“New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

“New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard first appeared in the Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment in 2010. Gaard’s seminal essay critically examines the role of feminist perspectives within the evolution of ecocriticism, emphasizing ecofeminism’s marginalized position in the field despite its significant influence on environmental thought. Gaard highlights how foundational texts in ecocriticism, such as Lawrence Buell’s The Future of Environmental Criticism and Greg Garrard’s Ecocriticism, tend to overlook or misrepresent ecofeminist contributions, which she argues have been pivotal in broadening ecocriticism’s scope to include analyses of gender, species, and sexuality. By outlining seven proposed “new directions” for ecofeminist and feminist ecocritics, Gaard advocates for a more inclusive narrative that acknowledges feminist scholarship’s historical and ongoing contributions. Her work is a cornerstone in feminist literary theory, challenging the patriarchal underpinnings of both ecocriticism and environmental justice, and calling for an intersectional approach that intertwines environmental ethics with social justice concerns across race, class, and gender.

Summary of “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

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• Ecofeminism’s Marginalization in Ecocritical Discourse
  • Gaard begins by critiquing the historical omission of ecofeminist perspectives in mainstream ecocriticism, especially in influential works by Lawrence Buell and Greg Garrard. She notes that while Buell acknowledges ecofeminism as “one of the catalysts” for environmental criticism, he downplays its contributions by limiting “gender as a ‘complication’” in environmental discourse (Gaard, 3). This marginalization reflects a broader failure to fully integrate feminist insights into ecocritical frameworks.
• Call for Re-examining Ecocritical History
  • Gaard underscores the need to “recuperate the large history of feminist ecocriticism” to prevent further erasure of ecofeminist contributions (Gaard, 1). This includes challenging “wave” narratives in ecocriticism that omit the gender, species, and sexuality dimensions ecofeminism brings. By doing so, ecofeminism can be acknowledged for enriching ecocritical studies with a layered analysis that addresses these intersecting axes of oppression.
• Advocacy for Interdisciplinary and Intersectional Approaches
  • Gaard proposes a multidisciplinary and intersectional lens, combining ecofeminist, feminist, and environmental justice perspectives to better explore issues like the sexism/speciesism nexus, race, class, and sexuality within environmental justice. She writes, “ecofeminist values oppose all forms of hierarchy and domination,” pointing to the necessity of integrating diverse, marginalized voices to address environmental and social injustices (Gaard, 5).
• Seven New Directions for Feminist Ecocriticism
  • Gaard suggests seven progressive paths to revitalize feminist ecocriticism, including addressing historical erasure, advocating for inclusivity in ecocritical narratives, and supporting diverse ecofeminist perspectives. These directions are aimed at broadening the scope of ecocriticism to include “the contributions of feminisms in its framework, not just as a footnote or augmentation” (Gaard, 4).
• Ecocriticism Beyond Gender and Species Hierarchies
  • Gaard highlights how mainstream ecocriticism often “erases the history of ecological feminism and feminisms of color,” which have long fought against species and gender hierarchies (Gaard, 6). She encourages scholars to consider ecofeminist works that challenge dualisms between humans and animals and critique anthropocentrism in environmental discourse.
• Integration of Sexual Justice and Queer Ecocriticism
  • Gaard calls for a feminist ecocritical focus on sexual justice, pointing to works that examine the intersections of ecofeminism and queer theory. She notes that ecofeminism’s commitment to intersectionality has already laid the groundwork for an inclusive ecocritical narrative, yet she emphasizes the importance of exploring “sexual justice for females of a different race, class, nationality, sexuality, or species” (Gaard, 7).
• Cross-Cultural Ecofeminism and Global Perspectives
  • Addressing the need for cross-cultural applicability, Gaard suggests that ecofeminism should “build relationships with, and support cultural border-crossers,” to account for differing ethical, spiritual, and ecological beliefs worldwide (Gaard, 10). She provides examples of culturally rooted ecofeminist discourses, such as the incorporation of Buddhist principles in Taiwanese ecofeminism, to demonstrate how ecofeminism can adapt to varied global contexts.
• Rethinking Place and Home in Ecofeminist Terms
  • Lastly, Gaard critiques place-based studies that overlook gender and racial disparities and proposes “ecofeminist ecoregionalism” to address “unequal power relationships” and “racism, homophobia, and other forms of discrimination” (Gaard, 12). She advocates for a conception of “home” that includes environmental justice concerns and rejects the exclusivity of traditional bioregionalism.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Context in Gaard’s Essay
Ecofeminism	A movement combining ecological concerns with feminist ones, emphasizing the interconnection of environmentalism and gender equality.	Gaard critiques the marginalization of ecofeminism in ecocritical history, calling for its central inclusion in environmental literary studies.
Ecocriticism	The study of literature and the environment, exploring how ecological issues are represented in literary texts.	Gaard argues for a more inclusive ecocriticism that integrates feminist, queer, and ecofeminist perspectives to expand its scope.
Intersectionality	The analytical framework examining how aspects like race, gender, class, and sexuality intersect and create layers of discrimination.	Gaard promotes intersectionality in ecocriticism to address overlapping oppressions, including gender, speciesism, and environmental justice.
Speciesism	Discrimination based on species, often leading to the marginalization or exploitation of non-human animals.	Gaard highlights the need to address speciesism in ecocriticism by integrating ecofeminist insights, which link species oppression to gender and racial hierarchies.
Wave Metaphor	A narrative framework describing the historical progression of movements in waves, such as feminist and ecocritical waves.	Gaard critiques the “wave” model in both feminism and ecocriticism, suggesting it often erases the contributions of ecofeminist and intersectional approaches.
Anthropocentrism	A human-centered viewpoint that places humans above other species and overlooks non-human agency and rights.	Gaard critiques anthropocentrism in ecocriticism and promotes ecofeminism’s interspecies focus to combat human-centered biases.
Gender/Sexual Justice	The pursuit of equal rights and representation across genders and sexual orientations, especially within environmental contexts.	Gaard calls for “sexual justice” within ecocriticism, integrating queer theory and ecofeminism to address injustices against non-heteronormative groups.
Bioregionalism	A political, cultural, and ecological concept advocating for living within the ecological boundaries of a specific place.	Gaard proposes “ecofeminist ecoregionalism,” which incorporates feminist critiques of gender, race, and class to address inequities within the bioregional framework.
Erotophobia	Fear or rejection of eroticism or sexuality, often linked to homophobia and sexual repression.	Gaard identifies “erotophobia” as a component of “ecophobia,” emphasizing how societal fears of queer and animalistic sexualities impact ecological relationships.
Ecophobia	A fear or aversion toward nature and ecological concerns, often stemming from anthropocentric attitudes.	Building on Simon Estok’s work, Gaard identifies ecophobia as a pervasive issue within ecocriticism that feminist and ecofeminist approaches aim to challenge.
Confluent Theorizing	The blending of different theories (e.g., gender, race, species, environment) to create a holistic analytical framework.	Gaard supports “confluent theorizing” in ecocriticism, combining ecofeminism, queer theory, and intersectional approaches to create more comprehensive ecological insights.
Dualism	A division or contrast between two things, typically seeing them as oppositional rather than interconnected.	Gaard critiques dualistic thinking (e.g., human/animal, nature/culture) and advocates for frameworks that recognize interconnected relationships within ecocriticism.

Contribution of “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard to Literary Theory/Theories

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1. Ecocriticism
   Gaard’s work expands ecocriticism by critiquing its historical neglect of feminist and ecofeminist perspectives. She highlights that foundational ecocritical texts often marginalize ecofeminism, as seen in Lawrence Buell’s The Future of Environmental Criticism, which reduces “gender as a ‘complication’” and omits ecofeminist contributions from his historical narrative (Gaard, 3). Gaard argues that for ecocriticism to evolve, it must recognize ecofeminism as central rather than peripheral, stating, “an inclusive narrative of ecocritical history will recognize that each development contains, moves forward, augments, and interrogates the developments that precede it” (Gaard, 4).
2. Feminist Theory and Ecofeminism
   Gaard’s essay emphasizes the importance of integrating ecofeminism as a crucial strand of feminist theory, arguing that ecofeminism’s contributions are often omitted or misrepresented. She notes that ecofeminism opposes “all forms of hierarchy and domination,” which positions it as a critical framework for analyzing environmental and social injustices (Gaard, 5). Gaard highlights that ecofeminist scholars like Carol Adams and Patrick D. Murphy have developed critiques of how “the sexism/speciesism nexus” reinforces systemic oppression (Gaard, 2). By advocating for a feminist ecocriticism that considers both gender and species, Gaard underscores the need for literary studies to address interconnected forms of exploitation.
3. Intersectionality
   Gaard’s work is a significant contribution to intersectional approaches within literary theory, as it connects environmental issues with other forms of identity-based oppression. She argues that ecofeminism is inherently intersectional, addressing “gender, species, and sexuality,” as well as race and class, to provide a more comprehensive analysis of oppression (Gaard, 6). She critiques the “wave” model in ecocriticism, suggesting it often fails to include diverse feminist voices, resulting in a narrative that “erases the history of ecological feminism and feminisms of color” (Gaard, 6). Gaard’s work encourages the adoption of intersectional frameworks in ecocriticism and other literary theories, particularly by exploring how these frameworks can deepen analyses of environmental justice.
4. Queer Theory
   Gaard advocates for integrating queer theory into ecocriticism through what she calls a focus on “sexual justice.” She identifies that ecofeminism has laid the groundwork for including queer perspectives in environmental literary studies, noting the importance of a feminist ecocritical focus on “sexual justice for females of a different race, class, nationality, sexuality, or species” (Gaard, 7). By linking ecofeminism and queer theory, Gaard calls for an ecocriticism that addresses issues of homophobia and erotophobia, highlighting how “the commodification of nature and of sexual minorities” involves similar processes of marginalization (Gaard, 8).
5. Posthumanism
   Gaard’s discussion of speciesism and her critique of anthropocentrism align with posthumanist theories that question human exceptionalism. She highlights the role of ecofeminist scholars in challenging “the human/animal binary,” a central concern in posthumanism, by advocating for the inclusion of “interspecies justice” within ecocriticism (Gaard, 8). By encouraging posthumanist views that value non-human agency and critique “anthropocentric arrogance and speciesism,” Gaard’s essay positions ecofeminism as a precursor to posthumanist ideas within literary studies (Gaard, 8).
6. Place Studies and Ecoregionalism
   Gaard extends bioregionalist and place studies frameworks by infusing them with ecofeminist critiques of power and identity. She critiques bioregionalism’s tendency to overlook gender, racial, and economic disparities, suggesting instead an “ecofeminist ecoregionalism” that acknowledges “unequal power relationships” and “works against racism, homophobia and other forms of discrimination” (Gaard, 12). This approach encourages a reimagining of “home” and “place” that reflects ecofeminist values of community, sustainability, and inclusivity.

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Examples of Critiques Through “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Work	Author	Ecofeminist Critique through Gaard’s Lens	Reference from Gaard’s Essay
The Future of Environmental Criticism	Lawrence Buell	Gaard critiques Buell’s historical framework for ecocriticism, arguing that it marginalizes ecofeminism by presenting “gender as a ‘complication’” in environmental studies.	“Buell’s chapter…revealing the unfortunate possibility that the framework…is otherwise ‘free’ of the complications of gender” (Gaard, 3).
Ecocriticism	Greg Garrard	Gaard argues that Garrard’s text misrepresents ecofeminists and fails to address key ecofeminist figures in animal studies, like Carol Adams, by omitting them from discussions.	“Garrard misrepresents ecofeminists…while omitting entirely…references to…the feminist ecocritical work of Carol Adams” (Gaard, 2).
The Lay of the Land	Annette Kolodny	Kolodny’s work, Gaard notes, emphasizes the symbolic “land-as-woman” trope in American literature, which is foundational in feminist ecocriticism for critiquing gendered nature.	“Kolodny’s important work exposing the ‘continued repetition of the land-as-woman symbolization’ in American life” (Gaard, 5).
Sense of Place and Sense of Planet	Ursula Heise	Gaard critiques Heise’s concept of “eco-cosmopolitanism,” arguing that it overlooks local and intersectional power dynamics central to ecofeminism and environmental justice.	“How does this eco-cosmopolitanism account for real material and economic power differences across race, class, gender, and species?” (Gaard, 12).

Criticism Against “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

• Overemphasis on Feminist Perspectives in Ecocriticism
  Some critics might argue that Gaard’s focus on feminist and ecofeminist approaches in ecocriticism overshadows other valuable perspectives, such as indigenous, Marxist, or deep ecological approaches, which also offer critical insights into environmental issues.
• Potential Narrowing of Ecocriticism’s Scope
  By calling for an expanded feminist focus, critics might suggest that Gaard’s approach risks making ecocriticism overly specialized, thereby reducing its accessibility and applicability across diverse audiences and disciplines.
• Neglect of Practical Environmental Concerns
  Gaard’s theoretical focus on gender, sexuality, and species within ecocriticism could be seen as diverting attention from pressing, actionable environmental concerns such as climate change, pollution, and conservation efforts, which some argue should remain ecocriticism’s central priorities.
• Critique of the “Wave” Model
  While Gaard criticizes the wave model for its exclusion of ecofeminism, others may argue that the wave framework remains a useful heuristic that reflects ecocriticism’s historical development, even if imperfect. They might suggest her critiques could have been achieved within the wave model without dismissing it entirely.
• Potential for Essentialist Interpretations
  By emphasizing gender and species interconnections, critics might contend that Gaard’s approach risks essentializing women’s relationships to nature, inadvertently reinforcing stereotypes that ecofeminism aims to dismantle.

Representative Quotations from “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Recuperating the large history of feminist ecocriticism…”	Gaard emphasizes the need to reclaim and recognize the contributions of ecofeminist perspectives within the broader field of ecocriticism, which have historically been overlooked.
“Ecofeminist values oppose all forms of hierarchy and domination…”	Gaard underscores ecofeminism’s foundational principles, which challenge power structures and seek to dismantle systems of oppression, extending beyond gender to include species, race, and class.
“An inclusive narrative of ecocritical history will recognize…each development contains, moves forward, augments…developments…”	This quote captures Gaard’s call for a more interconnected understanding of ecocriticism that values contributions from diverse perspectives, rather than viewing feminist inputs as separate or supplementary.
“How does this eco-cosmopolitanism account for real material and economic power differences across race, class, gender, and species?”	Gaard critiques eco-cosmopolitanism (the global, human-focused approach to ecology) for its lack of attention to intersectional social issues, arguing that it should address real-world disparities.
“The commodification of nature and of sexual minorities are similar…”	Gaard links the exploitation of nature with the marginalization of sexual minorities, emphasizing how both are treated as ‘others’ and subordinated under dominant structures, thus illustrating ecofeminism’s intersectional approach.
“Wave narratives…inadvertently erase the history of ecological feminism and feminisms of color…”	Gaard critiques the wave metaphor commonly used in feminist and ecocritical discourse, arguing that it simplifies history and often erases ecofeminist and intersectional feminist contributions.
“An ecocriticism that responds to ecophobia will advance a ‘confluent theorizing’…”	Gaard supports developing theories that blend multiple critical perspectives—such as ecocriticism, queer theory, and feminist theory—to comprehensively address environmental and social injustices.
“Ecofeminists strive to evolve structures that respect difference without universalizing…”	This quotation reflects ecofeminism’s dedication to valuing diversity, avoiding generalizations, and promoting inclusivity while resisting reductionist frameworks.
“Bioregionalism needs to incorporate the radicalizing influence of ecofeminism…”	Gaard calls for an evolution of bioregionalism to include ecofeminist principles, suggesting that this will better address social justice issues like racism and sexism that bioregionalism alone may overlook.
“An ecofeminist ecoregionalism…challenges unequal power relationships…”	Gaard advocates for an ecofeminist adaptation of ecoregionalism, one that critiques and seeks to correct structural inequalities inherent in traditional environmental discourses focused only on place.

Suggested Readings: “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

1. ESTOK, SIMON C. “Hollow Ecology and Anthropocene Scales of Measurement.” Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal, vol. 51, no. 3, 2018, pp. 37–52. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26974109. Accessed 27 Oct. 2024.
2. Kilcup, Karen L. “Writing against Wilderness: María Amparo Ruiz de Burton’s Elite Environmental Justice.” Western American Literature, vol. 47, no. 4, 2013, pp. 360–85. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43023038. Accessed 27 Oct. 2024.
3. Gaard, Greta. “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 17, no. 4, 2010, pp. 643–65. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44087661. Accessed 27 Oct. 2024.
4. Gaard, Greta. “Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism.” Feminist Formations, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, pp. 26–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41301655. Accessed 27 Oct. 2024.
5. Gaard, Greta. “Vegetarian Ecofeminism: A Review Essay.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, vol. 23, no. 3, 2002, pp. 117–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3347337. Accessed 27 Oct. 2024.