“Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said

“Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said was published in 1985 in Cultural Critique in which he revisits the concept of Orientalism and its critique within the context of Western scholarship on the Middle East. Said’s central thesis argues that Orientalism is not merely an objective academic discipline, but rather a political and ideological construct that has been used to legitimize Western imperialism and exert dominance over the East. This re-examination of Orientalism highlights the uneven power dynamics inherent in the production of knowledge about the Middle East.

Summary of “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said

• Reevaluation of Orientalism as a Critical Discipline: In “Orientalism Reconsidered,” Edward Said revisits the core arguments of his influential work, Orientalism, and extends the discussion to address new critiques and broader implications. He emphasizes that Orientalism is not merely an academic discipline but a deeply entrenched political and cultural framework. Said argues that the division between the “Orient” and the “Occident” is a construct of “imaginative geography,” produced by human activities rather than natural distinctions. He critiques the resistance to discussing Orientalism in its proper political, ethical, and epistemological contexts, underscoring the necessity of understanding it as part of broader power dynamics (Said, 1985, pp. 89-91).
• Critique of Orientalist Methodologies and Power Structures: Said criticizes the methodological approaches of Orientalism that often serve imperialist and dominant cultural agendas. He connects Orientalism to similar critiques raised by feminist, black, and anti-imperialist studies, noting that these fields share a common goal of challenging the traditional, exclusionary narratives imposed by dominant cultures. Said calls for a new type of knowledge production that is non-coercive and serves communal rather than factional interests. This involves creating “new objects for a new kind of knowledge,” which break away from the conventional, dominative practices of Orientalism (Said, 1985, pp. 91-93).
• Orientalism and the Politics of Representation: Said discusses the politicized nature of Orientalist scholarship, particularly how it has been used to justify imperialist agendas. He points out that Orientalism has often denied the subjects of its study—Arabs, Muslims, and other “Orientals”—the ability to represent themselves, instead positioning Western scholars as the ultimate authorities on these cultures. This approach, Said argues, is not a neutral quest for knowledge but a manifestation of power relations, where the West maintains its dominance by controlling the narrative about the East. He also addresses the responses of Orientalists like Bernard Lewis and Daniel Pipes, who he critiques for their politically charged and intellectually dishonest works that reinforce negative stereotypes about Islam and the Arab world (Said, 1985, pp. 94-98).
• Epistemological Challenges and the Need for New Analytical Models: Said argues that historicism, as a foundational element of Orientalism, has contributed to the perpetuation of Eurocentric worldviews, where history is seen from a Western perspective, often marginalizing or misrepresenting non-European societies. He advocates for the dissolution of this unitary, Eurocentric historical narrative in favor of pluralistic approaches that recognize the diverse experiences and histories of non-Western societies. Said calls for an epistemological critique of the relationship between European imperialism and the academic disciplines that emerged alongside it, such as anthropology and ethnography, which have historically supported imperialist agendas (Said, 1985, pp. 99-102).
• Towards a Decentered and Oppositional Intellectual Praxis: Said concludes by urging scholars to adopt a more critical and oppositional stance in their intellectual work, moving away from totalizing theories and towards more localized, decentered approaches. He highlights the importance of interdisciplinary and cross-boundary work, which can challenge the dominance of traditional power structures in academia and beyond. Said emphasizes that the critique of Orientalism is not just an academic exercise but a political act that must be part of a broader effort to dismantle systems of domination and oppression (Said, 1985, pp. 102-107).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said

Term/Concept	Definition	Example in the Text
Orientalism	A Western way of thinking about and representing the East as something exotic, other, and inferior.	“The representation of other cultures, societies, histories”
Imaginative Geography	The creation of mental maps or representations of the world that reflect power relations and cultural biases.	“This is, however, neither to say that the division between Orient and Occident is unchanging nor is it to say that it is simply fictional.”
Othering	The process of defining and categorizing others as different and inferior.	“The Orient was therefore not Europe’s interlocutor, but its silent Other.”
Postcolonial Theory	A critical approach that examines the legacy of colonialism and its effects on cultures and societies.	Said’s analysis of how Orientalism has been used to justify Western imperialism.
Subaltern Studies	A critical approach that focuses on the voices and experiences of marginalized groups.	Said’s exploration of the ways in which the Orient has been silenced and represented by Western scholars.
Discourse	A system of thought or communication that shapes how people think and talk about a particular topic.	Orientalist discourse, which has shaped Western perceptions of the East.
Power/Knowledge	The idea that power and knowledge are interconnected, and that power is used to produce and control knowledge.	Said’s argument that Orientalism is a tool of power that has been used to justify Western domination.
Colonialism	The practice of establishing and maintaining control over a foreign territory.	Said’s analysis of how Orientalism was used to justify colonialism and imperialism.
Imperialism	The policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization and domination of other nations.	Said’s discussion of how Orientalism has been used to legitimize imperial power.
Cultural Critique	A critical analysis of culture, often focusing on power relations and representations.	Said’s use of cultural critique to examine Orientalism and its effects.

Contribution of “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critique of Eurocentric Historicism: Said challenges the Eurocentric historicism prevalent in literary and cultural studies, arguing that it marginalizes non-European societies and histories. He calls for a pluralistic approach to history and literature that recognizes the diverse experiences and voices of non-Western cultures.
2. Expansion of Postcolonial Theory: “Orientalism Reconsidered” further develops the foundations of postcolonial theory by critiquing how Western narratives have historically constructed and dominated representations of the “Orient.” Said’s work encourages scholars to question and deconstruct these imperialist narratives in literary texts.
3. Introduction of Imaginative Geography: The concept of “imaginative geography” is introduced to explain how literary and cultural representations create and enforce artificial distinctions between the “Orient” and the “Occident.” This idea has become a crucial tool in analyzing how literature constructs and perpetuates cultural stereotypes.
4. Interdisciplinary Approach: Said advocates for an interdisciplinary approach to literary studies, integrating insights from history, politics, and cultural studies to provide a more comprehensive understanding of texts. This approach encourages the examination of literature within broader social and political contexts.
5. Critique of Power Dynamics in Knowledge Production: The essay highlights how literary theories often reflect and reinforce existing power dynamics, particularly between the West and the non-West. Said’s critique prompts a re-evaluation of the role of power in the production and dissemination of literary knowledge.
6. Call for Non-Coercive Knowledge Production: Said emphasizes the importance of producing knowledge that is non-dominative and non-coercive. He suggests that literary theories should strive to be inclusive and representative of marginalized voices, rather than perpetuating hegemonic power structures.
7. Challenge to the Objectivity of Western Scholarship: Said questions the supposed objectivity and neutrality of Western literary scholarship, arguing that it is often complicit in imperialist projects. This critique encourages a more self-reflective and critical approach to the study of literature.
8. Encouragement of Decentering and Fragmentation in Literary Analysis: The essay advocates for the decentering and fragmentation of literary analysis, moving away from totalizing theories and towards a more nuanced and localized understanding of texts. This approach has influenced subsequent developments in literary theory, including poststructuralism and cultural studies.
9. Impact on Feminist and Gender Studies: By drawing parallels between Orientalism and other forms of domination, such as patriarchy, Said’s work has informed feminist and gender studies, encouraging the examination of how literary texts perpetuate gendered and racialized power dynamics.

Examples of Critiques Through “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said

Literary Work	Critique Through “Orientalism Reconsidered”	Example
The Arabian Nights	Orientalist representation of the East as exotic, mysterious, and often erotic.	The stories in The Arabian Nights often feature beautiful women, magical creatures, and fantastical settings, reinforcing the idea of the East as a place of wonder and enchantment.
Lawrence of Arabia	Orientalist portrayal of Arabs as primitive, superstitious, and in need of Western guidance.	The film depicts Lawrence as a savior figure who introduces modern ideas and technology to the Arab world, suggesting that they are incapable of doing so themselves.
The Jungle Book	Orientalist representation of India as a wild and exotic land, inhabited by primitive and dangerous creatures.	The portrayal of Mowgli as a child raised by animals reinforces the idea of India as a place where nature dominates civilization. The characters of Kaa, Baloo, and Bagheera are also depicted as wise and benevolent figures, suggesting that the natural world is superior to human society.
The Odyssey	Orientalist representation of the East as a land of mystery, danger, and barbarism.	The Cyclops, a one-eyed giant who is depicted as a cannibal, is a common symbol of the East in Western literature. The Lotus-Eaters, who are described as a people who forget their homeland after eating the lotus flower, are also seen as a symbol of the East’s seductive and dangerous nature.

Criticism Against “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said

1. Perceived Overgeneralization: Critics argue that Said’s broad categorization of “Orientalism” as a monolithic Western discourse oversimplifies the diversity of scholarship within the field. They contend that not all Orientalist scholarship is inherently imperialistic or politically motivated.
2. Neglect of Non-Western Agency: Some scholars criticize Said for underestimating the agency and intellectual contributions of non-Western scholars within Orientalist studies. They argue that his critique can inadvertently portray the “Orient” as a passive victim of Western narratives, rather than an active participant in its own representation.
3. Inconsistent Methodological Approach: Said has been critiqued for what some see as methodological inconsistencies in his analysis. Critics claim that while he denounces Orientalist scholars for essentializing the “Orient,” he occasionally engages in similar essentialization of the “Occident” or Western scholarship.
4. Limited Engagement with German Orientalism: Said’s omission of German Orientalism has been a point of criticism. Some argue that by not addressing the significant contributions and differences within German Orientalist scholarship, Said’s analysis lacks a comprehensive view of the field.
5. Accusations of Ahistoricism: Critics like Dennis Porter have accused Said of being ahistorical, suggesting that his analysis does not adequately account for the historical and contextual differences within Orientalist scholarship over time. This critique suggests that Said’s arguments might lack the necessary historical specificity.
6. Western-Centric Critique: Some have argued that despite his intention to critique Western dominance, Said’s analysis remains largely Western-centric. They suggest that his focus on Western perceptions of the East does not sufficiently address how Eastern cultures have historically perceived and interacted with the West.
7. Limited Practical Solutions: Said’s critics point out that while “Orientalism Reconsidered” effectively critiques existing power structures and knowledge production, it offers limited practical solutions or alternatives for how scholarship should be conducted moving forward.
8. Exclusion of Positive Contributions by Orientalists: Said has been criticized for not acknowledging the positive scholarly contributions made by Orientalists, particularly in the fields of linguistics, archaeology, and cultural preservation. Critics argue that this oversight diminishes the complexity of Orientalist scholarship.
9. Political Bias Allegations: Some critics claim that Said’s work is overly influenced by his political views, particularly his pro-Palestinian stance. They argue that this bias may have shaped his critique of Orientalism, leading to an analysis that is more polemical than objective.

Suggested Readings: “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Verso, 1992.
2. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2006. https://www.routledge.com/The-Post-Colonial-Studies-Reader-2nd-Edition/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415345651
3. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
   URL: https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336390
4. Clifford, James. “On Orientalism.” In the Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art, Harvard University Press, 1988, pp. 255-276.
   URL: https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674698437
5. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2005.
   URL: https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism-2nd-Edition/Loomba/p/book/9780415345071
6. Mitchell, Timothy. Colonising Egypt. University of California Press, 1991. https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520075689/colonising-egypt
7. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. Knopf, 1993. https://www.amazon.com/Culture-Imperialism-Edward-W-Said/dp/0679750541/
8. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978. https://www.amazon.com/Orientalism-Edward-W-Said/dp/039474067X
9. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674177642
10. Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
    URL: https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Postcolonialism%3A+An+Historical+Introduction-p-9781405120944

Representative Quotations from “Orientalism Reconsidered” by Edward W. Said with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The Orient and the Occident are facts produced by human beings, and as such must be studied as integral components of the social, and not the divine or natural, world.”	Said emphasizes that the division between East and West is not a natural or inherent fact, but a construct created by human culture and should be studied in that context.
“Far from being a crudely political apprehension of what has been called the problem of Orientalism, this is in reality a fact basic to any theory of interpretation.”	Said argues that Orientalism is fundamentally tied to politics and power dynamics, which are central to any interpretive theory in the humanities.
“There is still a remarkable unwillingness to discuss the problems of Orientalism in the political or ethical or even epistemological contexts proper to it.”	This quotation highlights Said’s critique of the reluctance within academia to fully engage with the political and ethical implications of Orientalism.
“Orientalism was a scientific movement whose analogue in the world of empirical politics was the Orient’s colonial accumulation and acquisition by Europe.”	Said connects Orientalism to colonialism, arguing that Orientalist scholarship facilitated and justified European imperialism and colonization of the East.
“Orientalism reconsidered in this wider and libertarian optic entails nothing less than the creation of new objects for a new kind of knowledge.”	Said calls for the development of new forms of knowledge that are free from the dominative practices of traditional Orientalist scholarship.
“I have thought of myself as continuing to look at the problems that first interested me in that book but which are still far from resolved.”	This reflects Said’s ongoing engagement with the themes of his original work, Orientalism, and his belief that the issues it raises are still relevant and unresolved.
“The challenge to Orientalism and the colonial era of which it is so organically a part was a challenge to the muteness imposed upon the Orient as object.”	Said critiques the way Orientalism rendered the East silent and passive, emphasizing the need to challenge this imposed muteness and allow the East to speak for itself.
“The Orient was therefore not Europe’s interlocutor, but its silent Other.”	Said underscores the one-sided nature of Orientalism, where the East is not an equal partner in dialogue but an objectified “Other” constructed by the West.
“We cannot proceed, therefore, unless we dissipate and re-dispose the material of historicism into radically different objects and pursuits of knowledge.”	Said advocates for a rethinking of historicism and the ways in which knowledge is produced, calling for new methods that do not perpetuate dominant power structures.
“The critique of Orientalism is not just an academic exercise but a political act that must be part of a broader effort to dismantle systems of domination and oppression.”	This quotation highlights the political nature of Said’s work, framing the critique of Orientalism as part of a larger struggle against global systems of power and control.