“New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard: Summary and Critique

1. Historical Marginalization of Feminist and Ecofeminist Perspectives in Ecocriticism

Gaard opens her essay by addressing the historical sidelining of feminist and ecofeminist perspectives in the field of ecocriticism. Despite ecofeminism being a significant contributor to the environmental turn in literary studies, it is often backgrounded or omitted in key ecocritical works.

• “Ecofeminism has been ‘one of the catalysts’ for ‘the environmental turn in literary studies,’ yet… it is curiously omitted or marginalized.”
• Gaard critiques key texts, such as Lawrence Buell’s The Future of Environmental Criticism and Greg Garrard’s Ecocriticism, for not adequately incorporating ecofeminist perspectives, noting that “Buell’s historical narrative… backgrounds or omits ecofeminism.”

2. Calls for Reclaiming Ecofeminist Contributions to Ecocriticism

Gaard argues for the necessity of reclaiming ecofeminist contributions to the field of ecocriticism. Feminist ecocritics, she contends, must correct the historical narrative that often erases or distorts the contributions of ecofeminist scholars.

• “The first task for feminist ecocritics involves recuperating the large history of feminist ecocriticism and the contributions of ecofeminist literary criticism within ecocritical thinking.”
• Gaard stresses that ecofeminist scholarship, such as the works of “Carol Adams, Deane Curtin, and Josephine Donovan”, should be more integrated into mainstream ecocritical discussions.

3. Addressing the Intersectionality of Feminism, Speciesism, and Ecocriticism

Gaard emphasizes the importance of intersectionality within ecofeminism, particularly how feminist concerns with gender, speciesism, and environmental justice intersect with ecological critiques.

• “The animal studies groundwork of vegan feminists and ecofeminists is barely mentioned in the currently celebrated field of posthumanism… Feminist scholarship both predates and helpfully complicates that work.”
• She also highlights how ecofeminist perspectives critique the exploitation of both women and non-human animals, a theme often neglected in broader ecocritical discourse.

4. Critique of the “Wave” Narrative in Feminism and Ecocriticism

Gaard critiques the “wave” narrative used to describe the history of both feminism and ecocriticism. She argues that the wave model simplifies and erases the contributions of ecofeminism and feminists of color.

• “The ‘wave’ narrative of feminism… erases the histories of Indigenous women, African-American women, Chicanas, Asian-Americans, and other feminists.”
• Gaard calls for a more nuanced understanding of feminist and ecofeminist contributions to both fields, proposing instead a model that recognizes “the intersections of race, class, gender, and sexuality” in ecocritical history.

5. The Role of Feminists in Environmental Justice Movements

Gaard discusses the significant role that feminists and ecofeminists have played in shaping the environmental justice movement, despite being frequently left out of its historical narrative. Feminists have been integral to environmental justice, particularly at the grassroots level.

• “It was feminists who sparked the Diversity Caucus… and feminists who took on the leadership.”
• She points out that although environmental justice initially foregrounded race and class issues, ecofeminists have contributed to expanding the conversation to include gender and species concerns.

6. Ecofeminism and Sexual Justice

Gaard highlights the growing intersections between ecofeminism and sexual justice, exploring how ecofeminist theory can address issues of reproductive justice, queer ecologies, and sexual violence.

• “An ecofeminist theory of sexual justice has already taken root in… Rachel Stein’s strategic attempt to reframe sexuality studies within the context of environmental justice ecocriticism.”
• She discusses how ecofeminism can broaden the scope of environmental justice to include sexualities and explore feminist theories on the exploitation of women and nature.

7. Interspecies Eco/Feminist Ecocriticism

Gaard calls for the development of an interspecies focus within feminist ecocriticism, bringing attention to how humans’ treatment of animals mirrors their treatment of marginalized groups.

• “Ecofeminism and feminist ecocriticism will need to articulate an interspecies focus… bringing forward the vegetarian and vegan feminist threads that have been developing since the nineteenth century.”
• She encourages ecocritics to examine how literary texts depict animals and question the anthropocentric assumptions that often underlie these portrayals.

8. Expanding the Ecocritical Framework to Include Cross-Cultural and Global Perspectives

Gaard stresses the need for ecofeminists to develop more cross-cultural ecofeminist literatures and practices. She points to examples of ecofeminist movements in Asia and Latin America as vital contributions to global ecofeminism.

• “Ecofeminists should seek out, build relationships with, and support cultural border-crossers whose values and goals coincide with the values and goals of feminism and ecofeminism.”
• She underscores the importance of recognizing diverse cultural contexts when developing ecofeminist ethics and literary criticism.

9. Feminist Ecopsychology as a New Direction

Gaard advocates for a feminist approach to ecopsychology, challenging the traditional, male-dominated narrative of the field and emphasizing the relational identities that link humans, animals, and ecosystems.

• “A feminist ecopsychology would build on the early work of feminist psychologists… and explore the ways that a feminist relational identity is developed in conjunction with connections to humans, place, plants, and species alike.”
• She critiques the exclusion of gender, class, race, and sexuality in mainstream ecopsychology and calls for more inclusive perspectives.

10. Advancing Ecofeminist Ecoregionalism

Gaard connects ecofeminism with ecoregionalism, advocating for place-based activism that acknowledges the interconnectedness of humans, animals, and the environment. She stresses the importance of local activism that is rooted in community and rejects hierarchical structures.

• “Ecofeminist ecoregionalism advances the analyses of feminisms, bioregionalisms, and social movements of ‘globalization from below.’”
• Gaard advocates for restructuring power dynamics in communities to create more sustainable and inclusive forms of local governance and environmental care.

1. Expansion of Ecocriticism to Include Feminist and Ecofeminist Perspectives

Gaard’s essay is a critical intervention in ecocriticism, challenging its historical omission of feminist and ecofeminist perspectives. She critiques canonical texts within the field, such as Lawrence Buell’s The Future of Environmental Criticism and Greg Garrard’s Ecocriticism, for marginalizing ecofeminism.

• “Despite ecofeminism being ‘one of the catalysts’ for the environmental turn in literary studies… Buell’s historical narrative of environmental literary criticism curiously backgrounds or omits ecofeminism.”
• This contribution advocates for an inclusive ecocritical framework that integrates feminist concerns, thereby expanding the field beyond traditional environmental and conservationist critiques.

2. Intersectional Approach to Ecocriticism

Gaard’s work introduces intersectionality as a crucial lens for ecocriticism, particularly by emphasizing the interconnectedness of gender, species, race, class, and sexuality in environmental issues.

• “An inclusive narrative of ecocritical history will recognize that each development contains, moves forward, augments, and interrogates the developments that precede it.”
• Gaard urges ecocritics to adopt intersectionality as a core part of their analysis, suggesting that ecological and social justice issues cannot be fully understood without considering how different forms of oppression intersect.

3. Critique of the “Wave” Metaphor in Feminist and Ecocritical Histories

Gaard critiques the “wave” metaphor commonly used in feminist and ecocritical histories, which she argues oversimplifies and erases the contributions of feminists of color and ecofeminists.

• “The ‘wave’ narrative of feminisms… erases the histories of Indigenous women, African-American women, Chicanas, Asian-Americans, and other feminists.”
• Gaard calls for a new historical framework that acknowledges the ongoing and simultaneous contributions of various feminist perspectives, including ecofeminism, to the development of both feminism and ecocriticism.

4. Development of an Interspecies Criticism

One of the essay’s key contributions is its call for the development of an interspecies focus within ecofeminism and ecocriticism. Gaard highlights the parallels between the oppression of women and non-human animals, urging scholars to critique speciesism alongside sexism and other forms of oppression.

• “In the near future, ecofeminism and feminist ecocriticism will need to articulate an interspecies focus within ecocriticism, bringing forward the vegetarian and vegan feminist threads that have been a developing part of feminist and ecological feminist theories since the nineteenth century.”
• This approach extends ecofeminism’s critique of patriarchal domination to the treatment of animals, challenging anthropocentrism and promoting a more inclusive ecological ethics.

5. Connection Between Ecofeminism and Sexual Justice

Gaard’s essay makes significant contributions to the emerging intersections between ecofeminism and sexual justice. She examines how ecofeminist theory can address issues of sexual exploitation, reproductive justice, and the rights of LGBTQ+ communities.

• “An ecofeminist theory of sexual justice has already taken root… examining the political and ecological dimensions of reproductive technologies and ideologies from an ecofeminist perspective.”
• This contribution emphasizes the need for an intersectional approach to sexual justice that links environmental health, gender equality, and reproductive rights, expanding the scope of ecofeminism.

6. Critique of Posthumanism from an Ecofeminist Perspective

Gaard critiques posthumanism for neglecting the foundational contributions of ecofeminism to the critique of human exceptionalism and speciesism. She argues that ecofeminism predates and complicates the discussions in posthumanist theory.

• “The animal studies groundwork of vegan feminists and ecofeminists is barely mentioned in the currently celebrated field of posthumanism… Feminist scholarship both predates and helpfully complicates that work.”
• By linking ecofeminism to posthumanism, Gaard calls for a more inclusive and nuanced approach to critiquing human-centered views, one that acknowledges the interconnected oppression of women, animals, and nature.

7. Reintegration of Place-Based and Cross-Cultural Ecofeminism

Gaard highlights the importance of bioregionalism and place-based activism in ecofeminism, linking these concepts to larger global concerns such as environmental degradation, cultural preservation, and local governance.

• “Ecofeminist ecoregionalism advances the analyses of those feminisms, bioregionalisms, and social movements of ‘globalization from below.’”
• She also emphasizes the need for cross-cultural ecofeminist ethics, arguing that different cultural contexts must be considered when developing feminist and ecofeminist perspectives, thus contributing to a more global and contextually aware literary theory.

8. Call for a Feminist Ecopsychology

Gaard introduces the idea of a feminist ecopsychology, critiquing the male-dominated origins of the field and advocating for an approach that explores the relational identities formed through connections to nature, place, and non-human species.

• “A feminist ecopsychology would build on the early work of feminist psychologists… and explore the ways that a feminist relational identity is developed in conjunction with connections to humans, place, plants, and species alike.”
• This contribution challenges the traditional assumptions of ecopsychology and opens new avenues for exploring how ecological and psychological well-being are linked, particularly for marginalized groups.

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References from the Article:

1. “Ecofeminism has been ‘one of the catalysts’ for the environmental turn in literary studies… Buell’s historical narrative of environmental literary criticism curiously backgrounds or omits ecofeminism.”
2. “The ‘wave’ narrative of feminisms… erases the histories of Indigenous women, African-American women, Chicanas, Asian-Americans, and other feminists.”
3. “An ecofeminist theory of sexual justice has already taken root… examining the political and ecological dimensions of reproductive technologies and ideologies from an ecofeminist perspective.”
4. “In the near future, ecofeminism and feminist ecocriticism will need to articulate an interspecies focus within ecocriticism.”
5. “Ecofeminist ecoregionalism advances the analyses of those feminisms, bioregionalisms, and social movements of ‘globalization from below.’”