Paragone in Literature & Literary Theory

Paragone: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

“Paragone” is an Italian term that translates to “comparison” or “contest” in English. Its etymology can be traced back to the Renaissance period, where it gained prominence in the realm of art. Artists would engage in debates or competitions, known as “paragone,” to determine the superiority of one artistic medium over another, such as painting versus sculpture. This term has since evolved to encompass broader contexts beyond the arts, representing any comparison or rivalry between different entities or ideas.

Meanings and Concept:

• Artistic Comparison: Historically, paragone referred to debates or competitions among artists to determine the superiority of one artistic medium or technique over another.
• Intellectual Comparison: In broader contexts, paragone represents any comparison or rivalry between different entities or ideas, often with the aim of determining superiority or excellence.
• Competitive Evaluation: It implies a structured assessment or evaluation process where contrasting elements are compared to ascertain their relative merits or qualities.
• Comparative Analysis: Paragone can involve a critical examination of contrasting aspects to discern their strengths, weaknesses, and overall effectiveness.

Paragone: Definition of a Theoretical Term

“Paragone” is a theoretical term originating from Italian, primarily associated with the comparative analysis of artistic mediums. It denotes a methodical examination or competition aimed at determining the superiority or excellence between two or more entities, often within the realms of art or intellectual discourse. This term encapsulates the concept of rigorous evaluation and comparison, serving as a framework for assessing relative merits or qualities in various contexts.

Paragone: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

1. Leon Battista Alberti: The Renaissance polymath wrote extensively on the comparison between the arts, advocating for painting as a superior form due to its ability to imitate nature.
2. Giorgio Vasari: In his influential work “The Lives of the Artists,” Vasari explored the rivalry between different artistic mediums and the debates surrounding their merits.
3. Michelangelo Buonarroti: The renowned artist and sculptor famously engaged in debates about the superiority of sculpture over painting, contributing to the discourse on paragone.

Works:

1. “De Pictura” by Leon Battista Alberti: In this treatise, Alberti discusses the principles of painting and argues for its superiority over other art forms, such as sculpture.
2. “The Lives of the Artists” by Giorgio Vasari: This seminal work not only provides biographical accounts of artists but also delves into the comparative evaluation of their works, contributing to the paragone discourse.
3. Correspondence and Writings of Michelangelo: Michelangelo’s letters and writings contain discussions about the merits of sculpture versus painting, offering insights into his views on paragone.

Arguments:

1. Imitative Capacity: The debate often revolves around the medium’s ability to imitate nature convincingly, with proponents arguing for the superiority of the medium that best achieves this goal.
2. Expressive Potential: Some argue that certain mediums possess greater expressive potential or emotional impact, leading to discussions about the subjective qualities of each art form.
3. Technical Mastery: The mastery of technical skills and craftsmanship is also a key aspect of the paragone debate, with artists and theorists assessing the complexity and virtuosity required in different mediums.

Major Characteristics of Paragone:

1. Comparative Analysis: Paragone involves the systematic comparison of different entities or ideas to determine their relative merits or excellence. This characteristic is evident in the rigorous evaluation of contrasting artistic mediums or intellectual concepts.
2. Debate and Discourse: Paragone often sparks debates and intellectual discourse, as seen in the exchanges between artists, scholars, and theorists who engage in discussions about the superiority of one medium over another.
3. Historical Context: The concept of paragone is historically rooted, particularly in the Renaissance period, where it gained prominence in the debates among artists and thinkers about the merits of painting, sculpture, and other artistic forms.
4. Subjectivity and Interpretation: Paragone involves subjective judgments and interpretations, as the assessment of artistic or intellectual excellence can vary based on individual perspectives and preferences.

Literary References:

1. “Symposium” by Plato: While not directly related to the artistic paragone, Plato’s “Symposium” features discussions about love and beauty, showcasing the ancient Greek philosophical tradition of comparative analysis and debate.
2. “The Birth of Tragedy” by Friedrich Nietzsche: Nietzsche’s work explores the dichotomy between the Apollonian and Dionysian aspects of art, which can be seen as a form of paragone between rationality and emotion, order and chaos.
3. “Shakespeare’s Sonnets”: Shakespeare’s sonnets often contain comparisons and contrasts between different aspects of love, beauty, and morality, reflecting a literary form of paragone within the realm of poetry.
4. “Art and Illusion” by Ernst Gombrich: Gombrich’s seminal work delves into the psychology of perception and artistic representation, touching upon the comparative analysis of different visual forms and techniques, akin to the principles of paragone.

These literary references demonstrate how the spirit of paragone, characterized by comparison and evaluation, permeates various intellectual and artistic discourses throughout history.

Paragone: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Paragone
Formalism	Paragone can be relevant in formalist literary theory by examining the comparative merits of different literary forms, styles, or techniques. Scholars may engage in debates about the superiority of certain literary devices or structures in achieving aesthetic effects.
Structuralism	In structuralist literary theory, paragone may involve the comparison of narrative structures, linguistic elements, or symbolic systems within literary texts. It can contribute to the analysis of how different narrative strategies or symbolic motifs function within a text and their relative effectiveness in conveying meaning.
Postcolonial Theory	Paragone can intersect with postcolonial theory by exploring comparative representations of cultures, identities, and power dynamics in literature. Scholars may examine how colonial and indigenous voices are portrayed within texts and the implications of these representations in terms of cultural hierarchies and colonial legacies.
Feminist Theory	Within feminist literary theory, paragone may involve the comparison of gender representations, narrative perspectives, and feminist themes in literature. Scholars may analyze how different literary works depict gender roles, agency, and power dynamics, contributing to discussions about the portrayal of women and gender equality in literature.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Paragone can be relevant in psychoanalytic literary theory by comparing the psychological motivations, conflicts, and symbolic meanings present in literary texts. Scholars may explore how characters’ behaviors and relationships reflect unconscious desires, repressed traumas, or symbolic struggles, enriching interpretations of the text’s psychological depth.
Marxist Theory	In Marxist literary theory, paragone may involve comparing representations of social class, economic structures, and ideological conflicts in literature. Scholars may analyze how different literary works reflect or challenge dominant class narratives and contribute to the critique of capitalism, imperialism, and social inequality.
Postmodernism	Paragone intersects with postmodern literary theory by questioning traditional hierarchies and boundaries between literary genres, styles, and forms. Scholars may explore how postmodern texts experiment with intertextuality, pastiche, and parody to challenge the notion of artistic superiority and disrupt conventional modes of literary evaluation.

These examples illustrate how the concept of paragone can be relevant across various literary theories, contributing to nuanced analyses of literature from different critical perspectives.

Paragone: Application in Critiques

1. The Lottery by Shirley Jackson:
   • Comparative Analysis: Through paragone, one could compare The Lottery with other dystopian short stories, such as George Orwell’s 1984 or Ray Bradbury’s The Lottery, to assess how each author employs allegory and symbolism to critique societal norms and human behavior.
   • Debate and Discourse: Paragone could spark discussions about the effectiveness of Jackson’s understated narrative style compared to more overtly political dystopian works, examining how ambiguity and tension contribute to the story’s impact.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Critics might explore the subjective interpretations of the story’s ending and its implications for understanding human nature, morality, and the dangers of conformity.
2. A Good Man is Hard to Find by Flannery O’Connor:
   • Comparative Analysis: Paragone could involve comparing O’Connor’s use of Southern Gothic elements with other Southern literature, such as William Faulkner’s works, to evaluate how each author depicts themes of morality, religion, and violence.
   • Debate and Discourse: Critics might engage in debates about the moral ambiguity of O’Connor’s characters and the theological underpinnings of her narratives, examining how her Catholic faith informs her storytelling.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Through paragone, scholars could explore the subjective responses to the story’s shocking climax and its implications for understanding redemption, grace, and the complexities of human nature.
3. The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka:
   • Comparative Analysis: Paragone could involve comparing Kafka’s existential themes and surreal narrative style with other works of existential literature, such as Albert Camus’ The Stranger or Jean-Paul Sartre’s Nausea, to assess how each author explores themes of alienation, absurdity, and identity.
   • Debate and Discourse: Critics might debate the symbolic significance of Gregor Samsa’s transformation and its metaphorical resonance with themes of dehumanization and existential angst, exploring how Kafka’s narrative technique enhances the story’s philosophical depth.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Through paragone, readers could examine the subjective interpretations of the story’s ambiguous ending and its implications for understanding the search for meaning in a chaotic and indifferent universe.
4. A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen:
   • Comparative Analysis: Paragone could involve comparing Ibsen’s exploration of gender roles and societal expectations with other feminist plays, such as Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun or Caryl Churchill’s Top Girls, to assess how each playwright challenges patriarchal norms and advocates for female agency.
   • Debate and Discourse: Critics might engage in debates about the moral complexities of Nora Helmer’s decision to leave her family and the implications for understanding marriage, identity, and autonomy in the late 19th century.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Through paragone, scholars could explore the subjective responses to Nora’s character development and the play’s ambiguous ending, examining how Ibsen’s realistic dialogue and psychological insights contribute to its enduring relevance.

Paragone: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Term	Definition
Mimesis	The representation or imitation of the real world in art and literature.
Ekphrasis	The vivid description of a visual work of art within a literary text.
Bildungsroman	A novel that focuses on the moral and psychological growth of a protagonist.
Diegesis	The fictional world in which the events of a narrative occur.
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts, where one text refers to or incorporates elements of another.
Doppelgänger	A literary device featuring a character’s double or alter ego, often representing inner conflict.
Catharsis	The emotional release or purification experienced by the audience through tragic literature.
Pathetic Fallacy	The attribution of human emotions to nature or inanimate objects in literature.
Hypodiegesis	A secondary narrative embedded within the main narrative of a text.
Hubris	Excessive pride or arrogance often leading to the downfall of a tragic hero.

Paragone: Suggested Readings

1. Alberti, Leon Battista. On Painting (De Pictura). Translated by John R. Spencer, Yale University Press, 1956.
2. Gombrich, Ernst. Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation. 5th ed., Princeton University Press, 2000.
3. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Vintage Books, 1967.
4. Plato. Symposium. Translated by Benjamin Jowett, Digireads.com Publishing, 2019.
5. Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella, Oxford University Press, 1998.
6. Jackson, Shirley. The Lottery. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
7. O’Connor, Flannery. A Good Man is Hard to Find. Harvest Books, 1977.
8. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Translated by Stanley Corngold, Bantam Classics, 1972.
9. Ibsen, Henrik. A Doll’s House. Dover Publications, 1992.
10. Orwell, George. 1984. Signet Classic, 1961.