Populism in Literature and Literary Theory

Populism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology: The term “populism” emerged in the late 19th century in the United States, initially used by members of the People’s Party advocating for the interests of farmers and rural communities against perceived power abuses by elites and corporations. The word itself comes from the Latin “populus” meaning “people”, with the suffix “-ism” indicating a doctrine or system.

Meanings and Concept:

• Focuses on “the people” vs. “the elite”: Populism often centers on a perceived division between ordinary citizens and powerful elites, emphasizing the needs and values of the common people.
• Anti-establishment sentiment: It tends to be critical of established institutions, corporations, or political systems, arguing they prioritize power and wealth concentration over the public good.
• Direct appeal to the people: Populists often bypass traditional power structures and directly appeal to voters with emotional and simplified messages.
• Economic emphasis: Many populist movements address economic anxieties, advocating for policies that redistribute wealth or alleviate economic hardship for ordinary citizens.
• Varying forms and ideologies: Populism can manifest in various forms and ideologies, sometimes aligning with left-wing or right-wing agendas, depending on the specific historical context and grievances.

Note: While populism often carries a positive connotation of advocating for the common people, it’s important to critically analyze its specific manifestations and potential challenges, as some populist movements can be associated with exclusionary rhetoric, political polarization, or democratic backsliding.

Defining Populism: Theoretical Approaches

Defining populism as a unified term presents a significant challenge due to its historical variations, adaptability, and contested nature. However, several theoretical approaches attempt to capture its core features:

Ideational Approach:

• Central Figure: Ernesto Laclau
• Definition: Populism as a “thin-centered ideology” highlighting the antagonistic division between “the pure people” and “the corrupt elite.” It promotes a leader embodying the people’s will and promises to challenge the elite through direct, emotional appeals.

Discursive Approach:

• Central Figures: Cas Mudde, Chantal Mouffe
• Definition: Populism as a discursive strategy constructing an “us-versus-them” dynamic. It mobilizes the “people” against the “elite” through narratives of marginalization and promises of restoration.

Sociological Approach:

• Central Figures: Michael Kazin, Margaret Canovan
• Definition: Populism as a political expression of social movements driven by economic anxieties, cultural backlash, or political disenchantment. It channels the grievances of specific social groups, often from rural or marginalized communities.

Comparative Approach:

• Central Figures: Jan-Werner Müller, Margaret Canovan
• Definition: Populism as a cross-cultural phenomenon characterized by anti-elitism, anti-pluralism, and claims of representing the true will of the people. However, its specific forms and ideologies vary across historical contexts and regions.

Beyond Dichotomies:

• Recent scholarship encourages moving beyond rigid “populist vs. non-populist” classifications.
• Recognizing populisms as complex phenomena with both democratic and potentially anti-democratic features.
• Analyzing specific policies and practices of populist movements within their historical and contextual settings.

Populism: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

• Cas Mudde:
  • Key Work: “Populism: A Very Short Introduction”
  • Argument: Defines populism through a “people vs. elite” framing, emphasizing anti-establishment sentiment and direct appeals to common citizens.
• Ernesto Laclau:
  • Key Work: “On Populist Reason”
  • Argument: Sees populism as a “thin-centered ideology” highlighting an antagonistic rift between a unified “people” and the “elite.” Leader embodies the people’s will and challenges the elite.
• Margaret Canovan:
  • Key Work: “Populism”
  • Argument: Views populism as a political manifestation of social movements, often rooted in economic anxieties, cultural backlash, or political alienation. Focuses on specific social groups and their grievances.
• Michael Kazin:
  • Key Work: “The Populist Persuasion: An American History”
  • Argument: Analyzes populism through its historical evolution in the United States, emphasizing its democratic potential while acknowledging its complexities and potential dangers.
• Chantal Mouffe:
  • Key Work: “For an Agonistic Left: Towards a Post-Foundational Politics”
  • Argument: Argues for a “left populism” rooted in adversarial pluralism and democratic contestation, countering anti-democratic populism through inclusive political struggles.

Works:

• “The People’s Party: Campaign Book of 1892” by James B. Weaver: A foundational text of American populism outlining farmers’ concerns and demands for economic reforms.
• “Discourse on Colonialism” by Aimé Césaire: Explores themes of anti-colonial resistance and populism in the context of postcolonial struggles.
• “Democracy in America” by Alexis de Tocqueville: Offers insights into the potential dangers of majority rule and populist tendencies within democracies.
• “Charismatic Authority” by Max Weber: Explores the dynamics of charismatic leadership and its appeal in populist movements.
• “Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media” by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky: Analyzes the role of media in shaping public opinion and potentially facilitating populist narratives.

Arguments:

• For Populism: Can represent authentic voices of marginalized groups, challenge elitism, and promote citizen engagement in politics.
• Against Populism: Can simplify complex issues, demonize minorities, erode democratic institutions, and promote emotional over rational decision-making.
• The Need for Nuance: Populism manifests in diverse forms with both democratic and anti-democratic potential. Critically analyze specific movements and leaders within their historical contexts.

Populism: Major Characteristics

Central Tenets:

• “Us vs. Them” Division: Populists draw a clear line between the “people” (a virtuous, unified majority) and the “elite” (corrupt, self-serving minority). This framing mobilizes the in-group and demonizes the out-group.
• Anti-Elitism: Populists deeply distrust established institutions, elites, and experts, portraying them as out of touch with the people’s needs and prioritizing their own interests.
• Direct Appeal to the People: Populists bypass traditional power structures and directly appeal to the people through emotional, simplified messages that resonate with their anxieties and aspirations.
• Claims to Represent “The True Will of the People”: Populists present themselves as the sole authentic voice of the majority, silencing or dismissing dissenting views.

Additional Characteristics:

• Charismatic Leadership: Populist movements often rally around charismatic leaders who embody their ideology, connect with the people emotionally, and promise to fulfill their desires.
• Economic Focus: Many populist movements address economic anxieties, advocating for policies like wealth redistribution, protectionism, or economic nationalism.
• Cultural Backlash: Populists may express anxieties about cultural change, globalization, or the perceived erosion of traditional values, advocating for national identity and cultural preservation.
• Ambiguity and Adaptability: Populism can manifest in various forms and ideologies, sometimes aligning with left-wing or right-wing agendas, adapting to specific grievances and contexts.

Important Points to Consider:

• Populism is not inherently good or bad; its potential depends on its specific form, policies, and practices.
• While often presenting democratic aspirations, some populist movements can erode democratic institutions, suppress dissent, and promote authoritarian tendencies.
• Critically analyzing populist movements requires examining their historical context, specific grievances, and potential implications for both democracy and social justice.

Populism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance of Populism	Examples
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)	Analyzes how language frames issues and serves interests, highlighting populist discourses in texts and their potential consequences.	Examining how a political speech constructs a “people vs. elite” narrative and demonizes opponents.
Cultural Studies	Explores how literature reflects and critiques broader cultural forces, analyzing populist ideas and values within their social context.	Studying how a novel depicts economic anxieties and portrays the impact of globalization on working-class communities.
Postcolonial Studies	Challenges colonial perspectives and explores power dynamics, analyzing how colonized populations sometimes utilize populist ideas to resist oppression.	Examining how a postcolonial novel depicts an anti-colonial movement using populist rhetoric to mobilize the masses.
Reader-Response Theory	Considers how readers interpret texts based on their experiences and backgrounds, exploring how populist narratives resonate with or challenge different audiences.	Analyzing how a text with populist themes can be interpreted differently by readers from diverse social groups.
Rhetorical Analysis	Focuses on the persuasive techniques used in texts, examining how populist leaders employ rhetoric to influence audiences and construct their messages.	Studying how a speech by a populist leader uses emotional appeals, simplistic narratives, and demonization of opponents.

Additional Notes:

• These are just a few examples, and the relevance of populism can vary depending on the specific theory and literary work examined.
• Populism can be a complex and multifaceted concept, and literary analyses should consider its historical context, specific ideological leanings, and potential critiques.
• Examining how populism is represented and critiqued in different literary works can offer valuable insights into its social and political implications.

Populism: Application in Critiques

Work	Populist Features	Critique
Animal Farm by George Orwell	– Revolt against oppressive elite (farmers) led by charismatic figure (Napoleon). – Appeal to “the common good” while consolidating power. – Demonization of “outsiders” (Snowball, humans).	– Highlights dangers of populist revolution turning into authoritarianism. – Questions “true representation” of the people. – Shows how populist ideals can be manipulated for self-serving agendas.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	– Clash between traditional Igbo culture and colonial authority.  – Okonkwo’s resistance framed as defense of “the people” against “elite outsiders.” – Tension between internal divisions and external forces.	– Explores limitations of simplistic “us vs. them” narratives in complex cultural conflicts. – Challenges romanticization of traditional structures and their internal inequalities. – Questions potential for genuine populism within colonial power dynamics.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	– Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and status driven by desire to impress Daisy, embodying American Dream as “people’s aspiration.” – Critique of social elites and their corrupt system, yet Gatsby mirrors their flaws. – Class divisions and alienation shape individual ambitions.	– Questions accessibility of the American Dream for marginalized groups. – Shows how populist aspirations can be entangled with elite structures and values. – Critiques social climbing based on individual ambition without addressing systemic inequalities.
Beloved by Toni Morrison	– Ghosts represent collective trauma of slavery, embodying silenced voices of “the people.” – Sethe’s actions driven by love and desperation, raising complex moral questions. – Narrative challenges dominant historical narratives and centers marginalized perspectives.	– Rejects sanitized historical narratives and gives voice to silenced experiences. – Explores potential for collective trauma to fuel both resistance and internal conflicts. – Challenges romanticization of simplistic solutions and celebrates remembrance over forgetting.

Note: These are just starting points for critiquing these works through a populist lens. You can delve deeper by:

• Exploring specific characters, events, and language used to depict populism.
• Comparing different characters’ perspectives on populism and its potential dangers.
• Considering the historical context of each work and how it influences the portrayal of populism.
• Engaging with other relevant theories and critiques to offer a nuanced understanding.

Populism: Relevant Terms

Term	Description
Demagoguery	Appeals to emotions and prejudice to gain power, often using simplification and scapegoating.
Plebeianism	Focuses on the common people and their needs, sometimes with anti-elitist sentiment.
Nationalism	Prioritizes a nation’s interests and identity, often with an “us vs. them” mentality.
Authoritarianism	Values strong central leadership and restricts individual freedoms.
Charismatic Leadership	Leaders with strong personal magnetism who influence followers deeply.
Majoritarianism	Power resides with the majority, potentially disregarding minority rights.
Anti-establishmentarianism	Rejects or challenges established institutions and norms.
Intersectionalism	Analyzes overlapping systems of oppression and power dynamics.
Postcolonialism	Critiques colonial legacies and explores perspectives of formerly colonized populations.
Critical Discourse Analysis	Examines how language constructs and perpetuates power relations.

Populism: Suggested Readings

1. Canovan, Margaret. Populism. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989. https://www.amazon.com/Populism-Margaret-Canovan/dp/0862450365
2. Dewey, John. The Public and Its Problems. Henry Holt and Company, 1927. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190550
3. Freeden, Michael. Populism and Liberal Democracy. Oxford University Press, 2015. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/liberalism-a-very-short-introduction-9780199670437
4. Laclau, Ernesto. On Populist Reason. Princeton University Press, 2005. https://www.amazon.com/Populist-Reason-Ernesto-Laclau/dp/1844671860
5. Mudde, Cas. The Populist Radical Right: A Threat to Liberal Democracy. Cambridge University Press, 2007. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/populist-radical-right-parties-in-europe/244D86C50E6D1DC44C86C4D1D313F16D
6. Müller, Jan-Werner. What Is Populism?. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016. https://www.pennpress.org/9780812248982/what-is-populism/
7. Taggart, Paul H., and Alexandra Lang. The Persistence of Populism: Has the People’s Voice Changed?. Oxford University Press, 2001. https://www.eui.eu/events?id=562720
8. Weyland, Kurt. Theories of Populism. Routledge, 2011. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315226446-26/populism-authoritarianism-kurt-weyland
9. Wills, John Malcolm. Against the Grain: Dissent from the Left. Basic Books, 1999. https://www.amazon.com/Against-Grain-History-Earliest-States/dp/030024021X
10. Winship, Michael. Democracy and Populism. Oxford University Press, 2002. https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27977