Introduction: “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
“Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca first appeared in 1930 as part of the collection Poet in New York, translated by various scholars over the years, including Gregory Corso and Ben Belitt. This striking and multifaceted poem captures Lorca’s reflections on industrialized America and his admiration for Walt Whitman’s poetic legacy. Lorca intertwines the urban alienation and mechanization of New York City with Whitman’s ideals of unity, sensuality, and transcendence, while critiquing the distortion of love and human connections in a modern, dehumanized world. Its popularity as a textbook poem arises from its lyrical intensity, socio-political critique, and celebration of identity and love. Lorca juxtaposes Whitman’s vision of purity with the “mire and death” of urban life: “New York, mire, New York, mire and death.” The poem condemns exploitation and moral corruption, even while seeking to protect the purity of desires, as in: “Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.” Through its vivid imagery and raw emotion, Lorca immortalizes Whitman as an eternal figure of hope and defiance amidst a fractured, disenchanted society.
Text: “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
By the East River and the Bronx
boys were singing, exposing their waists
with the wheel, with oil, leather, and the hammer.
Ninety thousand miners taking silver from the rocks
and children drawing stairs and perspectives.
But none of them could sleep,
none of them wanted to be the river,
none of them loved the huge leaves
or the shoreline’s blue tongue.
By the East River and the Queensboro
boys were battling with industry
and the Jews sold to the river faun
the rose of circumcision,
and over bridges and rooftops, the mouth of the sky emptied
herds of bison driven by the wind.
But none of them paused,
none of them wanted to be a cloud,
none of them looked for ferns
or the yellow wheel of a tambourine.
As soon as the moon rises
the pulleys will spin to alter the sky;
a border of needles will besiege memory
and the coffins will bear away those who don’t work.
New York, mire,
New York, mire and death.
What angel is hidden in your cheek?
Whose perfect voice will sing the truths of wheat?
Who, the terrible dream of your stained anemones?
Not for a moment, Walt Whitman, lovely old man,
have I failed to see your beard full of butterflies,
nor your corduroy shoulders frayed by the moon,
nor your thighs pure as Apollo’s,
nor your voice like a column of ash,
old man, beautiful as the mist,
you moaned like a bird
with its sex pierced by a needle.
Enemy of the satyr,
enemy of the vine,
and lover of bodies beneath rough cloth…
Not for a moment, virile beauty,
who among mountains of coal, billboards, and railroads,
dreamed of becoming a river and sleeping like a river
with that comrade who would place in your breast
the small ache of an ignorant leopard.
Not for a moment, Adam of blood, Macho,
man alone at sea, Walt Whitman, lovely old man,
because on penthouse roofs,
gathered at bars,
emerging in bunches from the sewers,
trembling between the legs of chauffeurs,
or spinning on dance floors wet with absinthe,
the faggots, Walt Whitman, point you out.
He’s one, too! That’s right! And they land
on your luminous chaste beard,
blonds from the north, blacks from the sands,
crowds of howls and gestures,
like cats or like snakes,
the faggots, Walt Whitman, the faggots,
clouded with tears, flesh for the whip,
the boot, or the teeth of the lion tamers.
He’s one, too! That’s right! Stained fingers
point to the shore of your dream
when a friend eats your apple
with a slight taste of gasoline
and the sun sings in the navels
of boys who play under bridges.
But you didn’t look for scratched eyes,
nor the darkest swamp where someone submerges children,
nor frozen saliva,
nor the curves slit open like a toad’s belly
that the faggots wear in cars and on terraces
while the moon lashes them on the street corners of terror.
You looked for a naked body like a river.
Bull and dream who would join wheel with seaweed,
father of your agony, camellia of your death,
who would groan in the blaze of your hidden equator.
Because it’s all right if a man doesn’t look for his delight
in tomorrow morning’s jungle of blood.
The sky has shores where life is avoided
and there are bodies that shouldn’t repeat themselves in the dawn.
Agony, agony, dream, ferment, and dream.
This is the world, my friend, agony, agony.
Bodies decompose beneath the city clocks,
war passes by in tears, followed by a million gray rats,
the rich give their mistresses
small illuminated dying things,
and life is neither noble, nor good, nor sacred.
Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire
through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.
Tomorrow, loves will become stones, and Time
a breeze that drowses in the branches.
That’s why I don’t raise my voice, old Walt Whitman,
against the little boy who writes
the name of a girl on his pillow,
nor against the boy who dresses as a bride
in the darkness of the wardrobe,
nor against the solitary men in casinos
who drink prostitution’s water with revulsion,
nor against the men with that green look in their eyes
who love other men and burn their lips in silence.
But yes against you, urban faggots,
tumescent flesh and unclean thoughts.
Mothers of mud. Harpies. Sleepless enemies
of the love that bestows crowns of joy.
Always against you, who give boys
drops of foul death with bitter poison.
Always against you,
Fairies of North America,
Pájaros of Havana,
Jotos of Mexico,
Sarasas of Cádiz,
Apios of Seville,
Cancos of Madrid,
Floras of Alicante,
Adelaidas of Portugal.
Faggots of the world, murderers of doves!
Slaves of women. Their bedroom bitches.
Opening in public squares like feverish fans
or ambushed in rigid hemlock landscapes.
No quarter given! Death
spills from your eyes
and gathers gray flowers at the mire’s edge.
No quarter given! Attention!
Let the confused, the pure,
the classical, the celebrated, the supplicants
close the doors of the bacchanal to you.
And you, lovely Walt Whitman, stay asleep on the Hudson’s banks
with your beard toward the pole, openhanded.
Soft clay or snow, your tongue calls for
comrades to keep watch over your unbodied gazelle.
Sleep on, nothing remains.
Dancing walls stir the prairies
and America drowns itself in machinery and lament.
I want the powerful air from the deepest night
to blow away flowers and inscriptions from the arch where you sleep,
and a black child to inform the gold-craving whites
that the kingdom of grain has arrived.
Annotations: “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
| Stanza | Annotation |
| By the East River and the Bronx… | The opening lines depict the industrialization of New York, highlighting the laborers (miners, children, and workers) alienated from nature and creativity. Their inability to “be the river” or “love the leaves” signifies disconnection from natural harmony and a lack of spiritual fulfillment amidst industrial progress. |
| By the East River and the Queensboro… | Lorca portrays the struggles of industrial workers and the commodification of life through the metaphor of the “rose of circumcision.” The imagery of bison driven by the wind evokes chaos and the relentless forces of modern life, yet the workers remain indifferent to beauty and spirituality. |
| As soon as the moon rises… | This stanza introduces the relentless mechanization of the city, symbolized by pulleys altering the sky and coffins representing the death of those who cannot conform to industrial labor. “New York, mire and death” critiques the dehumanization inherent in urban industrialization. |
| Not for a moment, Walt Whitman… | Lorca shifts to address Whitman directly, praising his natural sensuality and purity. The imagery of Whitman’s “beard full of butterflies” and “corduroy shoulders” conveys a vision of innocence and connection to nature, contrasting sharply with the alienation of modern life. |
| Not for a moment, virile beauty… | Whitman is portrayed as a figure of masculine vitality and poetic idealism. Lorca contrasts this ideal with the corrupted reality of urban life, lamenting how industrialization and urban decay stifle dreams of unity and sensual freedom. |
| Not for a moment, Adam of blood… | Lorca calls Whitman “Adam of blood,” a symbol of primal human authenticity. He critiques the disconnection of modern life, where love and camaraderie are replaced by anonymity and despair in the urban environment. |
| He’s one, too! That’s right!… | This stanza critiques the misinterpretation of Whitman’s legacy, associating him with marginalized figures (referred to as “faggots”) in urban nightlife. While acknowledging Whitman’s solidarity with the oppressed, Lorca laments the distortion of his ideals into decadence and commodification. |
| But you didn’t look for scratched eyes… | Lorca defends Whitman’s pure vision, contrasting it with the debased and self-destructive behaviors of urban life. The grotesque imagery of “scratched eyes” and “frozen saliva” symbolizes the moral decay Lorca perceives in the modern world. |
| Because it’s all right if a man… | Lorca upholds Whitman’s vision of individual freedom and the potential for human desire to lead to spiritual fulfillment. The stanza contrasts the possibility of transcendence with the grim inevitabilities of war, decay, and dehumanization. |
| Agony, agony, dream… | This stanza offers a grim reflection on the human condition, emphasizing suffering and the transient nature of life. Lorca critiques industrial capitalism and societal norms that strip life of nobility and sanctity. |
| That’s why I don’t raise my voice… | Lorca distinguishes between different expressions of sexuality, defending personal and sincere expressions of love while condemning the exploitative and degrading aspects of urban nightlife. He seeks to protect Whitman’s ideals from being overshadowed by societal corruption. |
| But yes against you, urban faggots… | The tone becomes accusatory, as Lorca condemns what he perceives as the superficiality and destructiveness of some expressions of urban sexuality. This reflects his complex relationship with Whitman’s legacy and his critique of moral and social decay. |
| Faggots of the world, murderers of doves!… | Lorca’s condemnation continues, with vivid and violent imagery of death, decay, and moral corruption. This reflects his despair at the perceived betrayal of Whitman’s ideals in modern society. |
| And you, lovely Walt Whitman… | In the final stanza, Lorca returns to a tender address to Whitman, asking him to “stay asleep” and remain untainted by the chaos of modernity. The poem closes with a vision of renewal, symbolized by a “black child” announcing the “kingdom of grain,” a metaphor for equality and spiritual revival. |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
| Device | Example | Explanation |
| Alliteration | “New York, mire, New York, mire and death.” | The repetition of the “m” sound emphasizes the oppressive and morbid atmosphere of the city. |
| Allusion | “Adam of blood, Macho, man alone at sea, Walt Whitman, lovely old man.” | References to Adam evoke biblical imagery, linking Whitman to primal creation and humanity’s origins. |
| Anaphora | “Not for a moment… Not for a moment…” | The repetition at the beginning of lines reinforces Lorca’s admiration and the constancy of his view of Whitman. |
| Apostrophe | “Not for a moment, Walt Whitman, lovely old man…” | Lorca directly addresses Walt Whitman, bringing a personal and emotional tone to the poem. |
| Assonance | “Who, the terrible dream of your stained anemones?” | Repetition of vowel sounds, such as “e” and “o,” creates a melodic and haunting quality. |
| Chiasmus | “New York, mire, New York, mire and death.” | The inversion of words emphasizes the cyclical and inescapable despair associated with the city. |
| Consonance | “Bull and dream who would join wheel with seaweed.” | The repetition of “w” and “l” sounds enhances the fluidity of the imagery. |
| Diction | “Faggots of the world, murderers of doves!” | Lorca’s choice of harsh and accusatory language conveys his complex critique of societal decay. |
| Enjambment | “Not for a moment, virile beauty, / who among mountains of coal, billboards, and railroads…” | The continuation of a sentence across lines mirrors the flowing, uncontained energy of Whitman’s legacy. |
| Epistrophe | “None of them could sleep, / none of them wanted to be the river…” | Repetition at the end of lines emphasizes the disconnection and restlessness of modern life. |
| Hyperbole | “War passes by in tears, followed by a million gray rats.” | The exaggerated image of war and rats conveys the destructive and overwhelming nature of societal decay. |
| Imagery | “With the wheel, with oil, leather, and the hammer.” | Lorca vividly describes industrial labor, appealing to the senses to create a tangible scene. |
| Juxtaposition | “New York, mire, New York, mire and death. / What angel is hidden in your cheek?” | The contrast between urban decay and angelic beauty highlights the tension between degradation and hope. |
| Metaphor | “Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire / through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.” | The vein of coral and naked body symbolize pure, uncorrupted desires, contrasting with urban moral decay. |
| Mood | “New York, mire and death.” | The oppressive and somber mood reflects Lorca’s critique of industrial and urban life. |
| Paradox | “Agony, agony, dream, ferment, and dream.” | The juxtaposition of agony and dream reflects the duality of human experience, blending suffering with aspiration. |
| Personification | “The mouth of the sky emptied herds of bison driven by the wind.” | The sky is personified as having a “mouth,” adding a vivid, almost mythical quality to the imagery. |
| Repetition | “No quarter given! No quarter given!” | The repetition of this phrase emphasizes Lorca’s passionate condemnation of societal and moral corruption. |
| Symbolism | “The rose of circumcision.” | The rose symbolizes purity and beauty, while its association with circumcision evokes themes of sacrifice and ritual in a commodified urban world. |
| Tone | “Always against you, urban faggots…” | The tone shifts from admiring and tender when addressing Whitman to accusatory and critical when addressing societal and moral decay. |
Themes: “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
1. Urban Alienation and Industrial Dehumanization: In “Ode to Walt Whitman,” Lorca explores the theme of alienation in a mechanized, industrialized society, portraying New York City as a place of despair and moral decay. The opening stanzas depict the disconnection between individuals and nature: “But none of them could sleep, / none of them wanted to be the river, / none of them loved the huge leaves.” The relentless labor in the industrialized city alienates workers from the natural world and their own humanity. The imagery of “pulleys will spin to alter the sky” and “coffins will bear away those who don’t work” reflects the dehumanizing effects of industrial labor. New York is characterized as “mire and death,” a place where life loses its sanctity and people are reduced to tools in an oppressive machine.
2. Admiration for Walt Whitman’s Vision of Humanity: In “Ode to Walt Whitman,” Walt Whitman symbolizes a timeless ideal of human dignity, sensuality, and connection to nature. Lorca pays homage to Whitman’s poetic legacy, addressing him directly as “lovely old man” with “a beard full of butterflies” and “corduroy shoulders frayed by the moon.” Whitman’s vision of life and sensuality contrasts sharply with the alienation of modern urban life. Lorca celebrates Whitman’s virile and primal beauty: “Adam of blood, Macho, man alone at sea.” By aligning Whitman with ideals of natural purity and profound human connection, Lorca portrays him as an eternal figure whose ideals remain untainted by industrialization and urban decay.
3. The Corruption of Love and Desire: In “Ode to Walt Whitman,” Lorca grapples with the distortion of love and desire in a morally degraded urban environment. He critiques superficial and exploitative expressions of sexuality, particularly in urban settings, where “the faggots, Walt Whitman, point you out.” The term “faggots” is used with conflicting tones, reflecting both Lorca’s acknowledgment of societal rejection and his own ambivalence toward expressions of sexuality that he perceives as excessive or artificial. The poem contrasts Whitman’s vision of sensual purity with the “tumescent flesh and unclean thoughts” of “urban faggots,” whom Lorca accuses of perpetuating moral decay. Yet, Lorca also defends those who love sincerely, stating: “That’s why I don’t raise my voice, old Walt Whitman, / against the little boy who writes / the name of a girl on his pillow.” This duality underscores the tension between authentic love and its exploitation in a corrupted world.
4. The Duality of Agony and Dream: In “Ode to Walt Whitman,” Lorca presents life as a paradoxical blend of suffering and aspiration, reflecting on the tension between human agony and the pursuit of transcendence. The refrain “Agony, agony, dream, ferment, and dream” captures the cyclical nature of human existence, where hope and despair coexist. The imagery of “bodies decompose beneath the city clocks” and “war passes by in tears, followed by a million gray rats” underscores the inevitability of suffering and decay in the modern world. Yet Lorca suggests the potential for transcendence through desire, as seen in “Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire / through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.” This duality reflects Lorca’s understanding of life as a continuous interplay between anguish and the search for beauty and meaning.
Literary Theories and “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
| Literary Theory | Application to “Ode to Walt Whitman” | References from the Poem |
| Queer Theory | The poem examines themes of homoeroticism, gender identity, and societal attitudes toward queer individuals. Lorca critiques both societal oppression and the excesses of urban sexuality. | “Not for a moment, Walt Whitman, lovely old man, / have I failed to see your beard full of butterflies.” / “But yes against you, urban faggots, / tumescent flesh and unclean thoughts.” |
| Marxist Theory | Lorca critiques industrial capitalism and its dehumanizing impact on workers, as well as the commodification of human relationships in an exploitative system. | “New York, mire and death.” / “The pulleys will spin to alter the sky; / a border of needles will besiege memory / and the coffins will bear away those who don’t work.” |
| Psychoanalytic Theory | The poem explores human desires, subconscious conflicts, and the tension between pure and distorted love. Lorca reflects on the psychological complexities of desire and alienation. | “Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire / through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.” / “Agony, agony, dream, ferment, and dream.” |
| Postcolonial Theory | Lorca critiques the commodification of culture and the displacement of indigenous and spiritual values by industrialization and Western ideals. | “And a black child to inform the gold-craving whites / that the kingdom of grain has arrived.” / “America drowns itself in machinery and lament.” |
Critical Questions about “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
1. How does Lorca portray the conflict between industrialization and nature in “Ode to Walt Whitman”?
Lorca depicts industrialization as a destructive force that alienates humanity from its natural and spiritual roots. The city, particularly New York, is characterized as a place of despair and death: “New York, mire and death.” The relentless mechanization is symbolized by “pulleys [that] will spin to alter the sky” and the dehumanization of workers as “coffins will bear away those who don’t work.” Lorca contrasts this industrialized setting with nature’s purity, which is represented in Whitman’s imagery, such as “your beard full of butterflies.” The disconnection from nature, embodied in the line “none of them wanted to be the river,” suggests that industrial progress leads to a spiritual void. Lorca’s critique emphasizes the loss of harmony and authenticity in a mechanized world, using vivid imagery to contrast industrial chaos with the idealized natural beauty associated with Whitman.
2. What is Lorca’s attitude toward sexuality and its expression in “Ode to Walt Whitman”?
Lorca’s attitude toward sexuality in the poem is complex and layered, blending admiration, critique, and ambivalence. He celebrates Whitman’s sensuality and purity, describing him as “lover of bodies beneath rough cloth” and “Adam of blood, Macho.” This depiction aligns Whitman with a primal and authentic expression of love and desire. However, Lorca also critiques the urban exploitation of sexuality, particularly in his harsh portrayal of “urban faggots” who “give boys drops of foul death with bitter poison.” Lorca defends sincere expressions of love, such as “the little boy who writes / the name of a girl on his pillow,” while condemning the commodification and artificiality he associates with urban sexual practices. This duality reflects Lorca’s struggle to reconcile societal judgments with his own views on love and identity.
3. How does Lorca use Whitman as a symbol in the poem, and what does he represent?
In “Ode to Walt Whitman,” Whitman is a symbol of timeless human dignity, natural sensuality, and spiritual authenticity. Lorca reveres Whitman as a figure untainted by the corruption of modernity, addressing him with admiration: “Not for a moment, Walt Whitman, lovely old man.” Through descriptions like “your thighs pure as Apollo’s” and “your voice like a column of ash,” Whitman represents an ideal of masculine beauty and poetic integrity. He contrasts sharply with the industrialized, dehumanized world Lorca critiques, embodying the harmony between nature and humanity that has been lost. Whitman is also depicted as a universal figure, connecting diverse groups and standing as a symbol of equality and inclusiveness. Yet, Lorca mourns how modern society has distorted Whitman’s ideals, turning them into mere echoes of their original purity.
4. What role does suffering play in Lorca’s vision of life in “Ode to Walt Whitman”?
Suffering is central to Lorca’s vision of life, portrayed as an inevitable and defining aspect of the human condition. The refrain “Agony, agony, dream, ferment, and dream” encapsulates this theme, highlighting the cyclical interplay of pain and aspiration. Lorca reflects on the degradation of life in the modern world, where “bodies decompose beneath the city clocks” and “war passes by in tears, followed by a million gray rats.” Despite this grim perspective, suffering is intertwined with the potential for transcendence, as seen in the line “Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire / through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.” Lorca suggests that while agony defines much of existence, the human capacity for dreams and desires provides a counterbalance, offering fleeting moments of beauty and meaning in an otherwise bleak world.
Literary Works Similar to “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
- “Leaves of Grass” by Walt Whitman
Lorca’s poem directly engages with Whitman’s celebration of human sensuality, individuality, and connection to nature, echoing its themes while critiquing their distortion in modern industrial life. - “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot
Both poems critique modernity, portraying urban landscapes as spaces of alienation, moral decay, and spiritual disconnection through fragmented imagery and symbolic language. - “Howl” by Allen Ginsberg
Ginsberg’s ode to marginalized individuals in urban America parallels Lorca’s focus on societal outcasts and critiques of industrial modernity, while also referencing Whitman’s influence. - “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman
Like Lorca’s poem, this work explores themes of identity, sexuality, and the human connection to the natural world, emphasizing the universality and dignity of the individual. - “Hugh Selwyn Mauberley” by Ezra Pound
Both poems lament the effects of modern industrialized society on art, spirituality, and human relationships, blending personal reflection with cultural critique.
Representative Quotations of “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “New York, mire and death.” | Lorca critiques the dehumanizing effects of industrialization and urban decay in New York City. | Marxist Theory: Highlights the alienation and exploitation inherent in industrial capitalism. |
| “But none of them could sleep, / none of them wanted to be the river.” | Reflects the spiritual disconnection and restlessness of urban workers, severed from nature. | Ecocriticism: Explores the loss of connection between humanity and nature in industrialized environments. |
| “Not for a moment, Walt Whitman, lovely old man, / have I failed to see your beard full of butterflies.” | Lorca admires Whitman’s natural sensuality and poetic purity. | Queer Theory: Celebrates Whitman’s embrace of sensuality and his challenge to heteronormative conventions. |
| “Man is able, if he wishes, to guide his desire / through a vein of coral or a heavenly naked body.” | Suggests the potential for human desires to lead to transcendence and spiritual fulfillment. | Psychoanalytic Theory: Analyzes human desire and its transformative potential. |
| “Agony, agony, dream, ferment, and dream.” | Captures the tension between suffering and aspiration as a defining feature of human existence. | Existentialism: Reflects the struggle to find meaning amidst the agony of life. |
| “The pulleys will spin to alter the sky; / a border of needles will besiege memory.” | Describes the oppressive effects of industrialization on human memory and experience. | Postmodernism: Examines how technology and industrialization distort human perception and reality. |
| “And a black child to inform the gold-craving whites / that the kingdom of grain has arrived.” | Imagines the possibility of racial and social justice in a post-industrial world. | Postcolonial Theory: Critiques colonialist structures and envisions an egalitarian future. |
| “Bodies decompose beneath the city clocks, / war passes by in tears, followed by a million gray rats.” | Illustrates the decay of human life and morality under the pressures of modern warfare and urbanization. | Marxist Theory: Reflects the degradation of life and values in capitalist and militarized societies. |
| “But yes against you, urban faggots, / tumescent flesh and unclean thoughts.” | Lorca criticizes superficial and exploitative expressions of sexuality in urban spaces. | Queer Theory: Engages with societal judgments of queerness while critiquing exploitative practices. |
| “Sleep on, nothing remains. / Dancing walls stir the prairies / and America drowns itself in machinery and lament.” | Concludes with a reflection on the loss of purity and connection in America’s industrial transformation. | Ecocriticism: Laments the environmental and spiritual cost of industrial progress. |
Suggested Readings: “Ode to Walt Whitman” by Federico García Lorca
- Taylor, Leticia S. “Federico García Lorca.” Hispania, vol. 33, no. 1, 1950, pp. 33–36. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/333486. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
- Miller, James E. “WALT WHITMAN AND THE SECRET OF HISTORY.” The Centennial Review of Arts & Science, vol. 3, no. 3, 1959, pp. 321–36. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23737579. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
- Wood, Frank. “Three Poems on Whitman.” Comparative Literature, vol. 4, no. 1, 1952, pp. 44–53. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1769206. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
- Hiller, Anna E. “Queer Geographies: Federico García Lorca’s “Oda a Walt Whitman” in English Translation.” Spanish and Portuguese across Time, Place, and Borders: Studies in Honor of Milton M. Azevedo. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. 20-36.