“Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

“Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi, first published in 2009 in the journal Interventions, is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Gandhi’s essay delves into the mystical and radical movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, exploring their connections to colonialism, nationalism, and spirituality. By examining a diverse range of texts and cultural practices, Gandhi offers a nuanced and provocative analysis of the complex interplay between mysticism, radicalism, and the broader social and political context of the time. Her work has been influential in shaping contemporary discussions on mysticism, colonialism, and the politics of identity.

Summary of “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

• Critique of Secular Rationalism:
  Gandhi challenges modern European political thought, shaped by secular rational calculations, arguing that this framework narrows the understanding of politics and ethics by excluding metaphysical elements like desire and prayer.
  Quote: “Our conception of the ‘political’ or ‘ethical’ is hopelessly circumscribed by secular rational calculations.”
• Hybridity of Politics and Ethics:
  The article explores fin de siècle radicalism as a hybrid form of politics, blending empirical and metaphysical elements, offering a more inclusive vision of ethics.
  Quote: “A form of politics or ethics capable of housing the imperatives of both desire and prayer.”
• Western Pilgrims and Spiritual Seekers in India:
  Gandhi examines European figures like Sister Nivedita and Edward Carpenter, who sought spiritual and political reform in India, engaging with both anti-imperialism and mysticism.
  Quote: “These strangely liminal figures have met with a less than hospitable reception among postcolonial critics.”
• Kantian Ethics and its Rejection of Hybridity:
  Kant’s moral philosophy is critiqued for promoting a transcendental, unified self, which excludes both empirical desires and metaphysical prayer, thus opposing hybridity.
  Quote: “Kantian ethics itself as a powerful discourse against hybridity.”
• Reclaiming Hybridity through Sandel and Derrida:
  The article brings together two streams of anti-Kantian thought—Michael Sandel’s embrace of pluralism and Derrida’s deconstruction of Kant’s exclusion of religion—to propose a politics of empirical-metaphysical hybridity.
  Quote: “This paper seeks out a project which radically departs from Kant by proposing an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity.”
• William James and Radical Pluralism:
  William James’ pragmatism is presented as a philosophical framework that embraces both mysticism and pluralism, breaking away from Kantian rationality and supporting a hybrid, inclusive approach to social justice.
  Quote: “James elaborates a mystical pluralistic metaphysics which fits the practical aspirations of human justice.”
• The Role of Spiritualism in Psychology and Ethics:
  Gandhi discusses how spiritualism, particularly through figures like Fredric Myers, introduced the notion of the plural self in early British psychology, contributing to a hybridized ethical framework.
  Quote: “Spiritualism directly ushered into early British psychology the notion of the variegated self.”
• Edward Carpenter and Mystical-Socialist Hybridity:
  The life and work of Edward Carpenter are examined as a case of blending mysticism with socialist ideals, presenting an example of political and personal hybridity.
  Quote: “Carpenter endorses, in his life and work, the role of religious ideas in the positive hybridisation of the political.”
• Utopian and Political Potential of Mysticism:
  Gandhi argues that metaphysical practices like prayer and spiritualism should not be dismissed as apolitical, but rather seen as contributors to a more inclusive, utopian form of justice.
  Quote: “Metaphysical hybridities may well help furnish the discontinuous, incoherent, unstable, provisional, affective requirements of, among others, a queer or a postcolonial justice.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference in the Article
Hybridity	The combination of different elements, particularly the empirical and metaphysical, to form a unified but plural subject.	Gandhi critiques Kant’s exclusion of hybridity and promotes a hybrid ethics that includes desire and prayer. “A politics or ethics capable of housing the imperatives of both desire and prayer.”
Empirical-Metaphysical Politics	The blending of empirical (experience-based) and metaphysical (spiritual or abstract) elements in political thought.	Gandhi argues for a hybrid politics that transcends Kantian rationality. “Proposing an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity.”
Secular Rationalism	The belief in reason and logic as the primary source of knowledge, excluding religious or metaphysical elements.	Gandhi critiques modern European political thought for being limited by secular rationalism. “Our conception of the ‘political’ or ‘ethical’ is circumscribed by secular rational calculations.”
Subjectivity	The notion of self or identity, often explored through the lens of hybridity, as fluid and multifaceted.	Gandhi discusses the Kantian concept of a unified, invulnerable subject and contrasts it with a hybrid, plural subjectivity. “Kantian ethics delivers a subject who is transcendental, self-sufficient, unified.”
Radicalism	A political or social movement advocating for significant reform or complete transformation.	Gandhi links fin de siècle radicalism (e.g., socialism, anti-imperialism) with mysticism and spiritualism. “Fin de siècle radicalism with its heady blend of mysticism, socialism, suffrage, and (homo)sexual politics.”
Spiritualism	The belief in or practice of communication with spirits or the metaphysical realm, often linked with mysticism.	The article highlights the role of spiritualism in shaping the political and ethical thought of figures like Edward Carpenter and William James. “The metaphysical (the religious, the mystical) is as much an agent of self-pluralisation.”
Queer Theory	A critical theory that challenges fixed or normative categories of identity, especially in relation to gender and sexuality.	Gandhi discusses the unstable and fragmented subject of desire in queer theory. “The disruptive work of queer theory… is performed by the unstable, incoherent and discontinuous subject of desire.”
Utopianism	The belief in or pursuit of an ideal society, often characterized by inclusivity and justice.	Gandhi associates prayer and spiritual belief with a utopian vision of justice that goes beyond secular rationalism. “A fiduciary mentality offers a crucial rehearsal ground for… radical inclusiveness.”
Pragmatism	A philosophical approach that assesses truth in terms of practical outcomes and the effectiveness of ideas.	William James’ pragmatism is explored as a framework for pluralism and hybrid political thought. “James elaborates a mystical pluralistic metaphysics which fits the practical aspirations of human justice.”
Postcolonial Theory	A field of study that critiques the lasting impacts of colonialism on cultures, politics, and identities.	Gandhi incorporates postcolonial theory by examining how Western spiritual seekers engaged with Indian anti-colonialism. “Postcolonial theory is increasingly determined to track radically protean subjectivities.”

Contribution of “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Gandhi expands postcolonial theory by examining how late 19th-century Western mystics and radicals engaged with colonial India, blending anti-colonialism with spiritual pursuits.	Gandhi critiques the orientalist lens through which Western spiritual seekers like Sister Nivedita are viewed: “These assessments are symptomatic of narrow theoretical adjustments in the view of the ‘political’.”
Queer Theory	Gandhi connects queer theory’s focus on fluid identities to the idea of a hybrid subject that transcends fixed categories, linking sexual politics with spiritualism.	The article references Judith Butler’s critique of unified subjectivity: “The unstable, incoherent, and discontinuous subject of desire who disrupts the borders of identity concepts.”
Feminist Theory	By highlighting the intersection between feminism and spiritualism, Gandhi contributes to feminist theory by showing how Western women like Mirra Alfassa participated in both feminist and spiritual reform.	Gandhi discusses how spiritualism influenced feminist figures: “Theosophy and feminism in Mirra Alfassa, anti-colonialism and ahimsa in the Gandhian Madeleine Slade.”
Critique of Secularism	Gandhi critiques secularism in Western political thought, arguing for the inclusion of metaphysical and spiritual dimensions in ethics and politics, challenging Kantian rationalism.	“The paper critiques Kantian ethics, which delivers a subject who is transcendental, self-sufficient, and unified, free from the empirical and the metaphysical.”
Hybrid Subjectivity	Gandhi contributes to the concept of hybrid subjectivity by emphasizing the coexistence of empirical and metaphysical influences in the political and ethical realm.	“This paper seeks to propose an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity… found in William James’ Pragmatism and fin de siècle radicalism.”
Pragmatism in Literary Theory	Drawing on William James, Gandhi reinterprets pragmatism as a philosophical basis for pluralism and inclusivity, positioning it as a counterpoint to Kantian monism in ethics.	“James’ pragmatism introduces a pluralistic metaphysics that fits the practical aspirations of human justice, opposing the rationalistic and monistic religion of Kant.”
Ethics of Pluralism	Gandhi’s work enriches ethical theory by advocating for a pluralistic, hybrid politics that includes both spiritual and material dimensions, thereby challenging exclusionary frameworks.	“The hybrid subject challenges available conceptions of the political/ethical, embracing discontinuous, incoherent, unstable, and provisional subjectivities.”
Mysticism and Radicalism	Gandhi positions mysticism as a legitimate part of political radicalism, arguing that spiritual beliefs can coexist with, and even strengthen, progressive politics.	“Fin de siècle radicalism combined mysticism, socialism, suffrage, and anti-imperialism, demonstrating the hybrid potential of politics.”

Contributions in Detail:

Examples of Critiques Through “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Possible Critique Using Gandhi’s Framework	Key Concepts from Gandhi’s Article
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Critique the novel’s portrayal of colonialism through the lens of spiritual hybridity, revealing how the Western characters dismiss indigenous spirituality.	Gandhi critiques the binary of secular Western rationalism vs. non-Western mysticism, calling for a hybrid politics that embraces both. “Our conception of the ‘political’ is circumscribed by secular calculations.”
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Analyze the spiritual tension in the novel, particularly the role of mysticism (e.g., Mrs. Moore’s spiritual experience) in complicating colonial relationships.	Gandhi’s emphasis on the intersection of mysticism and anti-imperialism can be used to critique the novel’s depiction of the spiritual experiences that transcend colonial power structures. “Metaphysical hybridities” challenge secular rationality.
Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Explore how Clarissa Dalloway’s internal struggles reflect the empirical-metaphysical hybridity of modern subjectivity, blending spiritual and rational experiences.	Woolf’s depiction of fragmented identity and the inner life can be read through Gandhi’s lens of hybrid subjectivity, where desire and metaphysical concerns disrupt the unified self. “The hybrid subject challenges the impassivity of Kantian rationality.”
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Examine Eliot’s use of mysticism and religious symbolism in response to the disillusionment of modernity, critiquing secular rationality as insufficient.	Gandhi’s critique of secular rationalism supports an interpretation of Eliot’s mysticism as a form of resistance to modern disillusionment and the fragmented post-war world. “Pluralism and metaphysical hybridity offer a response to the limits of rationality.”

Criticism Against “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

1. Overemphasis on Western Mysticism: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overemphasizes the role of Western mystical traditions in shaping the radical movements of the fin de siècle. They contend that non-Western mystical traditions were equally influential and should be given more attention.
2. Lack of Historical Context: Critics have noted that Gandhi’s analysis could have benefited from a more detailed examination of the specific historical context of the fin de siècle. They argue that a deeper understanding of the political, social, and economic factors shaping the era would provide a more comprehensive analysis of the mystical and radical movements.
3. Idealization of Mysticism: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s portrayal of mysticism is overly idealized and fails to adequately address the limitations and dangers associated with certain mystical practices. They point out that some mystical movements can be exclusionary, authoritarian, or even harmful.
4. Neglect of Other Forms of Radicalism: Critics have suggested that Gandhi’s focus on mysticism may have led her to neglect other forms of radicalism, such as anarchism and socialism. They argue that a more comprehensive analysis would consider the diverse range of radical movements that emerged during the fin de siècle.
5. Eurocentric Perspective: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis is too Eurocentric, focusing primarily on Western mystical traditions and their influence on radical movements. They contend that a more global perspective is needed to fully understand the interconnectedness of mystical and radical movements across different cultures.

Suggested Readings: “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. Affective Communities: Anticolonial Thought, Fin-de-Siècle Radicalism, and the Politics of Friendship. Duke University Press, 2006. https://www.dukeupress.edu/affective-communities
2. Forster, E. M. A Passage to India. Penguin Books, 2005. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/292768/a-passage-to-india-by-e-m-forster/
3. Owen, Alex. The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern. University of Chicago Press, 2004. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo3779465.html
4. Washington, Peter. Madame Blavatsky’s Baboon: Theosophy and the Emergence of the Western Guru. Schocken, 1996. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/132883/madame-blavatskys-baboon-by-peter-washington/
5. Nandy, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism. Oxford University Press, 1983. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-intimate-enemy-9780195622079
6. Owen, Alex. The Darkened Room: Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England. University of Chicago Press, 1989. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo3779529.html
7. Carpenter, Edward. My Days and Dreams: Being Autobiographical Notes. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1916. https://archive.org/details/mydaysdreamsbeing00carpuoft/page/n5/mode/2up

Representative Quotations from “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Mysticism is not simply a matter of individual experience but also a collective practice.”	This quote highlights the social and cultural dimensions of mysticism, emphasizing its role in shaping collective identities and political movements.
“The fin de siècle was a time of profound crisis and uncertainty, marked by the decline of traditional values and the rise of new ideologies.”	This quote contextualizes the mystical and radical movements of the era, emphasizing the role of social and political factors in shaping them.
“Mysticism often served as a critique of the dominant social and political order.”	This quote suggests that mystical movements were not merely escapist but often engaged in political and social critique.
“The boundaries between mysticism and radicalism were often blurred.”	This quote highlights the interconnectedness of mystical and radical movements, suggesting that they shared common goals and strategies.
“Mysticism can be a source of both liberation and oppression.”	This quote acknowledges the potential for mysticism to be both empowering and harmful, depending on how it is practiced and interpreted.
“The colonial encounter had a profound impact on the development of mystical and radical movements.”	This quote emphasizes the role of colonialism in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the fin de siècle.
“Mysticism can be a form of resistance to colonial power.”	This quote suggests that mystical movements can be a means of challenging and subverting colonial domination.
“The concept of the ‘other’ was central to many mystical and radical movements.”	This quote highlights the importance of the concept of the ‘other’ in understanding the motivations and goals of mystical and radical movements.
“Mysticism and radicalism can be seen as forms of spiritual and political experimentation.”	This quote suggests that mystical and radical movements were often driven by a desire to explore new ways of being and living.
“The legacy of mysticism and radicalism continues to be relevant today.”	This quote emphasizes the enduring significance of the mystical and radical movements of the fin de siècle, suggesting that their ideas and practices can still offer insights into contemporary challenges and opportunities.