Narcissism in Literature & Literary Theory

Narcissism: Etymology and Concept

Etymology: The term “narcissism” finds its roots in Greek mythology, specifically in the story of Narcissus, a beautiful youth who fell in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. The name “Narcissus” is derived from the Greek word “narke,” meaning numbness or stupor, reflecting the self-absorbed and self-admiring nature associated with narcissistic traits.

Concept of Narcissism:

Narcissistic Traits	Description
Grandiosity	Exaggerated sense of self-importance and a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love.
Need for Admiration	Constant craving for excessive admiration and affirmation, often disregarding the feelings and needs of others.
Lack of Empathy	Difficulty or inability to recognize and understand the feelings of others, leading to a lack of empathy in interpersonal relationships.
Sense of Entitlement	Unreasonable expectations of favorable treatment and a belief that one is deserving of special privileges.
Exploitative Behavior	Willingness to exploit others for personal gain, coupled with a disregard for ethical standards and boundaries.
Envy and Arrogance	Strong feelings of envy toward others and a tendency to display arrogant attitudes and behaviors.
Fragile Self-Esteem	Paradoxically, beneath the façade of confidence, individuals with narcissistic traits often harbor a fragile self-esteem that is easily threatened.
Impaired Relationships	Difficulty maintaining healthy and mutually satisfying relationships due to a focus on self-gratification and a lack of genuine connection with others.

Narcissism: Meanings

Literal Meaning: Narcissism, in its literal sense, refers to a personality disorder characterized by an excessive interest in or admiration of oneself. The term is derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus, a youth who fell in love with his own reflection, representing self-love and vanity.

Common Meanings:

• Excessive Self-Love: A common meaning of narcissism is an exaggerated love or admiration for oneself, often at the expense of recognizing and valuing others.
• Vanity: It is associated with excessive pride and preoccupation with one’s appearance, achievements, or qualities.
• Egocentrism: Narcissism can manifest as a heightened focus on one’s own needs, desires, and concerns, often leading to a lack of consideration for others.
• Lack of Empathy: Individuals displaying narcissistic traits may struggle to empathize with the emotions and experiences of others.
• Entitlement: Narcissism often involves a sense of entitlement, where individuals believe they deserve special treatment and privileges.
• Manipulative Behavior: People with narcissistic tendencies may engage in manipulative behavior to achieve their goals and maintain a positive self-image.
• Impact on Relationships: Narcissism can negatively impact interpersonal relationships due to a focus on self-interest and difficulties in forming genuine connections with others.

Narcissism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Narcissism, as a theoretical term in psychology, encompasses a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, an exaggerated sense of self-importance, and a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, or beauty. Individuals with narcissistic traits often display a notable lack of empathy, an insatiable need for admiration, and a tendency to exploit others for personal gain. This theoretical construct serves as a framework for understanding and diagnosing a cluster of maladaptive behaviors that impact both individual functioning and interpersonal relationships.

Narcissism: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

• Sigmund Freud:
  • Contributions: Freud introduced the concept of narcissism in his seminal work On Narcissism: An Introduction (1914). He distinguished between primary narcissism, a normal developmental stage, and secondary narcissism, associated with pathological self-love.
• Heinz Kohut:
  • Contributions: Kohut expanded on Freud’s ideas and developed the concept of narcissistic personality disorder. In his work The Analysis of the Self (1971), Kohut emphasized the role of narcissism in the formation of the self and its impact on psychopathology.
• Otto Kernberg:
  • Contributions: Kernberg contributed to the psychoanalytic understanding of narcissism by integrating object relations theory. In Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (1975), he explored the connection between narcissism and borderline personality disorders.

Key Works:

• On Narcissism: An Introduction (1914) by Sigmund Freud:
  • Argument: Freud’s essay delves into the dual nature of narcissism, distinguishing between normal developmental narcissism and pathological manifestations. He explores the role of narcissism in the formation of the self and its implications for mental health.
• The Analysis of the Self (1971) by Heinz Kohut:
  • Argument: Kohut’s work focuses on the significance of narcissism in the development of the self. He introduces the concept of narcissistic needs and describes how disruptions in the mirroring and idealizing functions during childhood can contribute to narcissistic pathology.
• Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (1975) by Otto Kernberg:
  • Argument: Kernberg’s book examines the relationship between narcissism and borderline conditions. He discusses the integration of narcissistic and borderline personality disorders, emphasizing the impact of early object relations on the development of pathological narcissistic traits.

Central Arguments:

• Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective:
  • Argument: Freud posits that narcissism is an inherent part of human development, with a normal phase occurring in infancy. He argues that disruptions in the progression beyond this phase can lead to pathological narcissism, contributing to various psychological disorders.
• Kohut’s Self-Psychology:
  • Argument: Kohut challenges traditional psychoanalytic views by placing a greater emphasis on the role of narcissism in the formation of the self. He argues that healthy narcissism is essential for the development of a cohesive and stable self-structure, and disruptions in this process contribute to narcissistic personality disorders.
• Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory:
  • Argument: Kernberg integrates object relations theory into the understanding of narcissism, emphasizing the impact of early relationships on the development of pathological narcissistic traits. He argues that narcissistic pathology is closely linked to disturbances in object relations and self-identity.

Narcissism: Major Characteristics

Characteristics of Narcissism	Explanation	Examples from Literature
Grandiosity	Exaggerated sense of self-importance and superiority. Individuals with grandiosity often engage in conspicuous displays of wealth or status.	In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby’s lavish parties and illusions of opulence exemplify grandiosity in his pursuit of Daisy Buchanan’s love.
Need for Admiration	Insatiable desire for excessive praise, attention, and validation from others.	Shakespeare’s Othello portrays the manipulative Iago, driven by a deep need for admiration and willing to destroy those around him to fulfill his ego.
Lack of Empathy	Difficulty or inability to understand and share the feelings of others. Narcissists may engage in callous or cruel behavior without remorse.	Bret Easton Ellis’s American Psycho depicts Patrick Bateman’s lack of empathy as he commits violent acts without emotional connection to his victims.
Sense of Entitlement	Belief in the inherent right to special privileges and favorable treatment.	Heathcliff in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights exhibits a strong sense of entitlement in his obsessive pursuit of Catherine Earnshaw’s love and vengeful actions.
Exploitative Behavior	Willingness to exploit others for personal gain, often without regard for ethical standards or the well-being of others.	Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray showcases Dorian’s exploitative behavior as he manipulates and harms those around him to maintain his youthful appearance.
Envy and Arrogance	Strong feelings of envy toward others coupled with an arrogant attitude.	John Milton’s Paradise Lost portrays Satan’s narcissistic traits, including envy of God’s power and an arrogant rebellion that leads to his fall from grace.
Fragile Self-Esteem	Paradoxically, beneath a façade of confidence, individuals with narcissistic traits may harbor a fragile self-esteem susceptible to criticism and rejection.	Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar explores Esther Greenwood’s fragile self-esteem as she grapples with societal expectations, leading to mental distress.
Impaired Relationships	Difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships due to a focus on self-gratification and a lack of genuine connection with others.	In Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire, Stanley Kowalski’s narcissistic tendencies contribute to the breakdown of his relationship with Blanche DuBois.

Narcissism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Psychoanalytic Literary Theory:

• Relevance: Narcissism is a key concept in psychoanalytic literary theory, as it explores characters’ motivations and behaviors based on Freudian principles. Texts are analyzed for unconscious desires, conflicts, and the manifestation of narcissistic traits in character development.

Postcolonial Literary Theory:

• Relevance: In postcolonial literary theory, narcissism is examined in the context of cultural imperialism and the colonizer’s self-centered perspective. Works are scrutinized for representations of colonial powers’ narcissistic attitudes, exploitation, and disregard for indigenous cultures.

Feminist Literary Theory:

• Relevance: Narcissism is relevant in feminist literary theory when examining gender dynamics and power structures. Texts are analyzed for depictions of male characters’ narcissistic behaviors, exploring how such traits contribute to the oppression and objectification of female characters.

Marxist Literary Theory:

• Relevance: Within Marxist literary theory, narcissism can be examined concerning class dynamics and socioeconomic structures. Texts are scrutinized for depictions of characters’ self-interest, exploitation, and the perpetuation of inequality, reflecting broader societal issues.

Reader-Response Literary Theory:

• Relevance: In reader-response literary theory, narcissism is explored in the context of reader engagement with characters. Readers may identify with or react to characters exhibiting narcissistic traits, influencing their interpretation of the narrative and their emotional responses.

Postmodern Literary Theory:

• Relevance: Narcissism plays a role in postmodern literary theory by examining the self-reflexivity and metafictional elements in texts. Authors may incorporate narcissistic characters or themes, challenging traditional narrative structures and engaging readers in a critical reflection on the nature of storytelling.

Queer Literary Theory:

• Relevance: Narcissism is relevant in queer literary theory as it explores the construction of identity and desire. Texts are analyzed for representations of narcissistic tendencies in characters, examining how these traits intersect with LGBTQ+ experiences and contribute to narrative complexity.

Ecocritical Literary Theory:

• Relevance: In ecocritical literary theory, narcissism is considered concerning human-nature relationships. Texts are examined for depictions of anthropocentrism and ecological narcissism, exploring how human characters’ self-centered attitudes contribute to environmental degradation and disconnection from nature.

Narcissism: Application in Critiques

1. Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations
   • Critique: In Dickens’s Great Expectations, the character of Miss Havisham exhibits narcissistic tendencies, frozen in time and consumed by her own thwarted desires. Through Miss Havisham, Dickens explores the destructive nature of unchecked pride and the impact of ego on personal relationships in Victorian society.
2. Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights
   • Critique: Brontë’s Wuthering Heights is a tale steeped in narcissism, particularly embodied by Heathcliff. His obsessive pursuit of revenge and the destruction of those around him reflects the darker aspects of Victorian egoism. The novel serves as a Gothic exploration of the consequences of unrestrained self-importance.
3. Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray
   • Critique: Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray is a poignant exploration of narcissism through its titular character. Dorian Gray’s relentless pursuit of pleasure and the preservation of his own image at any cost serves as a satirical critique of Victorian society’s preoccupation with appearances and the consequences of unchecked vanity.
4. George Eliot’s Middlemarch
   • Critique: Eliot’s Middlemarch delves into the complexities of Victorian social expectations, where characters like Rosamond Vincy embody narcissistic traits. Rosamond’s focus on societal status and her own desires highlights the tensions between individual aspirations and societal norms, providing a nuanced critique of Victorian egoism.

In these revised critiques, the novel titles are presented without quotes, adhering to the standard formatting conventions.

Narcissism: Relevant Terms

1. Egoism: Excessive self-interest, often at others’ expense. Solipsism: Belief that only one’s mind is certain to exist.
2. Hubris: Excessive pride leading to downfall.
3. Nihilism: Rejection of traditional values, often leading to meaninglessness.
4. Vanity: Excessive pride in appearance or achievements.
5. Misanthropy: Dislike or distrust of humankind.
6. Doppelgänger: Character’s double or counterpart.
7. Catharsis: Emotional release or purification.
8. Metafiction: Acknowledging the work as fiction.
9. Tragic Flaw: Character trait causing downfall.

Narcissism: Suggested Readings

1. Freud, Sigmund. On Narcissism: An Introduction. 1914.
2. Kohut, Heinz. The Analysis of the Self. International Universities Press, 1971.
3. Kernberg, Otto F. Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism. Jason Aronson, 1975.
4. Morrison, Toni. Song of Solomon. Knopf, 1977.
5. Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine, 1890.
6. Plath, Sylvia. The Bell Jar. Harper & Row, 1963.
7. Ellis, Bret Easton. American Psycho. Vintage Books, 1991.
8. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 1925.
9. Brontë, Emily. Wuthering Heights. Thomas Cautley Newby, 1847.
10. Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Samuel Simmons, 1667.