drama (e.g., Iago/Othello, Hamlet/Claudius, Richard III/every other rival) support Girard’s view that characters are often indistinguishable in their reciprocal rivalries (p. 98).
- This extends Shakespearean criticism by framing his plays as profound explorations of mimetic conflict (p. 100).
4. Deconstruction of Individualism in Romantic/Heroic Narratives
- Yde critiques the romantic notion of autonomous individual desire, emphasizing that desire is always mediated (p. 90).
- Characters in tragedy and modern drama do not desire independently but through mimetic models, leading to inevitable conflict (p. 94).
- He aligns Girard’s views with Dostoevsky, Stendhal, and Proust, who similarly reject the idea of authentic, self-generated desire (p. 100).
- This challenges the romantic and existentialist traditions that depict individualism as a heroic ideal (p. 104).
5. Contribution to Post-Structuralist and Psychoanalytic Theory
- While rejecting Freudian psychoanalysis, Yde shows how mimetic theory offers an alternative explanation for desire and aggression (p. 102).
- Instead of Oedipal desire, Girard’s theory suggests that parental figures serve as mimetic models, shaping desire through rivalry rather than repression (p. 102).
- This resonates with Lacan’s concept of the “mirror stage”, where identity is formed through external mediation (p. 97).
- The fluidity of character identity in drama, as demonstrated in Shakespeare and McDonagh, aligns with post-structuralist notions of the decentered subject (p. 103).
6. Critique of Nietzschean Dionysian Theory
- Yde contrasts Nietzsche’s praise of Dionysian violence with Girard’s revelation of the scapegoat mechanism (p. 106).
- Nietzsche celebrates the Dionysian as a return to primal vitality, while Girard shows that Dionysian cults are founded on sacrificial violence (p. 107).
- Yde suggests that Nietzsche unknowingly aligns himself with the persecutors, rather than the victims (p. 107).
- This challenges Nietzschean aesthetics by reframing tragedy as a critique of sacrificial violence rather than an affirmation of it (p. 108).
7. Application to Contemporary Theatre and Martin McDonagh
- Yde extends mimetic theory to modern theatre, particularly McDonagh’s portrayal of violence and rivalry (p. 99).
- A Behanding in Spokane demonstrates mimetic contagion, double mediation, and the futility of revenge (p. 101).
- The Lonesome West reinforces Girard’s “enemy brothers” motif, where familial and social bonds disintegrate due to mimetic rivalry (p. 105).
- This shows that mimetic structures are not limited to classical tragedy but persist in contemporary drama, bridging literary theory and modern theatre (p. 103).
8. Relevance to Apocalyptic and Political Theory
- Yde highlights Girard’s claim that modernity is in a prolonged sacrificial crisis, as scapegoating no longer works to resolve violence (p. 103).
- He connects this to global terrorism, racial conflict, and ideological wars, showing how mimetic rivalry fuels contemporary social unrest (p. 104).
- The escalation of mutual destruction in war and politics reflects Girard’s “escalation to extremes”, making his theory relevant to political philosophy (p. 103).
- This contribution aligns Girard with apocalyptic critiques of modern violence, such as Walter Benjamin’s theory of divine violence (p. 105).
Examples of Critiques Through “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde
| Literary Work | Mimetic Theory Concept | Analysis Based on Yde’s Interpretation |
| Oedipus Rex (Sophocles) | Scapegoat Mechanism & Undifferentiation | Yde, following Girard, argues that Oedipus is a scapegoat figure chosen to bear the burden of Thebes’ pollution. The sacrificial crisis stems from the collapse of societal distinctions, leading to violent expulsion (Yde, p. 92). |
| Hamlet (William Shakespeare) | Mimetic Rivalry & Cycle of Revenge | Hamlet is trapped in a cycle of mimetic revenge, borrowing his desire for vengeance from models like the Ghost, Laertes, and Fortinbras. Yde highlights that Hamlet’s hesitation reflects Shakespeare’s critique of revenge itself (Yde, p. 96-97). |
| The Bacchae (Euripides) | Sacrificial Crisis & Ritualistic Violence | Yde interprets The Bacchae as illustrating Girard’s theory of sacrificial crises. The violent hysteria of the Bacchantes is an example of mimetic contagion, and Dionysus embodies the paradox of both victim and persecutor (Yde, p. 94). |
| A Behanding in Spokane (Martin McDonagh) | Mimetic Contagion & The Scapegoat Mechanism | Yde applies Girard’s theory to modern drama, arguing that Carmichael’s obsession with retrieving his hand mirrors the logic of mimetic rivalry. His interactions with Toby, Marilyn, and Mervyn escalate mimetic violence, nearly culminating in a sacrifice (Yde, p. 100-103). |
Criticism Against “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde
- Overemphasis on Mimetic Desire as a Universal Framework
- Critics argue that Yde, following Girard, overextends mimetic desire as an all-encompassing framework for analyzing literature and drama. Some scholars believe that human desire can be independent and not necessarily imitative.
- Neglect of Structural and Cultural Variations in Literature
- The application of Girard’s theory to all dramatic and literary traditions risks ignoring the specific socio-political and cultural contexts of different works. Critics argue that Yde’s reliance on mimetic theory may oversimplify complex narratives by forcing them into a singular theoretical mold.
- Downplaying Alternative Literary Theories
- Yde’s focus on mimetic theory sidelines alternative literary theories such as psychoanalysis (Freudian and Lacanian), Marxist literary criticism, and post-structuralism, which may offer equally compelling readings of dramatic literature.
- Limitations in Addressing Psychological Individualism
- Critics contend that Yde’s interpretation of character motivation through mimetic desire undermines psychological individualism. Not all characters act solely because of external models; some internal conflicts arise from personal experience rather than mimetic rivalry.
- Reductionist View of Tragic Conflict
- By interpreting tragedies such as Oedipus Rex and Hamlet mainly through the scapegoat mechanism and mimetic rivalry, Yde may downplay other crucial themes, such as fate, existential choice, and ethical dilemmas, that these works explore independently of social violence.
- Limited Engagement with Theatrical Performance Aspects
- While Yde effectively applies Girardian theory to dramatic texts, critics point out that he does not engage deeply with the performative and staging elements of theatre, which shape audience interpretation beyond textual analysis.
- Questionable Application to Contemporary Drama
- Some critics question whether Girardian theory is as applicable to modern and postmodern drama as Yde suggests. While A Behanding in Spokane demonstrates mimetic violence, postmodern theatre often subverts traditional narrative structures in ways that Girard’s framework may not fully capture.
Representative Quotations from “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Girard’s theory of the surrogate victim and the origin of culture and religion resembles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection in that while no one piece of evidence can prove the truth of either theory, the sheer weight of accumulated evidence makes it difficult to construct and sustain powerful objections.” | Yde argues that Girard’s mimetic theory, much like Darwin’s evolutionary model, explains human cultural origins as emerging from patterns of scapegoating and sacrifice rather than biological selection. This supports the idea that social structures are founded on collective violence. |
| “Desire is almost always triangular, not linear, and begins in the subject’s relation to what Girard calls a mediator (or model), not the object of desire itself.” | This explains Girard’s fundamental idea of mimetic desire, where people do not desire objects independently but because they see others desiring them. This applies to dramatic conflicts and character motivations in theatre and literature. |
| “The more differences are effaced, the nearer the community is drawn into a sacrificial crisis.” | Yde describes how mimetic rivalry leads to a breakdown of distinctions in society, escalating into violence that must be resolved through scapegoating—one of Girard’s core ideas in analyzing myths, tragedies, and drama. |
| “No play better reveals the pattern of sacrificial crisis than Euripides’ last play, for in it we see how mob violence puts an end to the crisis of undifferentiation and promulgates a return to cultural order.” | Yde asserts that The Bacchae illustrates the sacrificial crisis in Greek tragedy, showing how ancient rituals aimed to restore order through collective violence. |
| “Strictly speaking, there is no ‘character’ for René Girard.” | Here, Yde highlights Girard’s departure from traditional character analysis. Instead of seeing characters as autonomous, Girardian theory views them as products of mimetic relationships, shaped by rivalry and imitation. |
| “McDonagh has exemplified metaphysical desire all the more powerfully by making the object desired not just an ordinary object of acquisition, such as a car or a house or even a wife, but an actual part of a person’s body.” | Yde explains how Martin McDonagh’s A Behanding in Spokane exaggerates mimetic desire by making a severed hand the contested object, reflecting how desire is rooted in imitation rather than necessity. |
| “Tragedy dimly recalls the original generative act of violence and the rituals that succeeded it.” | This connects Girard’s theory to theatre, suggesting that tragic drama preserves the memory of humanity’s violent origins, reenacting the dynamics of scapegoating and sacrifice. |
| “The character traits we come to associate with individual characters are transitory, and later on will be equally applicable to another character.” | This further supports Girard’s idea that characters in literature and drama are not unique individuals but interchangeable figures in the cycles of mimetic rivalry. |
| “Plato could not see the order that would supersede the chaos and chose to expel—that is, scapegoat—the tragic poets.” | Yde references Girard’s argument that Plato’s rejection of poetry in The Republic was itself an act of scapegoating, reinforcing the role of exclusion in maintaining social order. |
| “The long history of generative violence began winding down with Jesus on the cross.” | Yde highlights Girard’s belief that the Gospels reveal and dismantle the scapegoat mechanism by portraying Christ as an innocent victim, marking a turning point in human culture away from sacrificial violence. |
Suggested Readings: “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard” by Matthew Yde
- Yde, Matthew. “Mimetic Theory: Rivalry, Violence, Scapegoat—Theatre and Drama through the Lens of René Girard.” Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism 31.1 (2016): 87-108.
- Cowdell, Scott. “Girard on Dialectics, Mimetic Rivalry, and Violence.” Mimetic Theory and Its Shadow: Girard, Milbank, and Ontological Violence, Michigan State University Press, 2023, pp. 21–34. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.14321/jj.3790080.6. Accessed 1 Feb. 2025.
- Johnsen, William A. “ESSENTIAL VIOLENCE AND RENÉ GIRARD’S MIMETIC THEORY.” Homo Mimeticus II: Re-Turns to Mimesis, edited by Nidesh Lawtoo and Marina Garcia-Granero, Leuven University Press, 2024, pp. 167–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.16040333.11. Accessed 1 Feb. 2025.